16 (2022) 100249

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Thermofluids

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/international-journal-of-thermofluids

Potential applications of thermoelectric generators (TEGs) in various waste

heat recovery systems
A.G. Olabi a, b, Mohammed Al-Murisi a, Hussein M. Maghrabie c, Bashria AA Yousef a,
Enas Taha Sayed d, e, Abdul Hai Alami a, Mohammad Ali Abdelkareem a, e, *
a
Sustainable Energy and Power Systems Research Centre, RISE, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
b
Mechanical Engineering and Design, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Aston University, Aston Triangle, Birmingham B4 7ET, UK
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, South Valley University, Qena 83521, Egypt
d
Center for Advanced Materials Research, University of Sharjah, PO Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
e
Faculty of Engineering, Minia University, Elminia, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Nowadays the World faces critical issues, such as increasing population, power costs, and global warming. In this
Waste heat recovery respect, scientists are trying to improve the efficiency of the energy harvesting. The enhancement of power
Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) generation sectors is focused on the waste heat recovery systems based on thermoelectric generators (TEGs) that
Materials
have demonstrated the capacity to transfer thermal energy directly into electric energy via the Seebeck effect.
Performance analysis
Power density
TEG uses the available waste heat sources in different applications to produce power, thus it considered as an
eco-friendly power source. In the present study, the integration of thermoelectric systems with other technologies
for green power production is introduced. This work introduces a background about the common materials used
in the fabrication of the TEG devices. Furthermore, the application of the TEG to harvest waste heat from
different sources, i.e., fuel cells, heat exchangers, photovoltaics, internal combustion engine, electric vehicles,
and hybrid waste heat recovery systems have been summarized. The characteristics of thermoelectric generators
are discussed, considering the different operating and design parameters. Finally, the barriers and challenges
facing the applications of the thermoelectric generators for waste heat recovery are also discussed.

Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) are one of the promising tech­

1. Introduction
The exponential growth in the consumption of fossil fuels resulted in
significantly climate change and associated health problems [1,2].
TDifferent methods have been used for controlling climate change
through minimizing or eliminating the usage of fossil fuels. These
methods include: (1) improving the efficiency of the current processes
through waste heat recovery [3–5] that can be applied in different
sectors such as cement industry [6], aluminum industry [7], desalina­
tion sector, ceramic industry[8,9], vehicles, and others [10–12]; (2)
developing new efficient energy conversion devices with low or no
emissions such as fuel cells [13]; and (3) development of renewable
energy sources at reasonable prices such as solar thermal [14,15], solar
PV [16,17], wind [18,19], biomass [20,21], hydro [22,23], and
geothermal energies [24,25]. Proper selection of waste heat recovery
could play a significant role in decreasing energy consumption and thus
decreasing climate change.
nologies used to reduce gas emissions and thus controlling global
warming problems. TEGs are based on the Seebeck effect via direct
environmentally friendly conversion from thermal energy into electrical
energy. TEGs have several advantages besides the absence of environ­
mental impacts, lacking moving parts, no circulation fluids or chemical
products, flexible in size and shape, and can sustain for a long lifetime.
TEGs are made of many thermopiles and each one of the thermopiles
contains several thermocouples that are connected in parallel thermally
and in series electrically as illustrated in Fig. 1 [26].
The heat flow direction in TEGs depends on thermocouples’ ar­
rangements on the substrate. If the thermocouples are arranged verti­
cally between the heat source and sink, the heat will flow vertically.
However, if the thermocouples are arranged laterally by printing or
depositing them on the substrate surface, then the heat will flow in a
lateral direction. Another arrangement is combining the lateral and
vertical approaches. In this configuration the thermocouples will be also
arranged laterally on the substrate surface, however, the heat flow will

* Corresponding authors at: Sustainable Energy and Power Systems Research Centre, RISE, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
E-mail address: mabdulkareem@sharjah.ac.ae (M.A. Abdelkareem).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijft.2022.100249

Available online 10 November 2022

2666-2027/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A.G. Olabi et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 16 (2022) 100249

