142 ReF ul @ xX @ Copy of Forms of L studocu.com = Qstudocu Q é v Forms of labour in Colonial America 1© Indigencus oes | ndentored Labour + Stovery ‘he primary goal oF Bish exparsion and colonization in North America wos fo acquire land and resources fo produce exports to sell for prt on the ‘owing trans-Aloniic market, Profiabie production demanded sgricant lobour resources. The lta ond entiepreneuiol western Europeans who settled in the North America sought labourers to cutvate cash crops. mine for precious melols. tend Ivestock. provide domestic service. and workin verious artisanal trades. The labour sources they ew fom ol his demanct Included European indentured servants and convicts, tee and endowed indigenous people in the Americas. ond ersiaved icons puchosed trvough the ceveloping trane-allanlic sove Wrode, This meont thot eat Colonel labour forces in the America: were olen @ mi of Europeans ‘American indians, ona Alicans ‘Access 10 land was an importon! factor in seventeenth-centiny colonial Ameice, Land. Engish sells believed, wos the boil of ferly ond feconomic freedom. Owning land gave men control over ther own labour ‘ond, 1 most colonies, the right fo vote. The promize ofimmeciote access to lond ued free setlars ond "readom cues’ tha! Rekded land pervades potential immigrants to sign contracts as indentured servants. Land in ‘America oso became a way fr the king fo rewerd reltives ond ais. Each ‘colony wos launched with <@ huge grant of land trom the crown, either fo & company of to @ prvate individual knovin 2: « propfater. Some such grants, Faken eal, stretched ftom the Atlantic Ocean tothe Pacific. Lond was 0 souce of wealth and power for colonial officio ond their favourites, who ‘acqued enormous estates. However without Iobour land would Nove ttle ‘vlue. Since European emigrants ald not come to America intanaling to work the fond of others (except inthe case of indented servon's John Smith, one of the fist leaders of Jamestown said that the emigrants “prefered the prospect for gold rather than fr, They “woul rather stave than work.” However the colonists slowly realized that fer the colonies to survive it would have to abandon he search For old, row ts own fo0d. one {ind a marketable commodity. I would ako have to atract more sete. The spread of toboeco farming produced a dispersed soclely with few towns ‘andi soci unt The early Colonial American sociely was bated on primary forming. thing rrniime activites, ond © few smal Incisries. Even os late 0: 178 Amore \Was @ nation of irmers. As the Europeans strted sting in Noth America a {Semon for labour rose fer bulcing rood, homes. roway Hacks: culvate crops: mining, fering, domestic work etc. The colonists ted to quot ths {Semand for labour by adopting tee broad forms of labour eielly ~ Nave142 Rw ul @ xX @ Copy of Forms of L studocu.com = Qstudocu Q é v Copy of Forms of Labour - I.. 6 Q sptea¢ of tobscco farming produced @ aiperied sociely with Tew towns ‘nite social unity. The early Colorial American society was bated on primany farming. fishing maritime activities, ond o few smal incisries. Even os late os 1789 Americ \War a nation of formes. As the Europeans stated setting in North America o Geman fer labour arose for Building rood, homes, rolway tacks: cutivate Crops: mining, firing, domestic work ete. The colons Wed to quel ths ‘Geman for labour by adopting three broad forms of labour, chiefly - Native ‘Americans, indentuted wile servants ond Atican saves, The role of there ‘0URSin the growth ofthe colonial economy has been sgnicant Smobscale incustes that were set up by the colorss requited sled ond Sem:siiled workers. Depending on the avalabilty of natural resoutces, the Colonies eslablined gis induies, ick and fle yors, and potters Ki bog ores proved suitable for making castings and hallow ware. and rack oes fed funace and forge industes. & flourssing limber incosy supported relates activites such as snpbuiaing and the production of naval stores ont Dpolash. New Englands white pine provided masts. yords. ond spors forthe Royal Navy: the while oak ofthe Micile Colores supped volvable stock for tne cooperage industry, and other hard woods of tna area wore Used In The Cabinetmakers trade; in the South, yefOw pina was the principal source ot tor, pitch, and fuentine.Fehing and whaling requited substantial lets onl ‘nousand of sao, Indigenous ibe Land in Nosh Americ, of couse, wos akeady occupied. And the aval ot Enolh ster presented the native inhabitants of easter North America with the gteotes! crs nthe story, Unike the Spon, Erglih colons okt not Call thomsolves “conquerors” They wanted land. not dominion over the ceésing popultion. They were chiellyinteresledin displacing the Indians and setting on thel land, not intermarrying with them, organizng ther abou, oF ‘raking them suoject othe crown, ‘he Englth exchanged goods withthe native popuation, and Incians often lravalles trough colonic! seltioments. Fur agers on the frontiers of :eotlement sometimes moried Inion women, parly at 2 way of gaining ‘access to native societies ond the kin nefwerks exenial 19 economic relationships. Most Enalsh setters, however, remained bstinately separate142 Rw ul @ xX @ Copy of Forms of L studocu.com = Qstudocu Q é v Copy of Forms of Labour - I.. 6 Q {he Englth exchanged goods with the nave popUation, and Inclans often fravalled trrough coloric! settlements. Fur traders on the frontiers of settlement sometimes monled Indian women, parly at a way af gaining focce#t to native societies and the kin networks stantial 19 economic relationships. Most Englsh sees, however, remained obstinately separate {tom thet Indian neighbours. European nation justified colonization. in port with the exgument that they were bringing Chistanity—without which fe freedom was impossbieto Native Americans Many eastem Native Americars inialy welcomed the newcomers, or ot leat ther goods, which they appreciated for ls practical advantages. ems Ike woven cloth, metal Kelis on aes, feNhooks, hows. ond UNE wore ‘uch integrated into Native ie. Natives ako cislayed @ grect desta for ‘good! lke colour gloss beads