TEXTILE PHYSICS Md. Saifuddin Khan. Coin eset Menem ly CABBIE aT ET Department of Apparel Engineering. ETM Eres yaU seo MELO)SL No. Name of Lectures Page No O1 | The Physical Structure of Fiber. 03 02 | Methods for investigation of fiber structure. 06 03 | Tensile Properties. 09 04 | Flexural Properties. 13 05 | Swelling. 15 06 | Frictional Properties. 18 07 | Optical Properties. 22 08 | Thermal Properties. 26 09 | Static Electricity. 32 10 | Dielectric Properties 34 11 | Yarn Geometry. 36 12 | Fabric Geometry. 43 13 | Shear and Drape of Fabric. 48The Physical Structure of Fiber. Requirements of fiber formation or fiber forming polyme: Hydrophilic: A fiber is comfortable to wear ifits polymer system is made up of hydrophilic polymers, and the system allows the entry of water molecules. Hydrophobic polymer fibers whose polymers are non- polar are yet used as fibers for textile applications. In order to make the textile materials of these fibers more water attracting, absorbent and comfortable, hydrophobic polymer fibers need to be blended with the hydrophilic polymer fibers to get desired properties. Chemical resistant: Close packing of the polymers prevents ready entry of chemicals. More the polymer system is crystalline in nature more will be the resistance of the fibers against degradation by chemicals. ‘Thus, many synthetic fibers are used in industry to make filter fabrics and protective clothing. Fiber polymers should be chemically resistant for a reasonable length of | time against the common degrading agents such as sunlight and weather, common types of soiling, body ‘exudations, laundry liquors and dry-cleaning solvents. The ‘most required property of chemically resistant polymers should be such that it should not be toxic or hazardous to ‘wear against human skin, Polymer of fibers should be chemically resistant, but they should not be inert. Chemical inertness of fiber polymers results in detrimental effect on other fiber-forming requirements. The polymers of chloro-fibers, fluorocarbon, polyethylene and polypropylene may be regarded as chemically inert from a practical point of view. Linear: Fiber polymer should be linear ie. the polymers should not be branched. Highly linear polymers will form more crystalline regions, which results in a large number of inter-polymer forces of attraction within the polymer system, ‘Capable of being oriented: Fiber polymers should be capable of being oriented. The polymers are aligned into more ot ess parallel order in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the fiber or filament, The orientation of polymers in the polymer system of any fiber consists of wo forms. The two forms of polymer orientation are: * Amorphous regions (random) * Crystalline regions (highly ordered, highly oriented) Long: Fiber polymers should be long. The length of polymers is directly related to the strength of fiber by holding the crystalline regions together. To produce a fiber with adequate strength, a polymer length of 100 ‘nanometers is required. Polymers of such length can be oriented easily, The orientation of polymers give rise to sufficiently effective inter-polymer forces of attraction 10 form a cohesive polymer system and, hence, a useful fiber. ‘The longer the polymers the more cohesive will be the polymer system and the stronger will be the fiber. For this to occur the polymers have to be aligned or well oriented so that the maximum formation of inter-polymer forces ccan take place. =—=— ¥ A fgure shows srong fher as it has long ‘path of break’ Path of break ‘Weak foer as ith has short ‘path of break’ Able to form high melting point polymer systems: The fibers must have high melting point 10 withstand the most extreme heat conditions. Melting point Of fiber needs to be above 225° C if itis ta be useful for textile manufacture and apparel use. The longer the polymers and the better their orientation, the more inter- polymer forces of attraction will be formed, giving a more cohesive polymer system with a higher melting point More heat or kinetic energy will be required to break the inter-polymer forces of attraction and free the polymers from each other. Orientation: The alignment of the structural clements of a material. In polymer, orientation at diferent structural levels may be observed. Ex: polymer chains, segment of chains, crystallites etc. Amorphous polymer orientation: Polymers are oriented or aligned at random fashion in amorphous region, ie. shows no particular order of arrangement. Crystalline polymer orientation: In crystalline regions the polymers are oriented or aligned longitudinally into more of less parallel order.Properties of more amorphous fibers : Formation of less effective inter-polymer forces of attraction. (weak) Permits easier entry of water and dye molecules as well as molecules, ions and/or radicals of degrading agents. So more absorbent and more easily dyed. Allows the polymers to be more readily displaced when the fiber is subjected to stresses and strains during wearing. Less durable, More easily degraded by chemicals More pliable, softer handling Properties of more crystalline fibers : Formation of more effective inter-polymer forces of attraction Restricts the entry of water and dye molecules as well as molecules, ions and/or radicals of degrading agents. So less absorbent and less easily dyed . Does not allow the polymers to be displaced when the fiber is subject to stresses and strains during wearing More durable Less easily degraded by chemicals Less pliable, stiffer handling Methods of fiber structure investigation: X-ray diffraction meth« X-ray diffraction method. Absorption of Infia-red radiation Electron microscopic method. Optical microscopic method, ‘Thermal analysis. Nuclear magnetic resonance methods. Density. Physical properties. ‘The chemistry of fiber material © Gives information about crystallinity of a fiber. ‘© Gives information about shape of scattering particles, ‘© Gives information about differences of spacing of scattering particles. Disadvantages: # Not possible to identify the chemical formula, # Not influenced by the molecules of amorphous region Absorption of Infra-red radiation: Opti Density Woncounber (ret) Fig: Rea Advantages: dentification of certain chemical groups in the molecule, leading to the identification of its chemical formula, ‘The amount of water in fibers can be dete Degree of orientation of the molecules in a fiber ccan be investigated, Itis influenced by all the molecules in the fiber, in both crystalline and non-crystalline regions. Disadvantages: Can't give about the shape of scattering particles, Can’t give about the spacing differences of scattering particles. Advantage of IR radiation over X-ray diffraction, method: IR radiation X-ray diffraction ‘The degree of orientation Of the molecules in a fiber ‘can be known, ‘The degree of orientation of the molecules ina fiber ccan’t be known, form. IR may also be used to find the direction in which a particular group p ina molecule of unknown nts | investigate the direction of a group points in a moleculeAn advantage of the infrared absorption ‘method is that itis influenced by all the ‘molecules in the fibre, in both the crystalline and ‘The X-ray diffraction method gives detailed information only about the crystalline regions of the fibre. ‘non-crystalline regions. ‘The method can also be used in routine analysis to identify and estimate quantitatively the presence of given substances, even in small quantities in a mixture, by observation of their characteristic spectrum. For instance, it can be used to determine the amount of water in fibres. This method can’t be used to identify the presence of a given substances. Can identify the chemical formula be Electron microscopic method: Condenser Lens Specimen He jective Lens Intermediate Image Projector Lens Final Image on Sereen Advantage ‘©The electron-diffraction pattern of crystal latices ccan be obtained. In general, this gives much the ‘same sort of information about orientation and crystallinity as comes from X-ray diffraction, but with the advantage that it can be obtained from a particular area of an electron microscope picture, rather than from the whole of a bulky specimen, ‘© This technique can be used to show up the presence of crystalline regions. Disadvantages: © Obtaining sufficient contrast is difficult. ‘© Specimen must be dry. ‘Specimen should be very thin (less than 0.1 nm thick)Methods for inves: X-ray diffraction method. Absorption of Infra-red radiation Electron microscopic method. Optical microscopic method, Thermal analysis, Nuclear magnetic resonance methods. Density. Physical properties. ‘The chemistry of fiber material Electron Microscopy Electrons are usually regarded as particles, but they can act like waves with a wave length of the order of (0,005 nm. Again, they can be bent by electric and ‘magnetic field in the same way that light rays are bent by lenses. It is therefore, possible to form an image by an electron microscope. The limit of resolution of electron microscope is far smaller than an optical microscope. In practice the unit of resolution is not better than 2 nm for fibers. ‘Condenser Lens Specimen H<—§ objective Leas Intermediate Image Projector Lens Final Image on Screen ‘The electron microscope illustrated schematically in figure is exactly analogous to the optical microscope. ‘The rays from an electron source are condensed on the specimen. Then they are focused by electric and magnetic fields acting as Tenses to give a magnified image on a fluorescent screen or photographic plate. To allow the passage of electrons, itis necessary for the apparatus to be ‘evacuated. As a result, only the dry specimen can be used. ‘The specimen used in ordinary microscopy must be very thin (less than 0.1 nm thick) both to allow the passage of electrons and to obtain sufficient contrast avoiding confusion arising from the great depth of focus. With some difficulties, itis possible to cut the fiber section of this thickness. In this way the structure of fiber can be observed directly by electron microscope. Advantage gation of fiber structure. ‘© The electron-ciffraction patter of crystal latices can be obiained. In general, this gives much the same sort Of information about orientation and crystallinity as comes from X-ray diffraction, but with the advantage that it can be obtained from a particular area of an electron microscope picture, rather than from the whole of a bulky specimen. ‘© This technique can be used to show up the presence of crystal Disadvantages: ‘© Obtaining sufficient contrast is difficult. ‘© Specimen must be dry. * Specimen should be very thin (less than 0.1 nm thick) Absorption of infrared radiation When electromagnetic waves interact with matter, they are scattered and absorbed, In infrared spectroscopy, radiation with wavelengths between 1 and 1541m is absorbed at certain characteristic frequencies, Which yield structural information. By using an infrared spectrometer, the variation in absorption can be found and plotted against wave length (cm) or, more commonly, its reciprocal, the wavenumber (em1). Warcrunber (cot) ‘The peaks occur where the frequency of the electromagnetic waves corresponds with the natural frequency of vibration between two atoms in the material. ‘The wavenumber at which absorption takes place depends primarily on the nature of the two atoms and of the bond between them. Thus, there will be absorption frequencies characteristic of such groupings as CH, CO,CO=,—OH,NH,CC,C = C and so on. Toa smaller extent, the absorption frequency is influenced by the other groups in the neighborhood, for example, the absorption frequency for a carbon-hydrogen bond in a terminal group, ~CH,, is different from that for the same bond in a chain, CH, —. The first use of infraredabsorption is therefore as an aid to the identification of the presence of certain groups in the molecule, leading to the determination of its chemical formula. The method can also be used in routine analysis to identify and estimate quantitatively the presence of given substances, even in ‘small quantities in a mixture, by observation of their characteristic spectrum. For instance, it can be used to determine the amount of water in fibers. Advantages of IR: ‘© Tdentification of certain chemical groups in the molecule, leading to the identification oF its chemical formula. ‘The amount of water in fibers can be determined. Degree of orientation of the molecules in a fiber can be investigated * Itis influenced by all the molecules in the fiber, in both crystalline and non-crystalline regions. Disadvantages of I ‘© Can’t give about the shape of scattering particles. Can't give about the spacing differences of scattering particles, X-ray diffraction method, ‘X-ray diffraction is a method of determining the arrangement of atoms within a crystal. When a beam of x- rays strikes a erystal, it scatters into many different directions. From the angles and intensities of these scattered beams a crystallographer can produce a three- dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal. From this electron density, the mean positions of ‘atoms in the erystal can be determined. Crystals are regular arrays of atoms and x-rays can be considered as waves of electromagnetic radiation. Atoms scatter x-ray waves, primarily through the atoms electrons. When an x-ray beam strikes an electron, it produces secondary spherical waves. This phenomenon is known as elastic scattering and the electron is known as scatterer. A regular array of scatterers produces a regular array of special waves. Although these waves cancel one another out in mist direction through destructive interference, they add constructively in a few specific directions determined by Bragg’s law: nd = 2dsind Where n isan integer, 2.the wavelength of