(CMOS-MEMS) is used to produce small-scale TEGs. The commonly used

List of abbreviations materials in this method are Silicon, Germanium, Bismuth, and Anti­
mony [29]. Ceramics-based technology is another technology that is
TEG thermoelectric generators used to produce high-density multilayered TEGs. Thermocouples in this
PV photovoltaics method can be fabricated via thin, thick, or mixed thin and thick
WHR waste heat recovery deposition [30]. Polymers technology is used to manufacture flexible
PEMFC proton exchange membrane fuel cell TEGs. The most appropriate material for these kinds of technologies are
ORFC organic Rankine flash cycle polyimide, cellulose fibers-based [31], and Fabric [32]. The material
COP coefficient of performance used to fabricate TEGs should be characterized by high output voltage,
CHP combined heat and power high electrical power, and low internal resistance, in order to obtain
APU auxiliary unit power high electrical performance. The application of TEGs covered large
HEVs hybrid electric vehicles sectors that including electronic devices, automobile engines, medical
NF nanofluid devices, and aerospace. Each application requires a certain size and
PCM phase change materials supplying power of TEGs. Accordingly, TEGs, are classified as bulk or
NPs nanoparticles micro-TEGs. The bulk category are used for industrial applications, and
HE heat exchanger it can supply up to hundreds of watts under a high heat range. The
PCHEs printed circuit heat exchangers micro-TEGs category used for low waste heat and generates up to few
DORC dual-loop organic Rankine cycle mW. Table 1 summarizes the merits and demerits of the different TEG
BC brayton cycle fabrication materials:
GEO geothermal
3. Applications of TEGs in various waste heat recovery
applications

be in the vertical direction with the aid of small cavities on the surface of
the substrate. Different thermocouple arrangements along with the heat
flow direction are shown in Fig. 2.
There are few studies about the application of the TEGs in waste heat
recovery from different applications. This work summarizes the recent
heat recovery methodologies and their application in daily life systems
based on TEGs. The review is composed of five sections including an
introduction. The second section deals with the fabrication and mate­
rials of thermoelectric generators. The review goes beyond that by dis­
cussing various applications of TEGs waste heat recovery in fuel cells,
heat exchangers, photovoltaics, internal combustion engine, electric
vehicles, and hybrid waste heat recovery systems, etc. In addition, the
fourth section presents the barriers and challenges of TEGs in waste heat
recovery (WHR), while the fifth section is concerned about the discus­
sions and conclusions.
2. Common materials used in the fabrication of the
thermoelectric generators (TEGs)
Different materials and technologies are used to produce different
designs of TEGs. Silicon technology based on Complementary Metal
Oxide Semiconductor – Integrated Circuits (CMOS-IC) or Complemen­
tary Metal Oxide Semiconductor–Micro Electromechanical Systems
3.1. Waste heat recovery from fuel cells
Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that produce clean electricity
and water as a byproduct [45,46]. They offer clean energy by the mean
of simple electrochemical reaction (transfer of electrons and protons)
[47], no moving parts, and high efficiency (45% − 65%) [48]. However,
they generate a significant amount of heat while producing electricity
and this amount of heat should be removed to avoid overheating [49].
Therefore, the addition of thermoelectric generators (TEG) will help to
minimize overheating inside the fuel cell system while enhancing the
overall efficiency.
Musharavati and Khanmohammadi [50] performed an analysis for
waste heat recovery (WHR) for fuel cells using a thermoelectric gener­
ator (TEG). In their study, a proton exchange membrane fuel cell
(PEMFC) and geothermal energy are integrated along with a TEG sys­
tem. The performance analysis revealed an output power of 3881 W
which is 4 times higher than the conventional compined heat and power
(CHP) system. Furthermore, the study revealed 18.56% and 40% of
energy and exergy, respectively, with a cost of 0.27 $/GJ. Furthermore,
Khanmohammadi et al. [51] performed a thermodynamic analysis of a
combined system consisting of a geothermal, PEMFC, and organic
Rankine flash cycle (ORFC). The authors added two thermoelectric
generators (TEGs) between each cooling tower and condenser. The

Fig. 1. Thermoelectric generator: (a) basic principle and (b) electrical circuit [26], open access.

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A.G. Olabi et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 16 (2022) 100249

Fig. 2. Different thermoelectric generator arrangements and heat flow direction; (a) Vertical/ Vertical, (b) Lateral/Lateral, and (c) Lateral/ Vertical [27,28],
open access.

Table 1
Advantages and disadvantages of different TEG construction materials.
Type of material Advantages Disadvantages Refs.