and capper omoments that could be Incerporotedtinto hal religious ceremonies. [As Native Americans became more and more inlegted info the Atlantic ‘economy, subtle changes tosk place in ther way of life. Euopean metal {90005 changed thei forming, hunting. and cocking practices. Men devoted more time to hunting beavers for burgeoning fur toding. Older sks Goleioraied as the use of European products expanded. ond olcomol ‘become incroasingy common and ceuptve. Notves leainad to bargain effectively and to supply items that the Eulopeans dested, Later cbservers ‘woud describe ths lade as one in which indians exchanged valuable ‘commaitos ike furs end animal kins for warthlaes European tink, tis wary ‘he European economy profled more than it should have, ‘he colonised fo erslave malgenous tides, mony of them were Taken os slaves ater the tibes lost battles withthe Europeans, However the colorists ‘icky discovered thot the Incions. the Native Americans who had settied the continent centules before the Europeors, would not moke compiant Workers contned fo setiea aboces. ne allematves for labour power were to bbe found For @ variety of reasons, Aticans replaced American Indians as the main Population of enslaved people In the Americas. n some cases, warfare ont dsec:e eliminated the incigenous popuiations completely. In other coses such as in South Coron. Vigra. and New England, the need for ofances With Americon inion bes, coupled withthe avalebty of rsiaved Aficans ot oferdable prices, resuted in o sit away from American Indian saver. Mereover. indentured labourers rom Europe ond Aficans saves were sled fond better equipped, than the Indigencus tbes, forthe various labour requtements thot erase the colonias1:42 Aw eo Ele xX @ Copy of Forms of L- studocu.com = Qstudocu Q é v Copy of Forms of Labour - I.. 6 Q requeements mat crose he colons Incenlured Labour indentured servants fist anived in America in the decade folowing the settlement of Jamestown by tne Veginia Company in 1407. the idea of indentured senituce was born of a need for cheap labour The eodies!| Sette soon rectaed that they hod lots a and to ave fr, But no one fo care fori. Ae pasioge fee to the Colores war expentive for of but he weathy, tne Viginio Company devetoned the sistem of indentured servivde to Cotta workers. Indentured servants become vital fo the colonial economy. The Fiming of the Vignia colony was ideal. The Thity Year’ Wor hod left Europe's economy depressed, ond many skiled and unsiled labourers were ‘without work A new ife in the New Woda fered © gimmer of ope. Anost ‘one-hal 1o hwo-thkcs of the immigrants who came fo the American colonies nied os indentized servants European ster who went fo the colonieshad to pay for he own pastoge fee in order fo be considered free pessors once they reached America These setters would then quick acqure land and bul a ie for themsetves in tne new lands. Inthe seventeenth century, Nowever cimast Nwo-thids of Enolth setters came to Noh America os indenivied servon's, ndeniveed servants wore Mose who voluntely surendeted ther Yeedom fora spection time (ually Five to seven years in exchange for passage fo America, room, board, lodging and treedom dues. Ju ike slaves, hese servants could aso bbe bought and fold, ey could not mary without the permision of the fowner, wate suoject to physica’ punishment, and ther obligation to labour ‘was enforced by the cotrs. While the ie of on indentured servant wes hors fond testicive, il wosnt slavery. Unike slaves, these servants could took forward fo 6 release trom bondage once they had completed the term specified in their contacts. here were laws that pxolected some of the igh. But there wos not cn easy one, and the punishments meted out to people who wronged wore hasher than those for nonsewants, An indentured sevan's contact could be extended as punshment for breaking @ law, such a8 tunring oway. orin the case of female ervan's, becoming Pregnant Many historians crque that they were better off then those new Immigrants ‘who came feely to the county. Tel contact may have icluced atleast 25 ‘ocres of land, @ years worth of com, arms, 2 cow and new clothes, Some servants did re to become part of the colonial ete, but forthe mojoty of ft i ii a e Home My Library My University Books Al Questions142 Rw ul @ xX @ Copy of Forms of L studocu.com = Qstudocu Q é v Copy of Forms of Labour - I.. 6 Q pregnant Many Hsorans exgue that thay were better off than those new immigrants ‘who came freely to the country. Tei contact may have included at loast 25 ‘ocres of land, @ years worth of com, arms, 2 cow and new clothes, Some Servants did rise 10 became part of the colonial ete, but for he mojoty of Indentured servants that survived the treacherous joumey by see ond the horeh coneston® of fe in the New Wold, sostacton wes a modes le as 6 ‘roeman ina burgeoning colonial economy. ‘once the indentured servanls had completed thek tem os labourers they would feceNve a payment known as “reecom dues" ans become tee members of sociey. However, indentured servitude wes rot @ guaranteed route to economic autonomy, because of the high death rate many servants {da not lve il the endl of el tems. Freedom Ques were sometmer so measre that they did not endble recipients to acauke lone and other resources. Many of these servants offen found the reaity of fe in the Now ‘World les opseoing than hey had antcipales. Many employers, who ‘employed indentured servants, constantly complained of servants running ‘awry, not werking digenty or being UU. Convinced thal England wos overpopulated, the ish goverment encourages emigration 1o America of the unemplayad poor and vagrant lass and permitted seiled workers to go to the colonies. Gradual, wih Englands te to commercial and industicl pimacy by the end of the eventeent century, the officio! attitude chonges, culminating in the ‘enactment by Parioment in 1765 of @ law forbideing the emigration of skles workers. This was folowed in tum by statutes of 1774. 