the X- rays and d the distance between the atomic layers. ‘These specific directions appear as spots on the diffraction pattern, Derivation of Bragg’s law: When a beam of X-rays strikes on a crystal, itis strongly reflected whenever it strikes layer of atoms at an angle of ©° as like fig. such that nd = 2dsind 50 028 Here, integer (1,2, 3.....) wave length of x-rays, distance between two atomic layers of crystal Here, ZCED=90° In ACED, CHb and >C==0 absorption bands all show weak absorption when the vibrati direction of the electric vector is along the ‘molecular chain and strong absorption when it is vibrating perpendicular to the chain axis, ‘The degree of orientation of the molecules in a fiber can't be known, IR may also be used to find the direction in which particular group points ina molecule of unknown form, For example, two different forms, « and of the synthetic polypeptide poly-L- alanine show a difference. Tis deduced that the >C==0 and >N—H bonds ‘move from a transverse direction between ‘molecules in f towards a direction parallel to the chain axis between coils within a molecules. This is useful in determining the molecular configuration in polypeptides and proteins. X-ray diffraction method cannot be used to vestigate the direction of a group points in a molecule, An advantage of the infrared absorption ‘method is that itis luenced by all the ‘molecules in the fibre, in both the crystalline and non-crystalline regions. For example, the infrared spectrum gives evidence of the presence of o- and Beforms of protein ‘molecules in the non- crystalline regions of protein fibres. ‘The X-ray diffraction method gives detailed information only about the crystalline regions of the fibre. ‘The method ean also be used in routine analysis to identify and estimate ‘quantitatively the presence of given substances, even in small {quantities in a mixture, by observation of their characteristic spectrum, For instance, it ean be used to determine the amount of water in fibres This method can’t be used to identify the presence of a given substances Can identify the chemical fame Can’t do so. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. ‘Many kinds of nuclei behave as if they were spinning about an axis, as like as the earth spins daily. Since they are positively charged these spinning nuclei act like tiny magnets and therefore interact with an external magnetic field. Not all nuclei act this way but both the proton IH and 13C nucleus have spins. the absence of an extemal magnetic field, the nuclear spins of magnetic nuclei are oriented randomly’ ‘When a sample containing these nuclei is placed between the poles of a strong magnet the nuclei adopt specific orientations. A spinning 1H or 13C nucleus can orient so that its own tiny magnetic field is aligned either with, (parallel) or against (antiparallel) the external field. The ‘wo orientations do not have the same energy and therefore are not the same. ‘The parallel orientation is slightly favored over the antiparallel orientation, Ifthe oriented nuclei are now itradiated wit electromagnetic radiation of the right frequency, energy ‘absorption occurs and the lower energy state spins flips to the higher energy state, when this spin flips occurs, the nuclei are said to be in resonance with the same nuclear magnetic resonance. By using NMR spectroscopy, we can map the carbon hydrogen framework in an organic compound.Tensile Properties. Basic Concepts Stress: Stress is force per unit area. Stress isthe ratio of the force applied to the cross-sectional area of the specimen, se Force applied (F)__N TSS = Cross sectional area (A) m= Specific (mass) stress: Specific stress is a more useful ‘measurement of stress in the case of yarns as their cros sectional area is not known, ‘The linear density of the yarn is used instead of the crass sectional area as a measure of yarn thickness. This allows, the strengths of yarns of different linear densities to be compared. Force Tinear Density NomN cN cN of Units: —; —; =; ——; tex’ tex’ tex’ rex’ denier Specific Stress Elongation: Elongation isthe increase in length of the specimen from its starting length Elongation = Length due to tension — initial length Strain: Strain is defined as “deformation of a material due to stress” and can be expressed as: Elongation ~ Tnitial length Strain Load: The application of load to a specimen in its axial direction causes tension to be developed in the specimen. ‘The load is usually expressed in gm-wt or pounds. Breaking load: The load at which material break is called 1g load. I is usually expressed in g-1 or Ib-w breal Breaking length: Breaking length (also called sel support length) is a way of measuring the strength of a ‘material. [tis the length of the specimen which will just ‘break under its own weight when hung vertically, For example, the breaking length of glass fiber is 133, kilometers, which means that if you constructed a 133- kilometer-long column of glass fiber you could hang it from its top and it would support its own weight, but a 134-kilometre-long column would break. Elasticity: Tendency of a material to recover the extension of material when stress is removed Plasticity: After elastic init if stress is removed the ‘material cannot recover the extension, It is known as plasticity of the material Elastic recovery: It isthe property of solid materials to return to their original shape and size after the forces deforming them have been removed. Elastic Extension Elastic recovery = © Total Extension ‘Tensile properties: Tensile strength, Tenacity. Breaking extension. Work of rupture, Initial modulus. Yield modulus, Yield suess. Yield strain Work factor. Elastic recovery. ‘Tensile Strength: renie sirengen-=F2°® Poli to breaoy Gross Sectional Area dyne lb N ‘Tenacity: Unit: Force required to breake Tinear density or mass per unit length gm CN gm Unit: Tex! Tex’ Denier Tenacity Breaking Extension: Elongation at break Breaking Extension = oT x 100% Work of rupture: The energy needed to break the fiber. ‘The units for this are joules, Work done dl fork of rupture ‘orce x Displacement [rea the area inder the load ~ elongation curve Flongion Work factor: Ifthe fiber obeyed Hooke’s law, the load~ clongation curve would be a straight line, and the work of rupture would be given by:Work of rupture elongation) 1/2 (breaking load breaking It is convenient to define a quantity, the work factor, dependent on the difference from this ideal state: Work of rupture Work Factor = 5 afangload x Breaking elongation 4 breokinglad x Brealingelongation Breaking load x Breaking elongation ° Blongation Initial modulus: The value of the initial modulus equals the value of the stress that would be necessary to double the length of the specimen if the conditions atthe origin persisted, tis a measure of the resistance to extension. An easily extensible fibre will have a low modulus. Stress Stain Initial modulus, tana = Fess Specife ‘Strain Yield point: The point (A) up to which a material shows ‘elastic properties and after which the material shows plastic properties is called yield point. Breaking Point Stress Yield Suess tana Here, AA’= Yield sess. 0A’= Yield strain Yield Point: Shosife Stress Yield Stress Spevife Siress| Yield aa © (a) Meredith has suggested defining the yield point as the point at which the tangent to the curve is Parallel tothe Fine joining the origin to the breaking point (b) Coplan used a different construction and defined the yield point as occusring atthe stress given by the intersection of the tangent at the origin with the tangent having the least slope.Breaking Point Sess Sam Region * to A: elastic region. * AWB: Plastic region, +B: Breaking Poi Creep: When a material is subjected to a constant load, it deforms continuously. The material will continue 10 deform slowly with time indefinitely or until rupture or yielding causes failure. This phenomenon of deformation ‘under Toad with time is called creep, Rupture co Crimp] Here, P= Initial length (Crimped length) P)= Straightened length Stress relaxation: Creep is an extension with time under constant load and the complementary effect is ‘relaxation’ -the reduction of stress with time under a given extension, * Stress relaxation describes how the polymers relieve stress under constant strain, Sin Sie Time Time Principles of Tensile Experiment or Method of Tensile Experiment * CRE method (constant rate of loading) + CRE method (constant rate of elongation) * CRT method (constant rate of traverse) Constant rate of elongation: <— S (Specimen) a F Screwing, Mechanism Constant rate of loading: Fy —HO Difference between CRL and CRE:Load Con nt rate of loading CConsant rate of elongation Elongation Factors affecting tensile results: The material a The arrangemet specimen. The nature and timing of the test. Capacity of machine. its condition, and dimensions of theFlexural Properties. Flexural Properties: The behavior shown by the ‘materials during bending is known as flexural properties. ‘Flexural Properties Influences: Behavior of yarn, ‘The drape and handle properties of fabrics. The recovery from bending, “The wear of fabric. ‘The arrangement of fiber in the yarns, Bending Recovery: Recovery from a given curvature is called Bending recovery. Bending Modulus: The ratio of bending stress and bending strain is called Bending Modulus. Flexural Rigidity: Iti the stiffness ofa fiber in bending Itis defined as the couple required to bend the fiber to unit curvature Applied ie FleruralRgidey = Heed cone 1 ET? = hE nt We b= Spc mts 1 = LinarDensiy p= Deny of mat 11= Shape factor. Specific Flexural Rigidity: tis equal co the flexural rigidity of a fiber/ filament of unit tex. Couple/ Curvature Specific Flexural Rigidity = FE pis aE in = mmeyrex? = BX MN mm (Tex Flexural rigidity for small curvature: Bending Direction ‘ + The problem is similar to that of the bending of beams, + Suppose we have a specimen of length 1, bent through an angle @ to a radius of curvature . + ts outer layers will be extended and its inner layers compressed, but a plane in the center, known as the neutral plane, will be unchanged in length AS a result of the extension and compression, stresses will bbe set up that give an internal couple to balance the applied couple + Consider an element of area of cross-section 6A, at ‘perpendicular distance x. from the neutral plane: Tenge of Curate Radios of curvature=, Angle= 0, So, I> (er9 Length after elongatio Elongation of the element 61 = xé Hv oung’s modules ‘Therefore, Force on the element = =¥6A [ee moment ofthe element about the natural axis [rout internat coupe: Yea Bx or xDioa Y ox ey 6A [K = radius of gyration] y SRE X Arcee 7 Paeuin. And, Y=pE_ [E= Specific modules, N/Tex] During the value of, A and Ein equation Total Coupl curvature r=1) “n= (For unit [therefore flexural rigiity = 10°Nmm?(When, E=N/ tex; T= tex, p=gm/ em*] Shape factor 1, and Specific Flexural Ri different fibers: Fiber Shape factor | tigidity Ru (aN-mm Tex?) Viscose 078 ais, Acetate 067 008 Wool 080 0.20 silk 059 019 Nylon 091 014 Glass 10 0.89 Shape Factor: It’s the quantity which is determines the shape of a material O o 0 Shape factor is 1 for the fbre which is completely round Shape factor is less then 1 for the fbre whose thickness is reduced while bending Shape factor is more then I for the fbre whose thickness is increased while bending,Swelling. Definition: When a fiber absorbs water, they change in dimension (length, width) and swelling is occurred transversely (widthwise) and axially (lengthwise). The swelling may be expressed in terms of the fractional increase in diameter, area, length or volume. ‘Types of swelling: The swelling may be expressed in terms of the increase in diameter, area, length or volume. Leta age Avorn afer V+ AV =(A+AA)(L + AL) wall AML + LAL + AABL Relation Between Ss & So Al AV Swollen [_ Fibre D AD 1 Vv Original Fibre aay ‘Traverse diameter swelling: Fractional increase in diameter of fiber is traverse diameter swelling. It expressed by: aD D ‘Traverse area swelling: Fractional increase in area of fiber is traverse area swelling. It is expressed by: aA Sp 5 A Axial swelling: Fractional increase in length of fiber is axial swelling Is expressed by: aL Se ‘Volume swelling: Fractional increase in volume of fiber is, volume swelling. It is expressed by’ av s Vv Relation among Sv, Si and $x For a fiber that is uniform along its length, We have original volume of fiber, V=aL Where, (This part was not included in the lecture sheet) For a circular fibre, sant =x(?) Fora swollen fibre, A+aA = (0 +00)? =2 (0? + ab? +20. AD) We know, 4 are 5 = AtaA=A eps, apa nD? (p2 4-ap? + 20,00) ors, De + s, D? + MD? + 2D. AD - D? or, §, = x 2D.AD | AD? onset pr AD. (Dy? or,S,= 2+ (2) i= a5e+58 [oy =22] 5 5= 250458 [5 = Measurement of Volume Swelling Consider a specimen of mass 1 gm at dry state. We have,1 3 a = Density at dry state] After Swelling, _ 14m [m= mass of absorbed water V4 av | ps = swollen density or, +l aya B14 gr) ‘Measurement of Transverse swelling Swollen Fiber Dry Fiber Fig Outline of cross-section of viscose rayon, dry and swollen in water Because fibres have such a small diameter, measurements of changes in transverse dimensions are not easy to make. ‘The accuracy of a microscopical method is limited by the resolution of the microscope, which is of the order of ‘magnitude of the wavelength of light used, say, 0.5m. If a fibre of 201m diameter is examined, it will be possible to distinguish detail down to one-fortieth of the fibre diameter, but, if the diameter swelling is 10%, it will be possible to measure this to an accuracy of only 0.5-2. This means that there may be an error of 25%. However, microscopy methods are used, either for examining the fibre profile and measuring the apparent diameter or for examining sections and measuring