Ceramics High temperature tolerance, strong thermoelectric performance, and Heavy weight and zero ductility [33,34]
environmentally friendly
Bismuth and Telluride It shows good strength and ductility if Bi2Te3 processing by plastic deformation. poor productivity of n-type (Bi2Te3)-based materials,
(Bi2Te3) Material failure at high temperature operation
Lead telluride (PbTe) High melting point, good chemical stability, and highest thermoelectric Fig. of Limited durability causing fracturing and failure contact [35–38]
merit zT around 2.0 between the metal bridge and the TEG material.
Phonon-glass electron- They have low thermal conductivity, and they show a good electronic small Fig. of merit (zT) owing to the reduction of the [39–41]
crystal (PGEC) characteristic owing to their complex intermetallic cage structure lattice thermal conductivity
Metal chalcogenide Ability to process them at various type structure and they showed the highest Poor thermal conductivity [42]
Fig. of merit (zT) of 1.4 to 1.9 with selenide (PbSe) at 800–900 k, respectively
Organic materials Low production cost, light weight, and flexibility making them ideal candidate for Suffer from low performance owing to their low [43,44]
small scale applications electrical conductivity

Fig. 3. First and second law thermodynamic efficiencies of the conventional system vs the proposed system containing TEG at different working fluid [51],
reproduced with permission No. 5418331232215.
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A.G. Olabi et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 16 (2022) 100249

Table 2
Summary of accomplished studies for waste heat recovery using TEG in fuel cells.
Ref. Type of system Type of study Objectives Main findings

[50] PEMFC-TEG Mathematical Study of economic, thermodynamic, and • The energy analysis revealed a higher power generation
simulation environmental analysis. Also, the system with CHP mainly due to the fuel cell.
system was compared. • In terms of exergy destruction, the PEMFC, regenerator, and
vapor generator was around 88%.
• A 18.56% and 40% of energy and exergy, respectively, with a
cost of 0.27 $/GJ.
[51] GEO-PEMFC-TEG Mathematical Perform and economic and thermodynamic analysis • R123 is the best working fluid with an enhancement of 1% in
simulation for a hybrid system consisting of a geothermal, fuel efficiency due to TEG.
cell, and thermoelectric generator • The output power from the proposed TEG 1 and TEG2 was
13.92 kW and 37.26 kW, respectively.
[52] PEMFC-TEG Mathematical model Creating a dynamic cooling method to enhance the • At swirl flow conditions the power was found to be 3056 Miro
assisted by a swirl flow heat transfer in a PMFC-TEG system W which is 15 times higher than that of non-swirl flow.
• Power increased by 8–17 factor in case of stationary and by 2 in
case of 10 ms-1 speed.
[53] PEMFC-TEG Mathematical model Utilizing waste heat from a 1 kW fuel cell using a • 1.1 enhancement in the energy efficiency under ambient and
thermoelectric cooler reference temperatures 10 ◦ C and 50 ◦ C, respectively.
• Operating at an air flow of 0.02 kg/s revealed the best energy
efficiency.
• A 1.5 kg/h water was produced at an RH of 75%.
[54] PEMFC-TEG-MH Mathematical model hybrid system for utilizing waste heat from a 1 kW • A 3.2 ◦ C maximum temperature difference was attained
PEMFC consisting of TEG and 5 m3 metal hydride between the two end sides hot and cold.
(MH) • Heat loss was directly proportional to the operational load
which reflects on the TEG performance.
[54] FC-TEG Experimental and heat utilization from a 2-kW fuel cell vehicle • A better waste heat recovery on the series configuration at a
numerically integrating TEG and a finned heat sink lower speed; however, at a higher speed (100 km/h) the
parallel configuration achieved a power 1.5 times than that of
the series.
[56] PEMFC-TEG Experimental and Utilization of very low waste heat temperature from a • The maximum power output of 0.218 W and a voltage of
numerically two kW PEMFC 0.0257 V at forced convective using an integrated cooling fan.
• Series orientation achieved a double power output than that of
parallel orientation.
• The maximum power output is highly dependent on the heat
load therefore an optimization for the number of TEG should
be performed for better efficiency.
[57] PEMFC-TEG Experimental and Validation of a model of utilizing heat from a 1 kW • The maximum power was 113.96.
numerically PEMFC using TEG • The maximum temperature difference was 3.3 ◦ C.
• The output voltage was 33.5 mV.
[58] PEMFC-TEG Mathematical model Perform an analysis of hybrid water-cooled PEMFC • A significant enhancement in the maximum power.
with a TEG as an intermediate cooling system
[59] GEO-SOFC-PEMFC- Mathematical model Multistage system for hydrogen production, cooling, • An enhancement in the exergy and energy. efficiencies were
TEG and heating 2.49% and 14.4%, respectively.
[60] SOFC-TEG Mathematical model Recovering waste heat from a solid oxide fuel cell • Increasing the cooling water flow rate did not show any
operating at 800 C enhancement to the TEG performance.
• A 16% increase in the efficiency of the TEG was observed by
increasing the mass flow rate of the exhaust gasses.
[61] PEMFC-TEG with a Mathematical model Energy, exergy, and economic analysis for WHR. • The maximum power output of 2.28 MW; however, SGSP-ORC
solar pond system produced 955.25 kW.
• Energy and exergy efficiencies were found to be 11.36% and
13.17%, respectively with a 394 $/h cost rate.
[62] SOFC-Double TEG Mathematical model Two stages of thermoelectric generate utilize heat • The effect of thermoelectric elements in the bottom stage
system from solid oxide fuel cells by studying the effect of revealed that the maximum power increases with increasing
multiple parameters the n number of the THG.
• The effect of increasing the operating temperature revealed an
enhancement in the maximum power and the total efficiency;
however, operating at high temperatures will cause
thermodynamic losses as well as high costs.
• A proportional dependence of the pressure with power density
was observed.
[63] PEMFC-TEG Mathematical model 100 kW bus PEMFC was modeled for waste heat • Good generation performance was maintained when the
recovery using TEG operating temperature was below 500 K.
[64] PAFC-TEG-AC Mathematical model Utilizing waste heat from a phosphoric acid fuel cell • An 11% enhancement in the power output of the hybrid system
using TEG and absorption chiller system was noticed compared to PAFC.
• A 10% greater in total efficiency was achieved owing to the
hybrid system.
• The overall performance can be enhanced by decreasing the
operating temperature and increasing the fuel pressure.
[65] HTPEMFC-TEG- Finite element Optimization and modeling of TEG for WHR from a • For TEG perpendicular to the flow, increasing the number of
Hex modeling high-temperature polymer electrolyte fuel cell and TEG models cross the gas contributed to decreasing the power
sensitivity analysis for different parameters output.
• The effect of heat exchanger design and gas parameters
revealed a significant effect on the power output and the
pressure drop.
[66] HTPEMFC-TEG- Finite element The effect of 4 heat exchanger designs and different • The design of ‘Pin-fin plate-fin, surface PF-4(F) revealed the
Hex modeling electrical connections for the TEG system best-operating conditions.
(continued on next page)