1781, ond 1782 forbidding the exportation of fetle machinery, plans, or madi. Taward the oor, the untainedt he vagrants, and the criminal clas the government fl no such inhibitions: they were encouraged fo immigrate fo the colores i someone, someshere, would foot the Blox he pastage, The Importation of sled atsons continued vitualy unabated throughout tne colonial yeas, Nor was the source confined to England. Swedes came to the Delaware, Walloons and Dutch to settle Neve AmHtersom. To Veginia came Poish workers for the naval sores incusty, French to culivate ‘vineyards. lalars to set up glaswors, and Dutch lo erect sawmill. Georgio rected talons for sik cule: emigrants rom the Germans shipped out large numbers to become farm workers ond ultimately owners. 1 labour in {ne burgeoning on industry. and to produce navel stores. i fx workers {éavsloped the linen industy in Now England as wel as on Mexylond’s Easton shore. The Scotch ish worked the far reaches of Pennsyvania ond the Shenandoah Vale. In the lower South, sizable forces of Greeks ond toians ‘Wore transported 1 Bish-contolled Eos! Rosia Atiacted by higher wages and the opperturiy to se tip an independent Dussness of t0 ocquo @ homestead, sles workers contiwved sreoming nto the colonies, down fo ihe moment of war wth Bain. In the postwar years,142 Rw ul @ xX @ Copy of Forms of L studocu.com = Qstudocu Q é v Copy of Forms of Labour - I.. 6 Q ‘Wore iransperted 1s Brish-contlled East Rs, [Attacted by higher wages and the opportunity 10 se ip an independent business of fo acquire @ homestead. sklled workers contived srecrring nfo the colonies, down to the moment of wex with Bilan In he porta years, ‘0s mmigration resumed, American agents scoured Engin fowns to peruode troines mechani to emigrate in large numbers. The transportation of convicts trom Bian provided anther source of bound labour in the colonies. Ths practice, taped up in the latter haf of the seventeenth century, wos speled out by a Poriomentary act in 1718 ‘euthowting seven-year terms of servitude for those convicted of lesser ctimes fond fourteen yeors for those gutty of offenses punihadle by death, An festimated 10,000 convicts were sant from O13 Baley clone between 1717 fend 1775, with double nat number entering the snala province of Maryland, ‘Other convicts were shipped to Vigiria ond the West Ins, With continyous expansion of colonies. the demand fr labour grew. $0 oi tne cost of indentured servants. Many landowners oko fet threatened by newly teed sexonls demand for land, The colonial elle realzed the Problems of indentured service, Landowners lumed fo Affican saves as @ more proftable ond everrenewable source of labour and the shi rom Indentured servants to racial slavery hod begun. Most of the indentured sevont.telumed home alter helt contacts exis slavery bh 1619 the fist black Aficans come to Vagina, With no slave laws h place: they were nitaly heated os indented servants. Tha sthey were eated oF ‘bound senanls ond were freed when ther tems expted and siven pretty much the same opportunites for feedom dues 0% the wile indeniited sewvon's. Sometime in the 16405. the practice began of seling imootled Blocks cs sorvants for Ife. In short, this form of da facto sovery preceded legolaed siavery, Slave laws were soon passed in Massachusets in 68 ond ‘Vagina io 1661 — and any smal freedoms that might have exited for blacks Dbolore, wore token away. In the 16805 and 16706 sotutes in Vagina anc Maryland gave slavery is formal dstngustng fectures, an heritable status (of service for fe, Soon resticons on save mobil, olong with o rh system of ciscipine, were wrtten into the "lack Coder’ of all ihe Southam colonies AnoUgh the pioctices of indentured senitude and the erslavernent of Native Americans was ateody in ploce. planters in the southem Brith colonies quicky came to favour ensoved Aticars, ‘he principle cash crop harvested by the South Cexalina save population in the eoty 18th cenlury was rice, @ crop which probably exgnated in1:43 Aw xX @ Copy of Forms of L--- < Qa : studocu.com = Qstudocu Q é v Copy of Forms of Labour - ith continvous expansion of colonies, the demands for labour grew, 40 ei the cost of indentvced servants. Many landowner bo fot tveatened by newly teed servants demand for land. The colonial ete recived the problems of indentured servitude. Landowners tuned to Affican saves as @ ‘mete profitable ond everrenewabie source ot labour and the si Kom indentured servants to racial slavery hod begun. Most of the indentured servonts,relumed home after theircontacts ested Siovery ln 1618 the fist black Aticans come to Vagina, With no lave laws h place: they were inlaly Reoted os ngented servants. Thats they were teated oF bound servanls and were freed when the terms expited and given pre!ty much the same opportunites for freedom dues os the white indentured servants. Sometime in tha. 1640s, the rackca began of zoling imported blocks os servants for Ife. In shot, this form of de facto dovery preceded legalzed siavery. Save laws were soon passed in Massachusetts in Wl an YYaginia 9 1661 ~ ard ony smal eedoms that might have exiled for blacks before, were taken away. In the 1605 and 1670s statutes in Viginia onc anand gave slavery is foumal dsingubhing features, an inhertable status ‘of service for fe, Soon rettictons on save mebilty, long with @ harsh system of dscioine, were wrtlen into the "Back Codes" of al the Souther Aiirough the practices of indenivred sewitude and the erslavement of Native Americans wos akeody in place. planters in the southern Brith colonies quicky came fo favour enslaved Aticars The prince cash crop harvested by the South Cexolina save population in the ‘ary 16th cenfury was rice, @ cfop which probably erghated in wy Document continues below Discover more from: BA History Hons — CBCS ® Lady Shri Ram College for... ft ii a e Home My Library My University Books Al Questions1:43 Rw ul @ xX @ Copy of Forms of L studocu.com = Qstudocu Q é v Copy of Forms of Labour - I.. 6 Q Madogateer and had been inodvced ino South Carona #1494, Once Fico was estabisned os he principle cash crop of South Coron, i brought Unprecedented wealth and prospeniy fo planters and the region. By 1850. South Caronion fee planter. Joshuc John