the diameter, or the area of cross-section, with a planimeter. Figure shows the outlines of a viscose rayon fibre, swollen and unswollen, ‘This makes clear the fact that diameter swelling is not a sound way of expressing the transverse swelling of a fibre with an irregular cross-section, since it will vary according to the position in which the ‘diameter’ is drawn. For irregular fibres, area swelling must be used. ‘Swelling of fibers in Water. ‘Tesasverse Axial | Volume Fiber |_Swelling (%) | sweling | Swelling Diameter[ Area | (9) | (%) 5 5 40,42, Cotton | 20, 23,7 | “4 Mercerized 2 eer 17 | 46,28] 02 Flex 47 | 01,02 Jute | 20,01 | 40 109, 50, 65, 117, Viscose 25,35, | 67,66 ne. Rayon | 52” | us, | 3*48 |e 14 126,74, 122,127 Accwte [9.11.14] 68 | 01,03 Wool 14, 8,17 | 25, 26 36,37, 41 165, silk 163, | 19 | 16,13] 30,32 187 2 1.6, 27,2. Nylon ] 19.26] $8 | 27,20 | s1u0 Importance of swelling: + Improve the absorption of dyes and chemicals + Increase the dimensional stability of the fabric. ‘© Due to swelling the pores of closely interlaced woven fabrie will be completely blocked and they may produce water proof fabric, Improve fastness of dyed materials Elastic properties get changed ‘The effeet of hydrophilic groups Cellulose Fiber: The cellulose molecule contains three hydroxyl groups for eachslucose residue, and hydrogen bonds can be formed ‘between water molecules and the hydroxyl groups. How cHou choi a 7 \ ‘cn cH \ y\ 7 cual ‘0’ 1 oH On ¢ oF Ho HOH ‘The molecular weight of water is 18, and that of the slucose residue is 162, so that if one water molecule were attached to each hydroxyl group the regain would be 33.19% Although glucose and cellulose are chemically very similar, they behave differently when placed in water, Glucose dissolves, but cellulose swells to only a limited extent. The limited swelling is due to the penetration of water into the non-crystalline regions or between fibrils and its failure to penetrate into crystalline regions. The ‘non-crystalline regions tend to dissolve as glucose does, the cellulose molecules moving apart and so giving room for the water to enter, but the cellulose molecules cannot break away completely, since they are held firmly in the crystalline regions. In crystalline regions, the fibre molecules are closely packed together in a regular pattern, ‘The active groups form crosslinks between the molecules, by hydrogen bonding in cellulose, Thus, it will not be easy for water molecules to penetrate into a crystalline region, and, for absorption to take place, the active groups would have to be freed by the breaking of crosslinks, In regenerated cellulose. there is « slightly less compact crystal structure and there is a change of crystal structure ‘on absorption. This is due to the formation of a hydrate, which probably contains one water molecule to every three glucose residues. This would correspond to a regain of about 3.7% in the crystalline region (about 1% regain in the whole fibre). When the regenerated cellulose is wet, there isa further modification of the erystal structure ‘owing to the formation of a hydrate with about three water molecules to every two glucose residues. In cellulose acetate, all or most of the hydroxyl groups have been replaced by the comparatively inert acetyl (CH,C00 ~) groups. These groups do not atract water strongly, so the absorption of water by acetate is low. In particular, there is no rapid rise at low humidity owing to the initial absorption on strongly attractive groups. Protein Fibers: The protein fibres contain amide groups; (-NH —) in the main chain, to which water can be hydrogen bonded, and other water-attracting groups such OH, -NHf,~CO0=,-CO0~,~CONH,-OH,-NH} Inthe side chains. Wool contains many active groups in the side chains, but silk contains only a few. ‘Synthetic fibers: All the synthetic fibres so far produced contain few if any water-attractive groups, and this accounts for their low moisture absorption. The polyamide fibres, nylon 6.6 and 6 and aramids, contain one amide (-NH =) group for every six carbon atoms in the chain, ‘which would give a regain of 16% of each amide group held one water molecule. The polyester fibres, polyethylene terephthalate, are composed only of bencene rings, (—CH, ~) groups, and (~COO —)groups, none of ‘which attracts waier strongly. Polyethylene is simply a (-CH, ~) chain, polypropylene fas additional CHS side ‘groups, and the vinyl fibees are similar except for the substitution of ~Cl, -OCOCH, or other comparatively inert groups for some ofthe hydrogen atoms, and consequently these fibres absorb little water. Acrylic fibres, containing (CN) groups and other groups from the minor components, absorb slightly more than the other Vinyl fibres, and polyvinyl alcohol, containing some (OH) groups, absorbs still more Inorganic fibres, including carbon, do not attract water absorption.Frictional Properties. Friction: It isthe resistance that one surface or object ‘encounters when moving over another, Frictional properties: During processing friction is developed between textile materials, Due to that friction, the properties shown by the textile materials is called frictional properties of textile materials. ‘Types of friction: ‘+ Static Friction: The friction between two or more solid objects that are not moving relative to each other. The coefficient of static friction, typically denoted by as 1, i8 usually higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction. ‘+ Kinetic Frietion: Kinetic friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub together. The coefficient of kinetic fiction, typically denoted by ass, is usually less than the coefficient of static friction. Merits: ‘Friction is the force that holds together the fibers in ‘aspun yarn and the interlacing threads in a fabric. Friction holds the fibers in a sliver and hence the sliver does not break due to its’ own weight, + If the friction is too low, the yarn strength will fall, ‘and the dimensional stability of cloth will be reduced. Here high friction is an advantage, enabling a ‘greater proportion of the strength of the individual fibers to be utilized. * Uniform tension can be maintained during winding & warping because of friction. + Friction helps in drafting and drawing + Friction helps to make yarn by twi spinning. ing during Friction increases luster and smoothness of the yarn ‘and the fabric. Friction makes more clean material * There are some aspects influenced by the frictional characteristics of the fibers: the handle and wear resistance of fabrics; the behavior of fibers during drafting: and, especially in wool, the process of felting. Demerits: * High friction in yarn passing increases the breakage and over straining may cause the permanent ‘damage. High static friction causes high breakage of yarn during weaving. = Ifthe frictional force is high, the handle properties Of fabric will be low. ‘+ Institching, high friction of needle with fabric causes it red hot, Threads cannot slide over one another. These lead to high thread breakage at the seam line, ‘+ Friction causes nep formation; Friction increases yarn hairiness. Friction worn out parts of machine. ‘+ Friction generates temperature and therefore static electricity is developed which attracts dust, dirt ete and the materials become dirty. Factors affecting frictional intensit Sliding speed: The friction increases as the speed increases, at low speeds, going from 2 to 90cmv/min, a decrease in the friction noted. The variation of friction with speed will have a considerable influence on the behavior of fibres in drafting. Cotton is exceptional in that ‘even at low speeds the coefficient of friction increases with the speed of sliding. 50 40 30 20 oor 300 300 Yarn Speed (min) nal Tension(ewt 00 Variation of final tension after acetate yarn has passed ‘over guide at varying speeds. ‘The state of the surface: The friction is influenced by the roughness of the surface. It changes if the surface is lubricated either naturally (waxes in cotton) of artificially ‘The friction increases both as the increase of oil content and as the viscosity of the oil increases. Boss i os 3 Jos cas a i> 0 01 Coment 6) Wacosty (aN?) @ 7 ‘Variation of final tension after passage of acetate yarn over guide, for (a) varying amount of oil on yarn and (b) varying viscosity of o Ir lubricant is completely removed from fiber friction Ex, Raw cotton on steel gave j= 0.25, whereas scoured cotton on steel gave y= 0.7, and lubricated scoured cotton on steel gave values of 4 ranging from 0.14 10 0.35 Excessive cleanliness of flat filament and glass shows very high frictional co-efficient. For Nylon, the value ofwas af least 8, and a 50-gram weight could be supported ‘ona short Iength of yarn looped over a glass rod. Moisture regains: The frictional force usually inereases| as the regain of the fiber is increased. Cross-seetional shape: Cross-sectional shape provide an area of link between two surfaces that is directly proportional vo the frictional force, Again, sharp edges of Fiber prodace high fiction. i Be : i: é 2: 2 a Fiber weight or normal load: Two fibers of same diameter and cross-sectional shape one is solid and. another is hollow, solid will make the more friction due to high weight ‘Self-study: How to minimize frictional intensity. Amonton’s law of friction: Normal Force (N) t Frictional Force ) Velocity w Foun i, The frictional force is independent on the apparent ‘area of contact between the two surfaces, ii, Iti proportional to the normal force between them, He observed that kinetic friction was independent Of the speed of sliding, When a yarn passes round a guide by an incoming tension Ty, leaving tension T; and producing an angle of contact @ it follows the form of Amonton’s law. th Tr, In reality, these are not universal laws, Capstan method to measure co-efficient of friction: CCapstan methods are two types: 1. Static capstan method. 2. Dynamic capstan method, Static capstan method: ‘A loop of yarn is placed over the guide and a small load placed on one side. The load on the other sie is then decreased-until slippage commences. If incoming tension is Ty and leaving T> and angle of eontatis 0. Then we get, BL ew pre = 40 Te) in (@) Te B) = 0= 180° From above equation we ean measure the co-efficient of friction, Dynamic capstan method:In this method, yar is running continuously over the guide, The tension may be measured with tension meters. ‘Then we get, 180°] For the measurement of inte-fiber friction, Lindberg and Gralén introduced a method in which two twisted together. Ifa difference between the tensions applied to the opposite ends of each fiber is increased, the fibers will eventually slip over one another. It is shown that, [n=number of turns, f fibers) ingle between the axis of two Effect of Lubricant on frictional force: Lubricants reduce the frictional force between two surfaces at a certain level. In case of metals, lubricants may reduce the value of from 1.0 100.05. but in case of fibers, it has comparatively Hitle effect and will usually reduce the value between 0.2 t0 0.7. A good lubricant acts by forming monolayer on the surface and preventing the adhesion of the two surfaces at a point of contact, Raw catton on steel gave p= 0.25, ‘whereas scoured cotton on steel gave u= 0.7, and lubricated scoured cotton on steel gave values of ut ranging from 0.14 t0 035, Ifthe amount of lubricant is too high, then friction increases. When acetate yarn passes over a guide then the frictional force increases with the increase of oil content. Again, the viscosity of lubricant has effeet on friction, 0s oa 03 02 oa Ta Teo Viscosity (mNs/m’) (b) Final Tension(N) ‘The friction of wool / Directional frictional effect: “The fiction ofthe woo fiber depends on the direction in which itis pulled: the resistance is greater when itis pulled against the scales than when itis pulled with them This is known as the directional frictional effect (DFE) Tp LLU, SSN Ay, A Zz ae a “or CAC. enw eee 7 ‘@ Root ‘wool, individual fibers will show preferential movement in ‘one direction and will continually entangle themselves with the remaining fibers: this is the process of felting, ‘Some experimental values for the directional frictional effects of wool are given in Table: Value of Direction Friction in Wool. [Wien] against Seales | Scales Dry wool (twisted fibers) 13 | 0.11 oudWool in water (twisted fibers) 13 a 032 ‘Wool unswollen on ebonite ‘swollen in benzene (36) ont Ore ‘Woo! swollen in water on 2 ebonite unswollen (36) 0.62 072 ‘Wool swollen in water on ebonite swollen in benzene | 0.65 oss G6) ‘Woo! on hor, dey (41) 03 os Untreated 03 06 Chlorine eee on ou Wool on hhom, wet | Aleohotic- pH40 — | caustie-potash- | 04 06 9 treated Sulphuryl- chloride- 06 07 treaded thas been shown that the effect persists, though to a reduced extent, when the fibres are lubricated or coated with thin films of gold or silver. water, or other swelling agents, the difference in the coefficients of friction is ‘gfeater than it is in ait. On the other hand, the difference is less after mechanical abrasion or chemical treatments, designed (o reduce shrinkage, which attack the outer layer of the wool fibre, Felting Properties of Wook: Felting of wool is the inreversible shrinkage of the length, breadth and thickness of the material. Wool felts because of the serrated surface ofits fibres which is formed by the overlapping epithelial cells or scales. Because of this serrated structure, less friction will result if the fiber moves in a root ward direction than if it moves in a tip ward direction. Thi difference in surface friction between the two directions is known as the directional frictional effect (DFE), Felting of fiber is enhanced by heat, acid or alkali. Heat will make the wet fiber easier and more likely to move and it will, also cause the fiber to swell more and this effect is enhanced in acid or alkaline conditions. Increased swelling -esulis in more inter-fiber contact and increased inter-fiber friction. 2 €Optical Properties. ‘The velocity with which light is transmitted varies with the medium through which itis passing. Refractive index ‘n’ is defined as the ratio ofthe velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in the materia. ‘An alternative definition: sine of angle of incidence Refractive index = Fe of angle of refraction Birefringen¢ When a beam of light falling on a textile fiber, it splits up into two refracted beam, one polarized parallel to the fiber axis and the other polarized perpendicular to the fiber axis. Fig: 1 In general, an anisotropic material will have three principal refractive indices, but fibres are usually axially symmetrical so that the refractive indices perpendicular tothe fibre axis are all the same, The principal refractive indices, shown in Fig. are thus 1 for light polarized parallel to the fiber axis, and 1. for light polarized perpendicular to it. ‘The difference (n||~ nL) between the principal refractive indices is known as the birefringence of. the fibre. ‘The bireftingence of a fibre is due to the orientation Of the crystal axes in the crystalline regions and of the individual molecules in the non-crystalline regions. Greater the value of birefringence indicates the ‘most molecules are lined up parallel tothe fiber Factors effect on birefringence: ‘This depends on two factors: the degree of ‘orientation of the molecules and the degree of asymmetry of the molecules themselves. Highly oriented fibers will have high birefringence value. The magnitude of birefringence ranges from (0.005 for Triacetate to 0.188 for Terylene. Ifall the atoms in a molecule are arranged in a straight chain (fig: a) if, as usually happens, the bond polarizabilities are greatest along the line the atoms then a high birefringence will be expected. @ Fig: 2 ‘© The actual molecules in fibers do not have this form and their birefringence will be reduced for two reasons, Firstly, mast main chains have a zigzag form (fig: b) but, provided that the bonds diverge from the main axis by less than about 55°, this still gives a positive birefringence. ‘+ The coiling of the keratin molecule will have a similar effect in wool, o Fig: 3 ‘© There will be side groups attached to the main chain, as in Fig. c, and these will have the effect of providing atomic bonds at right angles to the main axis, This will increase the value of nd. and reduce the birefringence. In triacetate and acrylic fibers, the side groups have a greater effect than the main chain, and the birefringence is negative, © Fig: 4 Optical orientation factor: We have seen that the difference in the refractive indices depends on the relation between the direction of polarization of the light and the direction of alignment of the molecular chain. Its therefore to be expected that the birefringence will be ‘greatest when the molecules are all lined up parallel to the fibre axis and that it will be 2ero when they are randomly directed. Herman’s has defined an optical orientation factor ‘fas the ratio ofthe birefringence of the fibre tothat of an ideal fibre in which the molecules are perfectly oriented parallel to the fibre axis, Strictly, the expression should be corrected for differences in density by dividing each birefringence by the corresponding value of the density. It is desirable to relate this factor to some geometrical measure of orientation, and Herman’s has Used the average angle of inclination of the molecules 9. ‘This is defined as the angle of inclination in an imaginary fibre in which all the molecules are arranged at the same angle and which has the same birefringence as the actual fibre. He has shown that: z am Where, n'] and n’L refer to the ideally oriented fibre. In a perfectly oriented fibre, = 1 and $=. In an isotropic so that fibre, in which there is no birefringence, £ sin? = 2 and 6 is approximately 55°. Measurement of Refractive Indices: ‘The Becke line method. ‘Wavelength varying technique. Fiber refractometer. Interference technique (Faust) Interference technique. Both double-beam and multiple-beam interference techniques have been used in this technique. Hit Ne (a Senematc representation of (by Mtple beam Inter Interferometry Fig: In the first method, Fig. (a), the light is spit into two beams, one of which passes through the specimen, while the other bypasses it, The two are then combined and give an interference pattern. In the second method, Fig. (b), the specimen is placed between two partly silvered mirrors. A series of beams, which have passed through the specimen for a differing number of times, depending on the number of reflections, are transmitted by the system and combine to give the interference pattern. ‘There are various ways in which these techniques may be applied. For example, white light, with the interfering wavefronts parallel to one another, may be used. Rw mm Liquid Liquid Fibre( Fibre (@ () Fig: 6 (a) Distortion of fringes with a uniform fiber. Ata wavelength of the indices are equal. (b) Distortion of fringes with a non-uniform fiber. ‘The mean fibre indices are equal to the liquid indices at points X and Y for the weavelengths of 2 and 2s, respectively. 519.2nm 528, Inm YO eee Interference frindes of varying wavelength, observed with an unstretched viscose rayon model filament immersed in a liquid for similar refractive index. Light vibration: (a) Parallal to the fiber axis, (b) Perpendicular tothe fiber axis. 510,Snm_ 04m] Wavelength indicated in ‘nm’ If this falls on a uniform specimen, such as a liquid in a cell, the condition for reinforcement of the interfering ‘beams will be satisfied only at certain wavelength Consequently, if itis dispersed by a spectrometer, a series of bright and dark fringes at varying wavelengths will be observed Af uniform fibre is immersed in the liquid, it will distort, the fringes, as illustrated in Fig: 6(a). Where the fringe is in one straight line, the refractive indices of fibre and liguid must be equal. For other wavelengths, the fringe is ‘curved owing to the varying thickness of fibre through Which the light passes. An example of this is shown in Fig: ‘TKa), where the fringe for 519.2nm is straight, which, indicates that the indices are equal at this wavelength However, if the fibre is not uniform in refractive index, the fringes will have a more complicated form, such as that shown in Fig: 6(b), and none will be straight. The mean refractive index at any position in the fibre can be found by observing the point at which the curved fringe in the fibre crosses the line of the fringes in the liquid. Anexample of this is illustrated in Fig: 7(b). Ifthe dispersion Of fibre and liquid is known, the variation in mean refractive index across the fibre, for a constant wavelength, can be calculated ‘Measurement of Birefringence: ‘The birefringence of a fibre is often determined by ‘measuring the two principal refractive indices and subtracting one from the other. Itcan also be measured directly, however, by determining the retardation, or difference in optical path length, of the one principal ray relative to the other, Since the optical path length equals the product of the refractive index and the thickness of the specimen through which the light passes, it follows that Optical Path Retardation= (N*8N)A = (ny) + m1)t Where, N+3N = number of Wave. =the wavelengths for which the light is, retarded, thickness So. (N+ 4N)A= (n-ne Wana 7 Birefringence Where, 1, = Refractive index for light polarized to fiber axis. tay = Refractive index for light polarized perpendicular to fiber axis. In order to find the retardation, it is necessary to measure both the whole number of wavelengths N and the fraction aN. Dichroism. Most textile fibres are either colorless of only slightly colored in neutral shades. The absorption in the fibre itself is comparatively unimportant. In order to produce colors, the fibre must be dyed. The variation in the absorption of radiation by a colored material with the direction of polarization ofthe light is known as dichroism, which may result in differences in the depth of shade or even in the actual color. Requirements of Dichroism: + The dye molecule must be asymmetrical, so that its absorption varies with the dizection of the electric field exciting the characteristic vibrations. +The dye molecule must be absorbed into the fibre ‘molecule in a particular direction, so that all the dye ‘molecules make the same angle (or a limited range of igles) with the axis of the chain molecules. The chain molecules must be preferentially oriented. Example of dichroism: When light passes through wo dichroic fibers, absorption is greater if they are crossed than if they are parallel Perpendicular ray is absorbed by second fber —= a Perpendicular ray is little absorbed by second fer ‘When the fibres are crossed, the firs fiber absorbs a large ppart of one component and the second fiber absorbs a large part of the perpendicular component, thus looks darker, but ifthe fibres are parallel, the same component is absorbed by both fibres, and the perpendicular component is transmitted through both with litle absorption. Dichroic or Dichroitie ratio or Dichroitic constant: It is the ratio of absorption coefficient for light polarized parallel to the fiber axis to the absorption coefficient for light polarized perpendicular to the fiber axis. ky ky ‘Where, fy\is absorption coefficient for light polarized parallel to the fiber axis and ka absorption coefficient for light polarized perpendicular to the fiber axis. ‘Table: Dichroic constants for direct dyes on cellulose. Material Dichroie Constant Rami 9 Viscose Rayon 14.33 Cellophane 15 Reflection and Lusture. LLusture is an important aesthetic property of textile fabrics, If a beam of light falls on a surface, it may be reflected specularly, along the angle of reflection as in Fig. (a) diffusely, (b) in varying intensity over a hemisphere or (c) in a combination of both. The reflection may vary with the angle of incidence and with the color and polarisation of the light. The total visual appearanceresulting from these reflections determines the lusture of the material sen (a) Specular refexion {(b) Diffuse refexion (c) Combination of spacular & deffusion refexion Lusture Depends On: © Incident angle of light: If a fibre behaved as a perfectly reflecting circular cylinder, it would reflect light as shown in Fig. Itis clear from this diagram that, if the light falls across the fibre it is reflected at various angles, whereas if it falls along the fibre itis predominantly reflected at a constant angle. This is 2 basic feature of textile lusture and shows the ‘importance of causing the fibres ta lie parallel to one another in a lustrous yarn ot fabric. (a) Refecton of ight Axis normal to icident plane (by Aisin snciden plane ‘© Fineness of fiber: The finer the fibres incorporated in a fabric, the greater is the number of individual reflecting surfaces per unit area of the fabric. Fibre fineness therefore affects the character of the lusture. For the same types of smoothness and regularity, coarser fibers will have more Tusture than finer one. © Irregularity of the fiber surface: Irregularities on the surface of the fibre and in its cross-sectional shape will cause light to be reflected in various directions ‘and will reduce the Tusture. It i essential thatthe fibre should be uniform along its length. For this reason, lusture is greatest in regular filaments, such as those of silk and the manufactured fibres. Fiber Shape: Fibre shape is itself an important factor, ‘The particular types of lusture associated with nylon, rayon and silk must be due parily to the influence on the pattern of light reflection of their respective circular, serrated and triangular shapes. In melt- spinning, shaped spinnerets can be used to make fibres with multilobal or other shapes, which become Somewhat rounded as the molten material tends to a circular shape. This gives fibres with various Iusture behavior. Serrated -+Dull Luster+{ + Rayon ‘Triangular ~+ Less Luster —» / \ silk ‘Maturity of fiber: If the maturity is high then the reflection will be high and so the lusture. we Immature fore. Mature fore.Thermal Properties. Specific Heat: The specific heat is the amount of heat per "unit mass required to raise the temperature by one degree Celsius. at a lower rate across materials of low thermal ‘conductivity than across materials of high thermal conductivity. Correspondingly, materials of high thermal conductivity are widely used in heat sink applications and Specific Heat of Dry Fibres materials of low thermal conductivity are used as thermal insulation ibre Specific Heat M(eK) ‘The protein fibres have a lower conductivity than the cellulose fibres. Cotton 1.22-1.35 ‘Thermal conductivity of pads of fibres with a bulk Rayon 135-159 ‘density of 05 plea? ‘Wool 1.36 ‘Thermal conducti binatd (mW/(mK)) silk 138 Cotton n Nylon 6 143 Woo! 34 Nylon 66 146 Silk 50 Polyester (PET) 103 Note: Syil air has a thermal conductivity of 25 Asbestos 1.05 mW/mk) Glass 0.80 ‘The absorption of water, which as a liquid has a specific heat of 4.25/(gK), would be expected (0 increase the specific heat of fibres. For changes in temperature at constant regain, a simple mixture law would give the relation: Mixture specific heat = ‘Thermal conductivity of polymers Where; = specific heat when dry and += fractional regain, Even at constant regain, however, equation will not predict actual specific heats, for two reasons. Firstly, the absorbed water may not be behaving like liquid water: it may be ‘more like ice with a specitic heat of about 24/(eK). Secondly, the absorption of water, which loosens up the fibre structure, may change the effective specific heat of the polymer molecules. A correction term, AC, will therefore be added to C’ to give the actual specific heat, C. ‘The term AC can be related to changes in the heat of with temperature, ‘The values of the AC term ranged from about 0.1/(gK) at medium regains and room temperature to 0.4d/(gK)at high regains and 60°C, so that the correction is small but appreciable ‘Thermal conduetivity: (often denoted k, b, ork) i the property of a material to conduct heat, Heat transfer occurs, ‘Thermal Conductivity (mWimk) C+ 42r Cellulose Acetate 230 1+? Nylon 250 Polyester (PET) 140 Polyethylene 340 Polypropylene 120 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 160 Glass Transition Temperature Ty:y seoshinarion Glass transition and melting temperature of contd asin it Polymer TC) Ta (°C) Nylon 6 0 250 Ruthey ( Nylon 6,6 7 265 Gas | ' Nylon 4.6 a 281 1 1, Polycarbonate 150 265 Itis the characteristic ofthe amorphous phase. 