Word, wet the largest American Slovehoider, with on estate that held 1.130 saves ond gave rim the tle, “ing ofthe Rico Planter It 'sno coincidence thot while plantesin the region string importing Aca slaves when ree culation was inreduced info the South a he fst Engin planters in South Corotne knew ie about ice cutivation. Not ony wore ‘Aficans wel suited to tropical climates they oso Exough! special sks ond husbondty knowledge for crops such rice, which the Bish found usu ‘he pater rood on the expertise of ther ican slaves imported rom the Rice Coast Fr instance, enslaved Aticans showed planters how to property dyke Ihe manthes. periodical lod the rice leks. and use swe! Grass ‘baskes fo ming the rice quicker than wooden pode. Thase innovations increased the efficiency and profobilty of culation. Ih later yes \waler- powered mils oe helped expend ice culation inthe South. Al this ‘evienty shows how impertant the fle of slaves was to the colonial economy of North Amores, os they were not lust @ form of cheap ‘exobilatve about During the later pat ofthe 17th century. the economic development of the [Chesapecke region revowved oround tobacco culvation required intensive labour. At fst, Chesapeake farmers hired indentured servants—men ond ‘women from England wo sod ther labour fora prio of five ta seven yes In exchange for passage to the American colonies—to harvest tobacco Crops. However, By the 1680s, Nyeluating tobacco prices and the growing scarcity af ind in the region mace the Chesapacke less appeaiing 1o men fond women wiling 10 indeniice themselves. The scarcity of indented servants meant that the price of their labour contacts increased, ond Chesapeake formers Segan to lock for alematve, cheaper sources of ‘bonded labour {As 0 28, many Chesapeake termes med toward imported Aican saves to fufl thei deste for cheap labour, although Afican chatte slavery was more expensive invesfment that white inentuxed servitude, t guaranteed & HHolime service of tee labour. As the demand lor Chesapeake cash crops Continued fo grow, plontes began fo increasing invest inthe Atlante stave trade, Stoves thot ved inthe Noth were often domestic servants fo smal formers fond tual Forwore. Unike in the South, northern ferme: wore not large ecole leterrses that focused! on producing a single cash crop: instead they were1:43 Rw ul @ xX @ Copy of Forms of L studocu.com = Qstudocu Q é v Copy of Forms of Labour - I.. 6 Q Sioves thot ved inthe Neth were otten domestic servons fo smal formes fond tural Korworts Unite in the South, northern forms were not large-scale lenterpries tna focused on producing a single cosh crop; instead they were Cotten smaler. more ogricuturaly dvestied entertses that required fewer loboures. Hence, the need for ensioved labour gradually dwinded ‘especialy 0510p sol depsation and the grow of indus in nex cities Ctracted many rl nexinemers to wage labour Even though sovey wos not a prevalent ‘nsttion in the North, the ‘commercial urban cenites that sprang up in these colonies meant that most rortnemers had a vested stoke in ensuing hat American sovery fourshedin the South. This patievlary te alter the advent ofthe cotton ain, which supped the Nodh with the surplus of raw colton necessary to produce finshed goods for export. Nerinem industry and commerce relied on routhem cash crop production; therefore, whle siavery wos ectively aboished inthe Noth, mest nodhemers were content to allow slavery to fouish in the southern states. Indeed. it wasn't unt lter arguments over the admision anc representation ot slates n the union and the treat of soulhem states overpoweing theit notthem counlerpars because of ther higher sove populations that many notherers began to oppose the expansion of soumem slovery. Savery ond the Affican save trade quietly become @ buiing block ofthe Colonial economy and an integral pat of expanding and developing the Btn commercial empire in the Atianc world The transpott of saves fo the American colores accelerated in the second half of the 7th century. In 1660, Charles crected the Royal Alcan ‘Company fo rade In saves and ican goods. Hs brother, James I led the company betore oscending the throne. Under Both these kgs, he Royal ‘Afican Compony enjoyed «monopoly to transport saves fo the Engish Colonies. Between 1672 and 1713. he company bought 125000 coptives on ‘ne Aticon coast osing 20% of them to death on the Male Passage, the Joumey fom the Atican coos to the Amaricas. Ih the North American colonies, the importation of Afican slaves was deectad manly southward, where exensive tobacco, ree, and later cotton plantation econonves, demanded extensive labour forces for eutvarion Soves everywhere resisted ther exploitation and attempted to gain freedom trough armed uprisings and rabeions. such as the Stono Rebelion and the New York Slave Ineumection of 1741. Othar ase volant means of rasktonce incluced sabotage. runring away. and sow icbeur paces en the plantations Unk their counterparts in the Carbbean, however, American soves never ft ii a e Home My Library My University Books Al Questions1:43 x Copy of Forms of Labour - Aw a Copy of Forms of L--- < Qa studocu.com © studocu Q é v Une their counterparts inthe Carlbbean, however, Ametican saves never succesuay overirew tne system of savery In the colonies ond would not {90h freacom unt legelatve decree made afte he Urea States Cit War, Slavery wos outlawed in the USA citer the American Ci Wor but the repercussone of th ervel form of labour ar sti fat by the cescencants of ‘he Atrican saves in form of racism and evigent economic cvide between the block and whe populations of Nosh America Richord Monts INDENTURED LABOUR (On August 5, 1774, just a month before the Fist Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia, the ship Needham landed in New York from Newry, England, Captain Wiliam Cunningham, master. The ship's cargo was white indentured servants. On caival they protested fo the authoilies thal they had been kidnapped in lreland and had suffered "bad usage” on the voyage across the Alantic. Whereupon the city fathers ordered them discharged. ‘The servants