1s the 5 temperature below which an amorphous polymer is in a Polyester 69 268 lssy (hard and brite) state and above whichis softer re High 90 173 Density “The glass transition ofa polymer obeys second-onder Polyethylene transition where there is bo transfer of heat between tw | -10 15 system and surroundings i, volume and enthalpy are Density Confiauous function trough the tension temperature Since glass transitions are associated with the amorphous Polypropylene ol 176 phase ofa polymer, they are greater fr completely tmoephous polymers and become stalls in partially Polystyrene 100 239 crystlline materials. For some highly crystalline polymers such as polyethylene and potyeraftoroetene, where Polytetrafuoroethylene | -90 327 the T, might be expected tobe quite lov. (elon) AST, approaches, the thermal energy becomes sufficient Seal aa a om to allow greater molecular excitements. Consequently, yiny > inter-molecular restraints ure overcome. So, there willbe a mobile network with hydrogen bond continuously Rubber 3 breaking and reforming, just sin liquid water. ei a Polyacrylonitrile 104, 317 ‘The melting temperature Ta: y Dependency of T esac: Coysaine ‘Sold ‘Te, relates to crystalline phase of polymers. It is the temperature at which the erystalline regions start ( melt ‘The glass transition of a polymer obeys first-order transition where there is no (ransfer of heat between system and surroundings and the system undergoes abrupt volume change. The melting of textile fibers is an essentially ireversible process. It is nat only the external form but also the fine structure that cannot be repraduced without repeating the manufacturing sequence of extrusion, drawing and other treatments. Cellulosic and protein fibers decompose before melting 1. Chain flexibility: long chain aliphatic groups, ether and ester linkages introduce chain flexibility, while rigid groups like eyclic structures, which Impede the rotation of backbone, enhance stiffness of chain, For example, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) possesses a higher T, than polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) because the former one contains relatively shorter flexible aliphatic groups. cest{ pie Sets an aeract2. Inter-molecular forces: Stronger inter molecular forces lead to higher cohesive energy density and as a result T; is increased. py yew azere 3. Pendant groupsiside groups: The presence of bulky side groups like benzene ring make the backbone chain less flexible which cause increase in. x co) ols Ol" pt Col a Q Polymers having relatively flexible side groups such as aliphatic chains cause T, to decrease. Taare 4. Chain configuration: Polymers with atatic configuration exhibit very lower glass transition temperature. On contrary, isotactic and syndiotactic polymers are characterized with higher Ts. 28 syatawete ZOE 5. Plasticizers: Low molar mass liquids, commonly referred to as plasticizers, often have a strong Ty- depressive effect. They weaken the inter-molecular forces between the polymer chains and decrease T;. Water plasticizes the polar and hygroscopic polymers such as polyamides, wool etc ! hb bb Monte 8) Heat Setting: ‘© Heat-setting is a heat treatment by which shape retention, crease resistance, resilience and elasticity are imparted to the fibers. It also brings changes in strength, stretchability, softness, dye ability and sometimes on the color of the material, All these changes are connected with the structural and chemical modifications occurring inthe fiber. ‘© This operation is crucial for fabries made of synthetic fibers (PE, PA, elastomers), for triacetate, and partly for PAC fibers (setting), since it grants excellent dimensional stabilization and crease proof properties, maintained till the fabric is exposed (by air blowing) to temperatures exceeding the heat setting one (after being treated with water at a temperature above the second order glass transition temperature, ic., 80-85°C for acrylics). ‘+ Heat setting is carried out on gray fabries (scarcely applied) on scoured fabrics (frequently applied) and on dyed fabrics (scarcely applied). The process grants excellent dimensional stability and good crease-proof properties. As far as operating conditions are concerned, the fabric must be treated {in accurately controlled moisture and temperature conditions ‘There are three types of heat-setting: (a) Temporary heat setting: This type of setting is destroyed with regular use of the materials. For ‘example, a steam pressed cotton textileheat setting: In this type of heat setting, material is raised above its T, and then set {nto anew form. This type of set is maintained with normal use of the material; however, the setting is lost ‘when the material is subjected to severe conditions of use. For example, hot washing or steaming of material above Permanent heat setting: This type of heat setting involves change of internal morphology of the ‘material in such a way that it would not reverse till the ‘material is destroyed by taking it above its melting. point For example; Heat setting to develop new crystallites. In this form the crystals can only be destroyed by heating the ‘material above its melting point. This would destroy the fibre itself, and therefore, such conditions of high temperature cannot be given under normal use. © Parameters of heat settin 1, Time and Temperature: Heat-setting involves formation of new crystallites in the amorphous patt Of the fibre, The formation of erystals isa thermal process and maximizes at a certain temperature. ‘There exists an optimum temperature for a given fibre for highest rate of crystallization. Time of heat-setting also has an effect. Ata high temperature, oriented chains tend to relax fast and fibre can lose its orientation if left at that temperature for a sulficiently long time. Min T. ce | Time (in Fibre to | Maxtivc | Time Polyester (PE) | 170 210 15-50 Polyamide PA 1 170 210 15-40 horas PAT 160 180 15-40 Triacetate | 160 180 15-40 Acrylic (PAC) | 160 | 180-200 15-40 Elastomers | 170 | 180-200 15-40 2. Tension given to the material during heat- setting: The drawn yarn may be subjected to heat either in loose (free) or taut (stretched under tension) form. In free form, the chains can disorient at a faster rate and fold to form lamellar crystals at the heat setting temperature. This results in high shrinkage of the fibres and lowers connectivity ‘among the polymeric chains. Though the yarn reaches thermal equilibrium easily (.e., 100% set), it loses all its mechanical properties. Because the connectivity (network formation) is poor among the cchains, the fibres are unable to elongate (low extensibility) and bear load (low strength), =z setting restricts the rate of folding of polymeric chains, which gives enough time for small crystallites to grow along the length of oriented chains. This improves connectivity among the oriented chains as many chains are involves in a single crystallite. However, the polymer chains have difficulty in reaching thermal equilibrium and ‘heat-setting may remain at Ievels Tower than 100% Heat-setting under tension is able to reta ‘mechanical properties ofthe starting material When high values of tension are applied, even ‘marginal improvement of tensile strength may be achieved. Moisture in the starting material and its sensitivity to itz Certain polymers such as nylons are sensitive to moisture. Their T, becomes lower as their moisture content increases. Since moisture acts asa plasticizer for such materials, their chains may relax and fold easily when in wet state compared to the dry state. For example, in drawn nylon 6, the dye uptake and the diffusion coefficient are generally increased when heat-seting is carried out by steam, This tendency increases with the temperature ofthe steam setting. However, dry heat seting up to about 160°C gives the reverse tendency. With steam, chains fold to grow into large crystals and the molecular packing of amorphous regions loosens as a result of inclusion of water. ‘Structural changes due to heat setting: ‘+ Synthetic fibers, mainly polyester and nylon, consist of long chain molecules and are held together by inter-chain bonds. ‘+ Justafter spinning the chains are irregularly distributed at random in fiber but after stretching several times, they become parallel to the fiber axis,+ Asa result of stretching the fiber molecules come closer to each other and held together by intermolecular forces, hydrogen bonding or by a combination of Van der Waals’ forces and H-bonds. ‘Thus, intermolecular forces and density increases. "The H-bonds are formed at random and there are strains between the chains. The single chains are ‘not usually completely stretched out; and are silt kinked having a zigzag configuration. * After cold drawing process, when they are heated ‘above the point at which molecular motion sets in, they will progressively shrink until they reach the point of thermodynamic equilibrium represented by figure A. + Ina straightened condition of fiber, if energy in the form of heat is supplied, the chain molecules start vibrating, some of these inter-chain bonds break ‘and some parts of the molecular chains have a ‘greater freedom and relax. Under tension and relax. Cf the molecules they move to crystallize. + The supply of energy is stopped as soon as the ‘minimum potential energy is reached and the fibers are cooled as quickly as possible, one succeeds in” freezing" the H-bonds. "The newly formed bonds are more difficult to break ‘and the fibers are dimensionally stable and will not shrink at approximately 10°Cbelow the temperature of heat setting. + At this juncture the process temperature commences to produce a new heat memory and T, is changed Effect of heat setting on fibre properties: Dimensional stability (Shrinkage): Heat setting is essentially a disorientation process and results in the shrinkage of fiber/yarn, The shrinkage is higher for higher heat setting temperature. In the figure given below the shrinkage of a medium tenacity PET yarn is plotted as a funetion of heat setting temperature in hot air. The shrinkage results in increase in elongation and lowering in breaking load. However, the residual shrinkage after the heat setting process drops significantly. ‘Thus, heat set fabrics have much better dimensional stability as compared to un-heat set fabrics, For this reason, synthetic fabrics like PET are heatset in grey state as shrinkage can take place during pretreatment and dyeing. Not only unheatset fabrics tend to shrink by large amounts during dyeing, they also tend to crease uncontrollably and the creases are very difficult o remove later. ‘The shrinkage of unheateset polyester yarn is ~159 at 175° as compared to 1% for heat setting fibres at 220°C. ° 60 100 140 180 220 ‘Air Temperature °C) ‘Crease recover: One ofthe important objectives of heat setting is to reduce creasing of synthetic fabrics during wet ‘operations (wet ereasing). Wet creasing reduces with increasing setting temperature. Dyeing: Figure shows typical dyeing behavior of a polyester fibre dyed without cartier and heat setting at ‘various temperatures, tis interesting to note that initially the Dye uptake of the fibre decreases with increasing setting temperature, reaches a lowest value around 160 to 180°C, ‘and then starts rising. At very high temperatures, it becomes higher than unheatset fibre. The initial decrease ‘occurs due to increase in crystallinity of fibre. At high setting temperatures, crystallites grow at the expense of | smallerrimperfect crystals and become more perfect. This results in increase in the amorphous volume per crystal. ‘The path for dye diffusion becomes less tortuous and dye absorption increases. However, the practice of using very high setting temperatures for improving polyester dye uptake is not followed. The setting temperatures used for polyester generally result in a little drop in dye uptake as ‘compared to unheatset fi However, heat setting results in a uniform dye uptake, whereas non heatset polyester fabric absorbs dye ina non-uniform way and chances of obtaining unlevel dyeing increase. In table 1 below, typical temperatures used for heat setting Pilling: The problem of pilling occurs due to entanglement of protruding fibres in a yarn. These loosefibres convert to small fuzzy balls due to rubbing or abrasion. Generally singeing is a way of dealing with this problem. In case of synthetic fibres heat setting can reduce pill formation. During heat setting, the loose end of the protruding fibres shrinks and get embedded more firmly in the yarn structure, Reduction in the length of loose ends reduces the chance of pill formation,Static Electricity. Static Electricity: If two surfaces come in close contact with each other and charge is created due to friction between them, the produced charge remains enclosed and static in those surfaces. They will not move from one place to another. Here on by charges are exchanged between the ‘two surfaces, this type of electricity is ealled “state electricity” For example due to friction between glass rod and silk glass rod glass rod guins positive and silk gains negative charger. This is static electricity, as this type of ‘electricity is produced due to friction, it is also known as frictional electricity. ‘Theories of static electricity: For explaining various circumstances regarding electricity various theories have been given in various time tll now the following 5 theories are available: ‘Two-fluid theory. One-Fluid theory Faraday’s theory. Lorentz’s theory. Modern theory. Now they are shortly described below: ‘© Two fluid theory: According to this theory in condition, a maternal has wo fluids of opposite charges. Due to friction, one type of fluid flows forms one material to another this the increment or decrement of another Thus The increment or decrement of charge us in two bodies Thus electricity produces, One-Fluid Theory: This theory was postulated by Watson and Franklin. According to this theory condition, everybody has a definite quantity of indestructible charge fluids. If there isan increment ofthis fluid the body gets positive charge and due to decrement of this fuid body gets negative charge. Faraday's theory: According to this theory ill the anges produced by static electrical experimental are moved by electrical cell. We will get current electric. Lorentz Theory: According to this theory positive and negative charges are not two different types of fluid rather they are two oppositely charged particles. ‘Modern theory: Now a- days the above 4 theories are discarded and the modera electron theories accepted. ‘According to this theory every atom has a positively changed nucleus (positive charge is due to proton) and negatively charged electrons and protons are equal in neutral condition. If the no of electrons increases the atom because negatively charged and if the no. of electrons decreases the atom becomes negatively charged. If the no. of electrons decreases the atom becomes positively charged. ‘Measurement of magnitude of Charge: The ‘measurement of static charge present should be expressed by the magnitude of charge on the material. This may be measured by using Faraday’s cylinder. The Following, figure shows the apparatus by Keggin to measure the charge on card sliver. Dor Z) vatve Voltmeter ‘Fig: Measurement ofcharge by meas ofa Faraday lind ‘The charged material in the cylinder induces an equal ‘opposite charge on the inside of the cylinder. Again, ‘uitside the cylinder there produces equal charges of some sign. This outside charge induces in the condenser. The potential (v) is measured by a valve voltmeter and if one knows the capacity (C) of the whole system the charge can be calculated by the following formula: cv Where, Q= Amount of charge induced in condenser: V = Potential difference shown by voltmeter. C= Known capacity ofthe whole system. Problems Created due to state Electricity: Static charge ‘causes various problems in textile material and in processing some of them are illustrated below: ‘+ Similar charges repel one another. This causes difficulty in handling materials for instance filaments in a charged ware will repel one another, there will be ballooning of a bundle of slivers, cloth will not fold down neatly upon itself when it comes off a finishing machine and so on. + Opposite charges attract one another. This causes difficulty in the opening of parachute, This will also cause tow garment to stick to each other. Again, this charge attracts soil dust and dirt, so firmly that it Become difficult to remove them, when this occurs in oom it creates "Fog marking’ Charged bodies are attracted by a charged bodies Due to this charged fibres will Stick + earthed parts of the machine happens particularly in carding, ‘| When high enough field occurs, discharge in air will ake place accompanying, sparks, there is also a risk of fire or explosion due in sparks. Aga sparks form clothing is a source of danger whereinflammable vapors are present as in operation theaters in hospitals + Large amount of accumulated statie charge may ‘ive shock to people/specially where a large insulated conductor becomes charged up. + Due to static charge the projection fibres remain stickled with the fabric. So, they cannot be removed by singeing and cropping. So, dyeing and finishing become faulty. "While passing over guides, due to state charge, roving experiences more friction and thus breakage ‘may occur. Again, due to allocation or repulsion roving cannot be wound on to bobbin. easing, ‘Method of Minimizing Static Problems: As static charges cause various problems, they should be ‘minimized by the following ways: + By processing Aid: By using conducting liquids like emulsion, oil friction between materials can be reduced. Thus, formation static charge will be ‘minimized. + By Moistening: By increasing humidity of almost Pierre the resistance of material can be reduced So the charge will move and static charge will be minimized. + By using radioactive material: Radio-active ‘material ionizes air which reduces static charge formation. + Antistatic Agent/By Finishing Treatment: In ‘man-made fibre spinning, by using anti-static agent ‘with spin finish applicator the formation of static ccharge can be reduced. * By earthling: By earthling the metallic M/C parts static charge can be neutralized. + By Using Conductive Fibres: By blending conductive fibres with non-conductive one, static problem can be minimized by discharge effect. Various hypothesis of charge transfer: There are various hypothesis regarding Charge Transfer and formation of static charge by that Generally it is thought that if the electrical condition of two bodies is not well balanced then, a number of charges is exchanged when they care in contact with each other But this theory does not hold good for a good insulator which has not sufficient free electrons or ions here the various mechanisms of charge transfer are discussed. 1. Potential difference: If two metals in contact ‘with each other which have potential difference, charge transfer will occur. These occurs due to energy level, difference between them. This is shown in fig below in between two metals A and B. ae ed > sxc ccs —| cia ‘When A and B will come in contact, electron flow will be happening until their energy will become same. 2. Nature of charge & their distribution: If charged particles are present on one or both af the surfaces, in contact, they will distribute themselves in equilibrium concentrations on each surfaces according to their relative affinity for each type of particle. This is important forthe polymers containing ionic end group. ‘Acetic polymers want to be negatively charged by leaving postive ions and basic polymers want to be positively charged by leaving negative charge transfer happens. "taste paper 1 mee pyme comes nese Aecmes Poste ‘hase ‘hase 3. Asymmetric rubbing: Asymmetric rubbing will ‘cause an unequal heating of the two surfaces and gives ‘a thermal gradient across the interface. Mobile particles ‘of any nature would then move from hot to cold owing to greater energy in hot particles 4. Double layer: If there is a double layer on the surface of one body, or a layer of potentially ionizable ‘groups, friction between two surfaces may cause @ charged layer to be skimmed off then one surface onto the other. Piezo-electric polarization: Piezo-clectric polarization due to the pressure between two surfaces may result in a charge separation in crystalline or molecularly oriented surface, This is who shown by Martin in case of wool.Dielectric Properties. Conductors: Conductors are materials that permit electrons to flow freely from particle to particle. An object made of a conducting material will permit charge to be transferred across the entire surface of the object. If charge is transferred to the object ata given location, that charge is quickly distributed across the entire surface of the object. The distribution of charge is the result of electron ‘movement. Examples of conductors include metals, aqueous solutions of salts (i.e, ionic compounds dissolved in water), graphite, and the human body. Insulators: Insulators are materials that impede the free flow of electrons from atom to atom and molecule to molecule, If charge is transferred to an insulator at a given location, the excess charge will remain atthe initial location of charging. The particles of the insulator do not permit the [ree flow of electrons; subsequently charge is seldom distributed evenly across the surface of an insulator. Examples of insulators include plasties, paper, rubber, glass and dry a Capacitance: Capacitance isthe ability of a body to store an electrical charge. Itis denoted by C. We know, charge is proportional 0 volt, ie, Qav or. = CV [Here C is a constant] om] onc = a When, V=1 unit, C=Q So, the required amount of charge to increase 1 unit volt is called electrical capacitance. Dielectric Constant: The permittivity, ¢, of a material ‘may be defined either in terms ofthe capacitance, C, of a condenser with the material between parallel plates of area A and separation d, eA 4 ca c Prien TORRE NY AION, ata distance r in the material Ue “Grer® QQ anh ‘This does, however, mean that in vacuum the equations become: D A QQ Fak? Where €, is the permittivity of vacuum and €: 8.854x 10°" farad/meter. For many purposes, it is more convenient to use relative permeability which is denoted by. &, and defined as: Eo= _ Permittivity of a material “Permittivity of vaccum Hence €; is called the dielectric constant ‘Measurement of Dielectric Constant: To measure the dielectric properties, the material must be placed between the plates of a condenser and the impedance measured. The method of measurement of ‘impedance depends on the frequency being used for the test. At audio-frequencies (from about SOFz to 100kHz), a bridge method is suitable. Resonance methods can be used up to about 100 MHz. ‘Resonance Method: The condenser is connected in series with an inductance L in a resonant circuit, with the current measured by a high-impedance voltmeter ‘acrass the condenser. At the resonant frequency f0, the current has a maximum value. Af = difference in frequency between the two values for ‘which the current is times the maximum value Oscillator Tes. 2 |, condenser JLB “9 ; E aa OW Voltmeter Frequency Resonance Method for measurement of impedence The capacitance at frequency fy is obtained by the following equation L Vani, In the same way Cq is found We know, €= £ Where, Cy = Capacitance of the condenser in vacuum, ‘C= Capacitance of the condenser in any medium. ‘Thus, we can find out the dielectric constant of textile fiber. Factors affecting dielectric properties: Frequency: At low lrequency the dipoles line up in the field, reverse direction when the field reverses, and so contribute to a high permittivity. The dipoles take a certain time to reverse direction, this is characterized as their relaxation time. At high frequencies, the reversals of, field take place at intervals comparable to the relaxation time, then the dipole will cease to follow the changes of field completely and the permittivity will decrease ‘The general behavior is illustrated by the results for ice, At low frequencies, the dipolar water molecules line up in the field to give a relative permittivity of about 80. AC higher frequencies, the permittivity drops. GEffect of Moisture: In different fibers moisture content effects on dielectric propery differently. ‘© Incellulose fibers, at lower frequency permeability increases as moisture content increases. At higher frequency it remains consistent. # Incase of wool, the permittivity is lower, which, indicates that the absorbed water molecules are ‘more tightly held and cannot line up inthe field. ‘* Incase of nonabsorbent fibers, permittivity remai Effect of Temperature: ‘¢ Incase of solid material, arise in temperature increases permiltivity of material ‘* For liquid and gases, with the increase of temperature permittivity decreases. Effect of direction of electric fields: ‘With the change of applied electric field the permittivity of a material changes. Effect of Direction of Electric Fields: With the change of applied electric field the permitivity of a material changes. Pamebiiny ‘When the electric iW he iiclectric Fiber field is parallel to field is on pemendicuar 10 ter axis fiber axis Coton as 234 Wool 29 216 Rayo 237 231 Effect of Impurities: Relave Relative | Permitivity Fiber Permittivity (After extraction of impurities) Nyon 34 243 ‘Acrylic 200 19 Polyester 3a 166Yarn Geometry. Yarn: According to the Textile Institute, yarn may be defined as such a product of substantial length, relatively small cross, and section, maintaining fibers or filaments, having with or without twist Classification of Yarn: Yorn Cabled Multi-tolded Single Complex Fancy Yarn ‘Yarn ‘Yarn ‘Yarn Yorn ——1t—. Continuous spun —_Modifed Filament Yarn Continuous Filament Homogenous Blended Single yarn: single yarn is the simplest continuous strand of textile material composed of one of the followings: Continuous lament: Continuous filament yan are pepe meneaeierererrie iio modifying processes fr changing thei texture extensibility, bland other popentes. They are of two types ee ee i. Moatianaent: Whither two ormore filament eg polyester, Nylon et lemurs Yeree Seconmteet dnc fers are hod together, generally by tise alled spun yar eg, cotton 2 Homogeneous: Which ae spun from only one typeof fiber eg, 100% cotton ‘Blended: Which te spun from more than one ‘ype of fibers eg. cotn polyester lend Modified Continuous Filament: The continuous filament yarns which are textured ot modified