had gained their freedom, but Cunningham nused @ grudge, and later, as the notorious provost marshal of the Brlsh camy in America, he confined captured Patriots fo alrocious prison ships and jail. The incident of the Needham’s cargo dramatizes how the ectly American labor market was supplied. That society was based upon forming, fshing, maritime activities, Cond sprinkling of small industies. Even as late as 1789 America1:43 x Copy of Forms of Labour - a Copy of Forms of L--- studocu.com © studocu That society was based upon fering, fishing, maritime activities, and « sprinking of small industies. Even as late as 1789 America ‘was a nation of farmers. The fist census (1790) revealed that only 202,000 persons out of a population of 3,929.00 lived in towns of 2.500 or more persons. Recruitment of a labor force, then, was essential to satisfy the needs of farmers and to a lesser degree of the maritime trades, the furnace and workshop industries, and the highly skiled cratts, Utllzing few if any hired hands or servants, the small family form, quickly established itself in New England, « region favoring Indian corn since it could be cultivated by hand labor, but one where: diversified crops were also raised. In contrast to New England's subsistence farming, the area stretching between the Hudson and Potomac needed a somewhat larger labor force (much of it rectuited trom Europe} for its commercial farms, which specialized in the production of wheat and other cereals. In the South the planter soon tuned to raising a specialized crop for export-fobacco in Maryland and Virginia, rice and indigo in South, Carolina. The size of the plantations and the requrements for cultivating such crops necessitated a substantial labor force of both white bound labor and black slaves.1:43 x Copy of Forms of Labour - a Copy of Forms of L--- studocu.com © studocu Small-scale industry required sklled and semiskiled workers. Depending on the availabilty of natural resources, the colonies established glass industries, brick and tile yards, and potters’ kins: bog ofes proved suitable for making costings and hollow ware, and rock ores fed fumace and forge industries. A flourishing lumber industry supported related activities such as shipbuilding {and the production of naval stores and potash, New England's white pine provided masts. yards, and spars for the Royal Navy: the white oak of the Middle Colonies supplied valuable stock for the cooperage industry. and other hard woods of that area were Used in the Cabinetmakers trade: in the South. yellow pine was the principal source of tar, pitch, and turpentine. Fishing end whaling required substantial fleets and thousands of sailos. The colonists quickly discovered that the Indians, the native ‘Americans who had seitled the continent centuries before the Europeans, would not moke compliont workers confined to settled abodes. The alternatives for labor power were fo be found in the British Isles, the European continent, and along the west coast of Atfica. Convinced that England wos overpopulated, the government encouraged the emiaration to America of the1:43 x Cop’ a Copy of Forms of L--- studocu.com © studocu y of Forms of Labour - British Isles, the European continent, and along the west coast of Alfica. Convinced that England wos overpopulated, the government encouraged the emigration to America of the unemployed poor and vagrant class and permitted skiled workers 10 go to the colonies. Gradually, with England's rise to commercial {and industrial primacy by the end of the seventeenth century, the official attitude changed, culminating In the enactment by Patliament in 1765 of a law forbidding the emigration of skied workers. This was followed in tum by statutes of 1774, 1781, and 1782 forbidding the exportation of textile machinery, plans, or models. Toward the poor, the untrained, the vagrants, and the cefiminal class the government felt no such inhibitions; they were ‘encouraged to immigrate to the colonies if someone, somewhere, would foot the bil for he passage. Official obstructions notwithstanding, the Importation of sklled artisans continued virtually unabated throughout the colonial years, Nor was the source confined to England, Swedes came to the Delaware, Walloons and Duich fo settle New Amsterdam. To Virginia came Polish workers for he naval stores indusity, French to cultivate vineyards, Htalians fo set up glassworks, and Dutch to erect sawmil Regardless of the lures offered to working men and women to emigrate to the New World, free labor remained in short supply throughout the colonial petiod. As a consequence, the Engish settlers innovated several forms of bound labor for white Europeans and adopted a long-established coercive labor system for black Alticans. One form of bound labor, indentured servitude, included al persons bound to labor for petiods of years as1:43 Re xX @ Copy of Forms of L--- < Qa : studocu.com = Qstudocu Q é v Copy of Forms of Labour - included al persons bound to labor for periods of years as determined either by a written agreement or by the custom of the respective colony. The buk of indentured servants comprised contract labor. White immigrants, called redemptioners or “jreewillers.” in return for their passage to America bound themselves as servants for varying periods, four yeors being the average length of service. This cmounted to a system for underwriting the transportation of prospective emigrants. Recruiting agents called "Crimps" in England and 'Newianders' on the continent were employed by these merchants, They hired drummers 10 go through inland towns in England or along the war-devastated Rhineland creas crying the voyage to Ametica: with the help of @ piper to draw crowds, they distibuted promotional iterature at fairs, (On the positive side, it should be scid that the redemptioner system provided the bulk of the white labor force in the colonies. (On the negative side, it must be acknowledges that it was riddled ‘with fraudulent practices and that prospective servants were lured to detention houses to be held for shipment overseas through coercive procedures which often gave tise to charges of kidnapping. The redemptioners were packed lke hering in unsanitary ships; the mortality rate could run in excess of fity percent for a typical voyage. The survivots, setved inadequate rations, generally arrived in a seriously weakened condition. Once, shore, families might be broken up. Husbands and wives could be sold to diferent masters, and parents not infrequently were forced fo sell their children. The latter could be bound out for longer terms of service than adulls, even though they were shipped at half fare. Gis, ostensibly bound out for trades or housework, were at times exploited for immoral purposes. The transportation of convicts provided another source of bound labor in the colonies. This practice. stepped up in the latter half of the seventeenth century. was spelled out by a Parliamentary act in 1718 authoring seven-year terms of servitude for those convicted of lesser crimes and fourteen years for those guilty of offenses punishable by death Benjamin Frankin charged that the Biiish practice of "emptying1:43 x Copy of Forms of Labour - a Copy of Forms of L--- studocu.com © studocu The transportation of convicts provided another source of bound labor in the colonies. This practice, stepped up in the latter hall of, the seventeenth century, was spelled out by a Parliamentary act in 1718 authoring seven-year terms of servitude for those convicted of lesser crimes and fourteen years for those guily of offenses punishable by death Benjamin Frankin charged that the Briish practice of "emptying their jas into our settlements is, an insult and contempt. the Cruellest. that ever one people offered to another: The white bound laborer dwelt in that shadowland that exists between freedom and slavery. Mobility, freedom of occupational choice, and certain personal liberties were curbed for the tem of the indenture. the master had a property interest in the laborer, and except in the case of an apprentice, could sell or reassign him or her for the remainder of the term, SLAVERY For black Afficans a very special system of bound labor evolved. Slavery, it must be remembered, wos not invented in the English colonies. For nearly two centuries before the settlement of Virginio, trade in slaves had been carried on along the West Aifican coast. As the English empire expanded to the New World, slave traders grabbed at the chance to make huge profs from this sordid business. Slave traffic became an integral part of a pattem of commerce, known as the “hiangular trade,” which operated between New England, Alica, and the West Indies or the Southern colonies. New England rum, guns, gunpowder, Utensis, textes, ond food were bartered for slaves provided by West Affican chiefs. The human carao was packed aboard shio.1:43 Re xX @ Copy of Forms of L--- < Qa : studocu.com = Qstudocu Q é v Copy of Forms of Labour - chained together by twos, with hardly any room to stand, le, oF sit down. During voyages that sometimes lasted as long as fourteen weeks, epidemics took an olarming death tol, When the first blacks came fo Virginia in 1619, they were heated {a5 bound servants and were treed when their terms expired. inal thee were probably not more than ai few hundred such cases. Sometime in the 1640s, the practice began of seling imported blacks as servants for life. In short, this form of de facto slavery preceded legalized slavery. n the 1660s and 1670s statutes in Virginia and Maryland gave slavery its formal distinguishing features, an inheritable status of servitude for lfe. Soon restictions on slave mobility, along with a harsh system of discipline, were written into the "Black Codes’ of all the Souther colonies. For the South, this decision to deny blacks the satus of white servants was lorgely grounded in prejudice bosed on racial difference. Those who justified slavery on the ground that growers of such plantation crops as tobacco, rice, and indigo needed a stable supply of labor ignored the fact that the need could have been supplied equally well by a system of bound servitude. Once established, the "peculiar institution,” as slavery came to be called, became self perpetuating. it was an economic system, a system of human relations, and a system of power. Southemers came to regard slavery as essential to their culture, poitical influence, and economic well-being, By 175 the stepped-up slave trade, clong with a natural increase: of population, had brought the total number of blacks in America to half a million. More than three- fifths ved in Virginia and the Carolinas. In South Carolina slaves comprised the majority of the population. Some colonies imposed prohibitive restrictions on the slave trade, not from humanitarian considerations but out of fear1:43 x Copy of Forms of Labour - a Copy of Forms of L--- studocu.com © studocu By 1775 the stepped-up slave trade, along with @ natural increase: of population, had brought the total number of blacks in America to half a millon. More than thres- fifths ved in Virginia and the Carolinas. In South Carolina slaves comprised the majority of the Population. Some colonies imposed prohibitive restrictions on the slave trade, not from humanitarian considerations but out of fear of a huge, unmanageable black population, « fear kept alive by occasional not more than a few hundred such coses. Sometime in the 1640s, the practice began, of seling imported blacks as servants for ite. In shor, this form of de facto slavery preceded legalized siavery. In the 1660s and 1670s statutes in Virginia and Maryland gave slavery is formal distinguishing features, an inheritable status of servitude for ite. Soon restrictions on slave mobility, along with a harsh system of discipiine, were written into the "Black Codes" of all the Southern. colonies. Bound laborers, white or black, received no wages. However, at the end of their term, white servants were given freedom dues, which could include clothing, a gun, and a hoe. Slaves were often allowed their own garden patches and in some cases received Incentive payments for exceptional work. FREE LABOURERS Free laborers operated under a system of wage payments