to change tee appearance ander properties, ae called modified continuous filament Multi Folded Yarns: They are made by twisting together ‘wo or more single yarns e.g., Sewing threads. Cabled Yarns: Cabled yarns are made by twisting together two or more multi folded yams e.g., Cords ‘Complex Yarns: In a complex yarn, either a continuous filament core is surrounded by staple fiber or a spun yarn core is surrounded by continuous filaments e-g., core span yarn, Fancy Yarns: Fancy yarns are of decorative interest. They are made by introducing spiral forms of irregularity or hairiness into either spun continuous filament yarns e.g., slab yarn, Interaction of fibre, yarn and fabric structure and properties: Molecular properties and fibre structure 36 determine fibre property which along with yarn structure determine yam property which is turn along with fabric structure determine fabric properties and endues behavior. Molecular properties and fbre structure Flbreproperties Yarn Structure Yarn Properties Fabric Structure Fabric Properties Enduse behavior Yarn Designation: The factors which are required (0 express yarn structure and properties wholly are called ‘yam designations. The factors are i, Yam count. (Linear density) No. of filaments No. of components in folding. Direction and amount of twist v. No. of components in cabling Fibre components. be expressed in 3 ways: i, Yarn density of single yarn can be expressed by yarn notation (single to fold notion) ‘Yarn notation based on the resultant linear density. (Fold to single notion) ili, Abbreviated notion. Assumption of idealized helical yarn structui i, The yams are circular in cross-section and uniform along their length Each filament has form of an oar helix where its axis coincides with yarn axis, iii, Every filament has the same twist iv. The density of the yarn is the same at all points. v. Yarn consists of a great number of filaments, Basic geometry of twisted yarn: Basic geometry of twisted yarn/geometrical relations from a consideration of the idealized structure: Let, 1r= radios of eylinder containing the helical path of a particular fibre (cm.‘T= yarn twist per cm. or no, of turns per unit seiiCleggles? hh= heighv length of yarn having one twist. «= Helix angle of twist at yam surface (degrees) 0 Helix angle at radius “r (degree) 1+ Length of fibre in one turn of twist at radios ‘r” (cm) L= Length of fibre in one turn of twist at radius R (cm) From fig (b) we get, tant ‘There is, “T” twist in | inch so. visti inch But there is | twist in h length of yam. So, So, we get, tan0 = 2m Similarly, from fig. (c) tana RT Again, from fig. (), we get P= Qn +h Now, @ depends on radius, At yarn center, 0 50, tan0=0. oa At yarn surface, Thats, ‘and tana (6=tan(tana)= tar'QeRT) ‘The complexity of twisted geometry has been discussed by Schwarz and other experts. Then the equation is modified 1 yi _md(d-d)1 (d - d')5=§ tana mdKT Where, d= yarn dia, fiber dia Relation between Twist angle and yarn count: We know, in direct system, ‘Yarn count means weight per unit length. Volume of 1 cm of yarn = AxL= xR? ce [R= yarn radius} Now, mass of 1 em of yarn Volume © Specific Volume Rt 7m % [Vy is specific volume in ce/gm] ‘Tex (yam count) = Mass of 1 km of yarn oe Toes 105 ta 105m From idealized helical yarn geometry, tana = 2nRT 0 aur [Tee tance = . 105 On T pal Te stance = 7 | x Tex Or, tana = 0.112% x VTex xT 5 tana = 0.0112) Derivation of an equation to find out yarn di ‘We know, in indirect system, ‘Yam count means weight per unit length. Volume of 1 em of yarn= AxL= rR? ce [R= yarn radius] ‘Now, mass of 1 cm of yarn= Volume! Specific volume="F"am [Vy i specific votume in ce/gm] ‘Tex (yarn count) = Mass of 1 km of yarn, Or, Tex= Ex 10° (Thm= 10% em) _ [rex.y * 0% frex.v, 10% or, R or.NET; > = 0.003568 |cv, 2 ond = Now. packing fctor isthe ai ofthe volume of fibre in yao the volume of yam. We st, ¥, oy Where, Ve Volume offi in yam Vje Volume of yar, so, yd obey lo = filament density or fiber density = d= 0.003568 [cv,cm or, d = 0.003568 |-—em Be; rex = 0.003568 [2 cm Bey c 003568 | Lem by [for filament y" = 1] ad= Again, @ = 0.003568 | em 90; 003568 5908 he - Ne x06xis2 ©2540" Tex x Ne= 590.5 For cotton, $= 0,6 and pr= 1.52 emice 0.003568 Ord Ne ‘inch or,d=—*_tnch ~ 28VNe Ord = Orem inch = L000] 36 VNe ‘Twist contraction and Retraction: When a bundle of parallel fibers is twisted, the distance between the two ends of a fiber will decrease, particularly for fibers near the surface of the twisted bundle. As a result, the overall length of the twisted bundle is shorter than its length before twist insertion. The reduction in length due to twist insertion is known as twist contraction for staple yarn and for filament yarn this phenomenon is called twist retraction. Contraction factor: Contraction factor may be expressed asbelow- Contraction factor, Length of zero twisted yarn Tength of twisted yarn ‘The contraction factor ranges from 1 (for no contraction) to infinity (for contraction to zero length) Retraction factor: It represents the factorial decrease in length or increase in linear density on twisting continuous filament yarns. Retraction factor, R, "Length of zero twisted yarn ~ length of twisted yarn Length of zero twisted yarn length of twisted yarn Tength of zero twisted yarn ‘The retraction factor ranges from 0 to 1 Prove that,Proof: Here, h= length of yarn having one turn of I= Zero twist length of yarn, ‘n= no. of filament crossing per unit area perpendicular to axis Considering, an element of X-section of yarn, between the radii (¢)& (ed). The filament wil ross obliguely at an angle 0 with the normal shown in figure ‘Thus, No. of crossing dn=nx2arxdreos6- And, tn0-2 or, neha Differentiating eq, (ii) with respect to 0 ao, an 5G = hsec* hsec0d0 2 Now, eg.) dn =n x 2nr x dreos® = nx htand x SEO cog ta husech.d6 1 = mx heand xO 5 SS x cos _mk®secdtandd0 Fe Again, L sect = 5 Or, = hsece dl Or, = hsecd x tand = hsecb.tandd@ dn __nbPsecbtanddd _nh “Gl” InhsecO.tanddd 2n ‘That means the no. of filament corresponding for any inerement to length is constant, So, mean length Min, length + max. length _h(1 + seca) 2 = 3 Thus, contraction TAC +seca) (1+ seca) ~The G5 And retraction Proved] Determination of limits of twist in yarn: Let, c= length of yarn before twist Ro= Radius of yarn before twist n= length of yarn after twist radius of yarn after twist. So, volume of yarn before twist= #R3ly ‘Volume of yarn after twist= 1R2h It's considered that volume is not changed. So, after twist, we get, RG ly = Rh or, ‘Now, twist contraction, ly _1+seca h 2 2lo or,1 + seca = 5" 2a or,1 + tanta ons PAY = Mh Ae f 4n?R? 41,7 4 ar le eee or,7?R3 — hy +h? = 0 or.1?R§ + h(-ly) +1? = 0 or, h? + A(—lp) + r#R§ = 0 ‘This equation has two solutions: lot Ve— TOR, n= tyes Since,Ly [4h _agepe wt [pa aes se 2 1,4 27,2 R2 Tet TET ATR 7 z it ft 4neT?R5 Wy nt [tae Ri ogee or _ 2 Te 3 1 ft -4n2n?Re ‘The value of T will be maximum when 1 + 470°75R5, for the maximum value 47127,2R3 = 1 0 we te, “Tt 1tvi-1 or. = 2% For maximum value Tis denoted by Te So, 14 T= m= 2g ah For maximum, 2 = RT, = R-. = Rilalin = RET 1 or, R3, = RB x 2mRy x —— aR, or. Ry OF. = We know, 2nk tang = 24 = oer tandinas = 1 Or, tandipay = 2 VERE aR Or, tandinax = 2VE Or, taneinax = tanTO.5° Ga = 705° Packing of Fibers in Yarn: Packing of fibres in yarn are two types: i Open packing ii, Closed packing i, Open packing: In open packing fibers lie in layers between successive concentric layers. At the Centre of | 40 an open packed assembly of circular fibers, there isa single fiber. The third layer is added so that the fibers just touch the circle which circumscribes the second layer of six fibers. Successive layers are then added ‘on between circumscribing circles. ii, Closed packing: Close packing is that in which the fibers fit into hexagonal pattern, Here, with a single fiber core, close packing of circular fibers gives a yarn ‘with hexagonal out line in which all fibers are touching. Packing density or packing fraction: ‘The yarn specific volume is always more than that if fibre themselves, This relation can be analytically expressed in terms of a parameter called packing fraction, ‘The ratio of specific volume of fibres in yarn to specific volume of yar is called packing fracti Volume of fibre in yarn Volume of yarn Packing fraction, p Specific volume of fibre in yarn Specific volume of yarn Yarn density Fibre density Pe or Normally, 9=1 for filament yarns. Load: The application of load to a specimen in its axial direction causes a tension to be developed in the specimen. “The load” is usually expressed in gm or at pound like ‘gravitational unt of force. Stress: Stress is the ratio between the force applied and the cross-sectional area of the specimen. Force applied "ross = sectional area + Str fi 2 Stress : Unit: dynefem?Mass stress: Mass stress isthe ratio of force applied to the linear density (mass per unit length) Force applied ‘Mass = Tirear density Unit: gms widenier or gms witex. ‘Tenacity: The tenacity is the maximum strength to break @ fibre Tenacity — L2rcet0 break enacity = Tixear density Unit: gm/Tex, N/Tex, gm/denier Strain: The change of length applying force per unit initial Length is stain, Elongation _ 1 Strain = Trieial Length ~ Extension is sometimes referred to as strain percent. Hook's Law: inelastic it, tess is proportions to Sin ies fe ain tress Fly serain = Tp Young's Modulus = ‘Breaking length: The breaking length is the length of the specimen which will just break under its own weight when hung vertically. Unit of breaking length of the specimen is the kilometer. ‘Breaking extension: The breaking extension is the extension of the specimen at the breaking point. This is ‘expressed in percentage. Elongation at break Tmitial lengch —* 10% Breaking extension Initial Module: The value of initial module is equal to the value of stress that would be necessary to the double length of the specimen. It is equal to the stop of stress- strain curve at the origin, Stress Initial Module, tand Strain It depends upon- ‘© Chemical structure of the material. ‘+ Molecular char. Effects of initial module- Initial module, stiffness ofthe fabric 7. Initial module?, rigg structure of fibret Initial modulet, Orientation of molecules? Initial module], Fabric extensibility + Bending length: The length of the fabric that will bend under its own at a define extent. It is expressed by C=1f,0 a cos Brand C= 1f,(6); here, f,(@) 4a Flexural Rigidity: Flexural rigidity is the measure of stiffness associate with handle, G=3,39W,C? mg/em=W. We ‘Wes Cloth wt in glem? 10° mg/em, Cloth wt in oz/ya? (C= Bending length, Bending Modulus: The ratio of bending stress and bending strain is called bending modulus. Bending stress Bending Modulus = 5 iina strain 2 2G pa pont a= kal 126 x10-* = talent ‘g1= Cloth thickness in thousands of an inch, % {42= Cloth thickness in thousands of an em Gz Flexural rigidity, Air Permeability: The air permeability of a fabric is the volume of the air, measured in c.c. passed per second through 1m of the fabric pressure of 1 em of water, Air Resistance: The air resistance ofa fabric isthe time in second for Iec of air, pass through lem? of the fabric under a pressure head if lem of water Air porosity: Air porosity of a fabric is the ratio of air space (0 the total volume of the fabric expressed as percentage. (Crimp: When warp and weft interlace in fabric, they follow a wavy or corrugated plane. This waviness of yarn is called crimp of yarn. (On the other hand, ‘Crimp may be defined as the deviation from straightness of yar as lie inthe cloths. Its expressed as erimp percentage and crimp ratio. ‘Crimp%: The difference between the length if yarn before weaving and the length of yarn in the fabric after weaving expressed as a percentage ofthe length of yarn after weaving is called crimp. iP crimp x 100% Pe length of yarn before wvg.—length of yarn after wvg. Tength of yarn after wog. x 100% ‘Take up%: Crimp rigidity T= Le 100% =e One/sngle dimensional: Line cards, ropes, brid. ‘Two dimensional: Conventional fabrics,‘Three dimensional: Pipe fabric Interlace in fabrics: © Woven fabric. © Knitted fabri. © Lace. © Crochet, ete Leather: Not easily identify as separate entities with clearly defined limit, tis a whole aggregate which is fibrous in form, Textile Fibre: Textile fibres are clearly individual units Difference between leather & textile fibre: Leather ‘Textile fibre Not easily identify as ‘Textile fibres are clearly separate entities with individual units clearly defined limit easily identity I is whole aggregate which ime Itis not ahole aggregate Leather is costly Cheap Itcan be made from only sail igi Natural and man made Ii one kind of fibrous es Iris not fibrous sheet Extensibility is low HighFabric Geometry. Reason for the construction of path cloth structure: ‘The reason for considering cloth geometry are- (a) To be uble to calculate the resistance of the cloth to ‘mechanical deformation such as initial extension, bending, shear, in terms ofthe resistance to deformation of the individual fibers. “The geometrical relation should provide direct information on the relative resistance of the cloth (0 passage of air or light and similarly it should provide a guide to the maximum density of the packing that cean be achieved in a cloth, To know about crimp the influences thickness, elongation, strength etc ‘To compare the similarities and dissimilarities between different types of fabrics. To provide information about cover factor which influences. + Airpermeability. Light permeability. Porosity. Surface resistance, Water permeability &) © @ © Pierce Geometrical Thread Model. ‘The basie represents a unit cell interlacing with ‘warp and weft heave round z-section and consists of straight segments and round segments, ‘Assumption: + Yarns ae infinitely flexible. (.e, Flexural Rigidity=0) + Yams ae inextensible + Yams are incompressible + Yams have circular X-secton, Let's, ‘Yam dia: For warp d; and for weft threads d: ‘Thread Spacing: Distance between the center of threads for warp P; and for weft P> ‘Thread amplitude: Maximum displacement of the thread axis from the plane of the cloth, For warp hy and for weft ha Wave angle: Maximum angle of the thread axis to the plane of the cloth. For warp 6; and for weft Crimp: For warp C, and for weft C2 From definition of crimp: L-P 43 Fig Pee Made pin wemve In Fig: ArcG? T0=1Z+Z0=TM +MO Dok hm DIDI D=h,+h,=d,+d,---@ Equation for finding pick spacing P2 and end spacing PI. at + Sp = fabrictnickness] From fig, we get, Pick spacing, P, = AB +BC + CD =QK-+KN+CD Now fiom, ARKQ, ok RK or,QK = RKsin, or, AB = QK = (r +7,)sin®, Again, BC-KN, from ALKN we get, KN 1K or, KN = LKcos®, ~ sin6, = c0s8 ww Again, LK tre GKLT ~ Are GK ~ Are LT Now, we know, Radius x Angle = Are or,r =S Arc? 18, = (7, +r) Are GK = RKO, = (+12) LK 1 — (ra #2) — (0, #72),- An +n) I, — (dy + d2)6, De, So, we get, P) =ab+BC+CD = (r, + 7)sinO, + LKcos6, + (r+ 7)sind, (ry + r)sindy + (L, = DB,)coso, = (d, + d,)sin®, + (ly ~ D8,)cos6, Py = Dsind, + (1, — D8,)cos®, ~ ~ ~ (itt) Similarly, P, = Dsin®, + (lp — DO,)c0s6, ~ - - (tv) Equation for finding maximum displacement hl and weft axis displacement h2: hy =T) +LN +06 or,QG = RG — RQ and from, ARQK,cos8, = RK + QG = RG ~ RKc0s0, = (r, +72) ~ (Fy +7:)c0S0 Similarly, T) = +n) ~ (4 + 7e0sb Now, from ALKN, LN sind = or, LN = KLsind, = (I, ~ D8,)sin®, [From eq (1)| So,hy = 2[(r +12) ~ (7, +172)c0s6] + (ly = DA)sin&, D ~ Deos6, + (ky ~ D6,)sin6, = D(1 ~cos6,) + (ly ~ D6,)sind, @) Similarly hz = D(1 = cos6,) + (Ip ~ D6,)sin®, — (vi) Applicable Formula To peruse the problems of eloth structure analysis it's necessary to express the relationship among h,c & pin fractional form ie, = fP2C) where fcan be evaluate from a graph such formula can be obtained by expanding the trigonometric functions of sin? and cosin terms of ascending power off 0 and ignoring the higher power off @ We know from trigonometry that, one -o-() 9) =) 44 Now, We know, 1, — DB,)eos®, + Dsind, hy = (l= DB,)sin®, + DCL = cos8,) ‘Substituting the value of sin@and cosin the above two equation we get, 8 m= ~009(0,- +o(i-14G-F+ ~) oer 0) 6” 6," B= (e~D0)(1- 4 92—--) ones 9, or.P 146," “SE lay ignoring higher value] or,P, = hy or,P, = [By taking 1st value only] Again, nang y-hee IBY ignoring higher value 6.) [ions (252)Similarly, 0, = 2 So, we get: fy = Ly; Pa = hh ‘ 1 hy = Pad, = PNT, = SP-C) ‘which is mostly applicable for Here, VZis replaced by majority ofthe fabric Similarly, 2 = $x PG (i) Equation (ii) & (iv) can be expressed in mills and crimp ‘may expressed in percentage, s 1000 x P, Sy $x 1000 x P79 4 1000 rsh, = 4x 1000p, 5% orshy = 133.330, /E% Again, 133.33 », Jigen ah VE% 133.33 and hy Ve Again, 133.33 13333 th, == G% + D= % 133 133 or, D == JGi% += Ga% [133.33 = 133] Again, D + da or,.D= (setxx) ine [Se = Wage cou . 28 fm, | 28/2) N, = Weft count} ) 1000 = Va + Va% = Wm =02r( ‘This is applicable for circular yarn, But in fabric the yarns are not feasible (practical) circular in cross-section, 45 Specially they are not flat and curved where warp and weft touch each other. So (v) can bot be applicable. {tcan be overcoming by using a factor ‘e’ known as yarn flattering co-efficient, So, 14 VE% , JE _ or Tie my o27e 98 When filling thread is straight find out l and We know, hy = (L, — D6,)sin®, + D(1 - cos®,) (= D6,)sind, + DC ~ cosy) D 1 int sine, 1 sin8, + 1 - cos, 4 sino, ~ 0,sind, +1 — cos0, 2D 1 + hy; Here, hy = 1+0=h,) 4 or 7 sin, = sin6 (I, + c0t6,) @ D6, + Deoto, Again, P, = Dsin®, + (1, — D4,)cos8, or, P, Dsin®, + (D6, + Deot6, ~ D,)cost, or,Ps = Dsind, + Doot6,.cosd, eos? in, or, P, = Dsind, + D or, Pa = Sag (sin*®, + cos*0,) +P, = Deosecd, [+ sie. =a ess cosecO, in@, + cos*6, =1 Jamming. ‘A woven fabric in which warp and weft yarns don’t have mobility within the structure as they are i intimate contact with each other are called jammed structures. In such a structure the warp and weft yarns will have minimum thread spacing. These are closely woven fabrics and find applications in wind-proof and bullet- proof requirements. ‘Warp Jamming: When fabric is extended to weft direction and magnitude of modular length of the straighten portion of warp becomes zero, then weft spacing is minimum. This condition is called warp jamming,‘Weft Jamming: When fabric is extended to warp direction and magnitude of modular length spacing is ‘minimum, this condition is called weft jamming. Jamming Condition: 1,-D0,=0 h or, O:= 12> 3, wap would not jam during any deformation of me Ics potty tetra toe noma the faba Equation for Yarn Jamming: We know, sing, + (4 ~ B8,)cos®, if,h— D0 =0, then, P, or, sind, Again, hy = (4 = D6,)sind, + DCA ~ c050,) if — D4, = 0, then, hy = D(A = c0s6,) = D ~ Deos®, or,cosd, = > or,cos0 or, cos alata orcas, = A + cos6, =H —— (i) Now, (i)*+6i)* ne, + costa, Eth sin®@, + cos", = or,D? = P+ or, hi = D® — PE thy = [p2— 2 It’s equation for weft jamming Simitarly hy = [oe—P Equation for warp jammii Now, 46 D=hy+h,= |p? + [p?-P ‘This is the equation relating warp and weft spacing of a most closely woven fabric Crimp Interchange: When a fabric is subjected to an axial stress in warp direction, its length is increased significant as warp crimp is reduced. This force caused weit yarn to be consolidated ie, weit crimp is introduced and vice versa. This phenomenon is called interchange. So, Ci+Ca=Constant Ci = Crimp of warp. Co= Crimp of wert. Equation for crimp interchange: or, P, = T+ Similarly, Similarly, ate 2-3" TaG (iv) A 4g Hate) 3D we (ata) ‘This is crimp interchange equation.frex frex d= 444x107 | cm = 1.75 x 107° | inch ° - Problem: A cotton fabric is of 24 Tex warp and 45 Tex wet with 30 ends/em and 28 picksiem having a ‘modular length 1y=0.044% em, Calculate: ‘© Warp Spacing=P, ‘¢ Maximum Displacement of warp= by ‘* Maximum Displacement pf wet © Warp crimp=Cy ‘* Maximum angle between weft yarn axis and cloth plans ‘© Maximum angle between warp yarn axis and cloth plane= 6; ‘* Length of weft yarn along a unit cell Assume, p= 1.5 grec. Warp Jamming Welt Jamming Warp yarns becomes completely curved Weft yams becomes ‘completely curved Welt yam becomes ‘maximum straight. ie Weft yarns becomes ‘maximum straight. Le. Cx=0, Ci=smaximum, C1=0, C= maximum, Pick spacing is minimum | End spacing is minimum Pas Pe Fabric is extended to weft | Fabric is extended to direction warp direction Modular length of warp; | Modular length of waft; 1-0 L=0 Buckling of Fabric Behavior: Buckling is very common phenomenon during the use of fabric in GST. For example, the bending of a sleeve, the bending of a trouser leg and even the natural folding of garments often involves buckling Certain test methods for producing bucking have been examined. To make general analysis of cloths in buckling, 47 it’s desirable to give a rare survey of the behavior of clastic materials during buckling, I the specimen is clamp at both ends, the ertical Peg = 10 %o crimp loncomprason sve Load-compression curve oteoth backing ‘of elasic buckling Concept of similar cloth: Fiber or raw material of two cloths may be same but they can differ in case of other factors. Such as: ‘The yam count may be different The atio of yarn count in warp and weft may differ. ‘The ratio of the yam spacing may differ, The average of spacing may differ. The weave design may differ. Irthere is similarity cover factor of two cloth but differ in such points, are called similar cloths. Cover factor: The area covered by the warp and weft thread is called cover factor. It is denoted by k, Where, 4, = Warp dia Py = Warp spacing Ky = Warp cover factor. ds, Ps & Ks are corresponding values of welt Fabric cover factor = Ki + Ke +KiKs Value of KiK: Fabric cover factor = Ky + Ke. very litle; so, itis ignored;Shear and Drape of Fabric. Shear strain: Shear strain is the deformation of the ‘material under a shear force which causes a change in angle experienced by the sides which were initially perpendicular to the direction of shear. Mathematically shear stra which is equal to 2iana. define as san We have to consider the definition of shear strain following the treatment given by Love and Joeger. Pare Shear Strain: This is defined as the deformation of a body by uniform extension in one side direction and contraction in a perpendicular direction, so that its area remains constant, For a solid material the thickness also remains constant Pure shear strain is described by the following figure: a E-4-- F <| >| le | le | <| | <| | HUy-- G D c PAP ‘Simple shear strain: In simple shear strain one pain of lines become parallel to their earlier lines. The actual displacement or shear, of the comers of the squares are a in the direction of ae, bf, cg and dw which are all, parallel to one another. ‘The shear strain is defined as fan6, which can be shown equal to 2sana. For small strains we can put: 0 tan =2a ‘Measurement of shear force: In practice itis virtual impossible to apply forces to a sheet in such a way that an ideal shear stress is produced ‘Treloar introduced a technique to measure shear behavior of fabric in 1995, 48 Working Principle: A square specimen is used in this sample method. This is shown in figure. The specimen is clamped along AB and DE and subjected to a vertical load W at Cand a horizontal forces F acting on DE, giving a shear angle 0. “The resultant of the forces W and F gives the force aeting on the lower clamp at C, which must be ‘opposed by an equal and opposite force from the fabric. But due to the asymmetry ofthe direction of force, the stress distribution isnot uniform. This asymmetry and consequent non uniformity of stress iti are tr cand win Higher the £ ration, higher will be the angle 0 ‘To remove the problem of uneven stress distribution Treloar suggested for the use of wider specimens in the experiment, which have the length width ratio 10:1 Hysteresis Curve of Fabric shear: Causick introduced a shear curve for a square specimen of side Which shows considerable hysteresis effect. Starting from the origin 0 the curve OA is followed by a reproducible hysteresis loop between the points B and D buckling of the material occurs Causick analyzed the following behaviors of this hysteresis curve- ‘= Initial shear modulus given by the slope A and C. = Shear modulus at ‘ero’ shear angle at slope A and c = The hysteresis of ‘zero’ shear angle, given by the length AC.* The buckling shear angle at Band D. With the increase of shearing couple shear stress increases at and at B the material buckles curve backs reverse but does not follow the previous way to reach D. this is the hysteresis effect, Effect of normal load on shear behavior: Normal load affects the shear behavior through ‘number of properties like wrinkling, frictional effect, elasticity etc. The effect of normal load depends on specimen size, ie., whether itis sequence or short wide. ‘Square specimen: Normal load has a big effect, con shear behavior of a square specimen of cotton fabri. ‘Treloar found that in square specimens, Wrinkling starts at the top left corner. Finally, it extends gradually over the whole surface. Short wide specimen: Normal load has @ little effect on the shear behavior of a short wide specimen In short wide specimen's wrinkles appear almost simultancously over the whole surface and its intensity increase gradually. Normal load also causes the friction to be a function of the stress and strain in the fabric. Drape Property: In broad sense, drape is the ability of a fabric to hang in graceful folds. By this feature a fabric of garment assumes a graceful appearance in use. It is the opposite characteristic of stiffness of fabric. Drape is the property of fabric which refer to the way in which it hangs down folds of a screen or ladies skirt are special types of drapes that gives them particular appearance. Drape is measured by drape co-efficient, Drape co-efficient is the ratio ofthe projected area of draped specimen to its undraped area of draped specimen to its undraped area, after deducting the area of supporting disk from them, Drape co-efficient is denoted by ‘D" and As ~ TRE ~ TR = TTR? Where, As =Actual projected area Ro = Radius of supporting disk R.=Radius of circular specimen, ‘Ap =Area of the specimen. ‘Ag Atea ofthe dise Generally, R:= 30 cm and Rs= 18 em. ‘The Drape meter: [Drape co-efficient can be measured by drape meter which is developed by fabric research laboratory of U.S.A.] Causick developed tl fon 49 In the drape meter a circular piece of fabric clamped between two smaller circular plates, so that its free edges drape down under its own weight. A circular specimen of about 10" diameter is supported on a circular dise of about $” diameter, Then the unsupported area of the fabric will drape over the edge as in figure below. If the fabric were totally stiff, no draping ‘occurred, and the projected area would be equal to the ‘occurred, and the fabric. But as the Fabric is limb so draping occurs and it assumes a folded appearance and the projected area will be something like figure below’ Bulb ‘Screen E> Table Fig Schematic diagram of drape meter Now there is a point source Bulb in drape meter ‘and under the bulb there is a screen. In the sereen the shadow of draped fabric is created. Fig The drape meter The projected outline of the draped specimen Fig The drape meter The eiular specimen 1s draped over the circular support Now the three area $ are measured and from the following formula drape-coefficients calculated Actual projected area— Area of supported dics ‘Area of fabric specimen — Area of supported dics As ~ TIRE p= 4s RE TLR} = TTR} Where, R = Radios of fabric specimen. Ry = Ratios of supporting disc.