as tocinw In _adiitian to money wnnies the Amninvment cantinet1:43 xX @ Copy of Forms of L--- studocu.com = Qstudocu Copy of Forms of Labour - alowed their own garden patches and in some cases received Incentive payments for exceptional work. FREE LABOURERS Free laborers operated under a system of wage payments as ody. In addition to money wages. the employment contract often included food and rum, parficulatly in out-of-doors trades. ‘An cllemative towage payments was a piece-wage system. Piecework was more effective among sklled workers such as compenters, coopers, sawyers, smiths, tanners, shoe makers hatters, sail makers, and weavers. Wage eamers contracted for employment seasonally or annually, as in domestic service and farming: artisans were usually hired by the day or month. Collectively, these workers were called mechanics. a catchall term covering any one who worked with his hands The labor scarcity was intensified by the lute of available land. The paradox of the high wage scale was noted by the author of American Husbandry, on eighteenth. century book on form methods. "Nothing but a high price wil induce men to labor at al" he asserted, "ond at the same time it presently puts a conclusion toil by 50 soon enabling them to fake a plece of waste land.” Unlke the modem Fair Labor Standards Act, which minimum wages for labor, the colonies put a celing on wages and set a floor on hours of employment. Such regulations were initiated in Virginia and England. While the experiments in Virginia in the 1620s were soon discontinued, the Massachusetts General Court, which almost from the beginning set maximum wages, tuned wage Feguiation over fo the town in 1636, The Cour!, never explicily abdicating its authority in this field, lamented in 1670 "ihe excessive deamoss of labor by attificers, jaborers, and servants, contrary fo reason and equity, fo the great prejudice of many householders and their fomiles, and tending to their utter ruin and, undoing.” Neither laws nor church discipline could keep wages down, and1:43 xX @ Copy of Forms of L--- studocu.com = Qstudocu Copy of Forms of Labour - householders and their fomiles, and tending fo their viter ruin and, undoing” Neither laws nor church discipline could keep wages down, and wage and price fixing on a broad basis gradually disintegrated in the colonies in the eighteenth century. To have been effective, such controls would have had to be intercolonial in scope; otherwise, workers and products would move to the dearer matkel By the eve of the American Revolution only the monopolistic frades-those trades which operated uncer a license-remained to be regulated, Authorities continued to set the fees or wages for ministers. schoolteachers., chimneysweeps, porters, and such established the rates innkeepers could charge, and fixed the weight of a loaf of bread. The Americon Revolution diverted labor from seeking economic ends to securing more immediate pollical gains. In such a program workers were often allied with their employers. There was no clear employer worker conflict evident either in the Revolution’s preliminaries or during ils long and intense course. While a substantial portion of the laboring class supported the Patriot cause, many workers were Loyalists. To understand why there were alvisions even among working people, in what proved to be both @ civil war and an anticolonicl war for independence, one must recognize that there is no simple economic explanation for the American Revolution. It was not an uprising of the proletariat against @ privieged class. Excluding half c milion black slaves, there was not a significant segment of the population that could be considered either hopelessly deprived or condemned to poverty. On the other band, business conditions were not highiy favorable. The close of the Seven Years’ War brought on a depression, culminating in unemployment and an inctease in welfare payments. Commercial boycotts, iiliated after the Stamp Act in 1765, the Townsend Act of 1767, and by the fist Continental ft ii a e Home My Library My University Books Al Questions1:44. xX @ Copy of Forms of L--- studocu.com = Qstudocu Copy of Forms of Labour - Congress in 1774, hit the shipping and importing trades hard. The Closing of the port of Boston in 1774 created acute economic distress Since employer and worker had @ common political bond which temporarily transcended economic antagonisms, strikes were Infrequent during the Revolution, However, economic grievances could trigger protests. This was perhaps best illustrated by the circumstances surrounding the Boston Massacte. Tension was Gieady high as @ result of a series of running fights between workers in the Boston ropewalks and aritsh privates quartered in Boston. These intoriopers, who accepted low wages for spare-time employment, were bitterly resented. sam Gray, who had engaged in a istfight with aritsh privates at a ropewalk, was one of those fatally shot in the so-called "massacre" of March 8, 1770. ROLE Laboring people played a significant role in the support of Revolutionary wage and price controls. Quarter sessions courts in the respective states occasionally enforced these controls, but mere often it was up to the people, organized through committees of corespondence, safely, inspection, oF special town committees. These quasi-official popular groups might at times mete out rather severe punishments, such as expuliion from Patio! lines, whipping, o fines. However, they rarely used these tactics; instead, they relied upon the effectiveness of publicity They would post in conspicuous places or publish in the newspapers the names of persons found guily of breaches of the wage ond price schedules.1:44. xX @ Copy of Forms of L--- studocu.com = Qstudocu Copy of Forms of Labour - newspapers the names of persons found guilty of breaches of the wage and price schedules, Neither the Brtish nor the Patriots effectively mobilized the available labor force for civilian as well as military tasks during the ‘American Revolution. in fact, the impressment of property, particulary of supplies, provisions, and transportation facies, was resorted to far more frequently than the impressment of labor. the Continental authorities trod gingerly so far as consetipting labor was concemed, preferring to rely upon the voluntary entsiment of mechanics and laborers in ariicers companies. In Virginia the Slate Council refused to endorse Governor Thomas Jefferson's request that tailors and shoemakers be ordered fo make shoes for soldiers. They justified their action by contending that they had. “not by the Laws of this State any power to cal a freeman to labor even for the public without his consent, nor a Slave without that of his Master. Although the American Revolution was not fought for the explicit purpose of improving the lot of workers, labor was indeed a principal beneficiary of that contest. The war offered the free “white male a fabulous opportunity for upward social mobilty. Fist, he had a chance to pick up confiscated Tory lands. while those in urban areas went more immediately to Whig speculators, @ good part of the rural estates of Toles was divided up according fo laws recognizing tenant preemption rights. Second, there were the vast new lands wrested at the peace fable, which provided veterans it the Revolution with on oppertunily to secure homesteads. The new towns formed in the 1780s and 1790s were typicaly pioneered by war veterans and their families Labor resorted Increasingly to concerted action. Master mechanics formed combinations of their own to deal with stiking ft ii a e Home My Library My University Books Al Questions1:44. xX @ Copy of Forms of L- studocu.com = Qstudocu Copy of Forms of Labour - I.. 6 Q journeymen in order to secure political backing for business, especially for manufactures, and for broad philanthropic and educational ends. True, no permanent trade union can legitimately trace its founding to the years before 1787. Nonetholess. the frequency of incidents of concerted action taken by labor in the post-Revolutionary period was within a few years to be insitutionaized in a permanent trade-union movement. ‘SHARON SALINGER Jemegan framed his question within the context of contemporary American Social is, racing their origins to the legacy of dovery. servtude, and the ight of me poor. He answered the question about the Bonet of indentured la20r inthe otfkmatve, but with quolfied enthusiasm. He aigued that as the umber of unemployed creased cramaticaly f Englond), the colonies became an appropriate “dumping crounck" However, both sides gained from ths population. As European societies rd themselves of thet surplus populations, he laborshor colonies welcomed the aa tanl workers Jemegan distinguished three classes of indentured servant, two of which Contracted their Icbor voluntaty. indentured servants negotiated with on {agent or shipmaster before embarking on the joumey, and were sold inthe Colories fo the highest bidder. Redemptioners or “tee- wiles" ao entered into servitude voluntaly, but eather than sign con: tracts before embarkation ship coplains agreed to transport them to the colores and fo allow them & Period of time after they onived. vival fourteen days, tofingsomeone who ‘would redeem the cost of ther pas- sage. The final servant closs were those ‘who entered involuntaiy felons ond vagrants ‘Most importantly. indentured senvtuce sup- pled the labor necessary tothe evelopment of the colons. ond the abilly ofa servant fo attain freedom enabled him to become “a fee cilzen and ovmer of @ small estate: Limately. Jemegan beleved thot indentured servants contibuted enormously not only to what he described os @ "Yeoman class, a much needed democratic element in the southern colonies” but to the population144 Re eo Ele xX @ Copy of Forms of L- studocu.com = Qstudocu Q é v Copy of Forms of Labour - I.. 6 Q that moved fo the westem Frontier and secured lands. While Jemegan admits tna! few rose o prominence, nelther were they overwhelmingly poor [Abbo! Emerson Smith and Richard 8. Mots, who wrote after Jer megan puolshed ther seminal works ot clmost the some moment. Smith wos Concemed with the effect of servitude on the inevidualsinvaived and he ‘argued that econemic conditions in the homelands propelled peonle into servitude in the hope of bettering thei Eves. For Smith, the single most Important factor thal encouraged Ine latge emigration fo the colonies was ine profit fo be made by shipping servants Enalsh merchants cout fil het sips with a cargo of servants and sell them above the price of rorspottaion, And colonial planters profited because only win addtional labor could they expect fo Yee trom mere sub-sslence to prosperty.~ Monts was careful fo aiferen: tate the apprentice, “who was bound for insiruction ina trade. ror indentured servants, who were bound Tor periods ff years as deter mined by agreement or by law, both minors and adults, ond inaions and Nogroes as wel os wiles.” Mons was ical ofthe inttution fond claimed that the controct negotiations were rife with froudulent practices. Servants were misiteated ond! sullered greatly duing the Atlantic pasage, and redemptoners ran the fuk ef having family mem bers Separated elther because thelr Indeniures were purchased by ferent master or because parents ware competed fo bind out ther children. Monts 100 pointed to a sees of colonia statvies passed to mute the negative side lof the redemptioner system Russell Menard argues, the system worked well rougnout the seventeenth Century for mestersit supped them with @ cheas form of ober. Homever. for Servants, the resuls were more mixed. Fo the individuals who exived before. 1442 and survived “the figos of servitude,” the opportunites for advance- ment were abundant both in terms of landholding and olficehokding, The {good times come fo an end, however, after 1660, when the prot pecle for ‘advancement declines sharply. lyn appecrs to fnd contr indicators tothe fore- going conclusions. His evidence can be read to suggest thet oppor: itis for servants may have been betterioterratner han earter For convicts, Eurch confrms thal any aecu- mulation of wealth wos extremely Unfeely, The few who were able fo achieve « modest success either Bought