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Table 2 (continued )
Ref. Type of system Type of study Objectives Main findings

• An increase in the subsystem power by 12% was revealed

depending on the electrical connection style of the TEG.
[67] PEMFC-TEG Mathematical model A 3-dimensional TEG model (study of different • A novel low-temperature and low-cost waste heat management
parameters) was implemented in a CFD simulation from PEMFC.
• The TEG models would be connected to various continuum-
domain CFD.
[68] SOFC-TEG Mathematical model Modeling micro system CHP consisting of 3 kW fuel • Power increased from 945 W to 1085 W with an available
input to SOFC-TEG system 1794 W for heating purposes.
[69] (HTPEMFC- TEG Mathematical model TEG was used inside a gas-liquid HEx for heat • The recovered power increased the total efficiency and
recovery subsystem to mitigate the dependence on Li- mitigate the usage of Li-ion batteries.
ion batteries for the startup

results concluded that an improvement of around 1% of the total effi­
ciency with involving TEG as a WHR compared to the conventional
system as shown in Fig. 3.
Singh et al. [52] applied thermoelectric generator (TEG) to convert
the waste heat generated from PEMFC (used to power a mini vehicle)
into electricity. A dynamic cooling method to enhance the heat transfer
in a PMFC-TEG system using swirl flow was created. The results
demonstrated that the maximum power was increased by 15 times in the
case of using swirl conditions at 60 ◦ C. Furthermore, a simulation using a
1 kW was performed by Kwan et al. [53], to enhance the coefficient of
performance (COP) by recovering waste heat using TEG. The study
revealed a 1.1 enhancement in the energy efficiency under ambient and
reference temperatures of 10 ◦ C and 50 ◦ C, respectively. The results
concluded that operating at an airflow of 0.02 kg/s revealed the best
energy efficiency. In a similar study, Alam et al. [54] proposed a hybrid
system for utilizing waste heat from a 1 kW PEMFC consisting of TEG
and 5 m3 metal hydride (MH) under two modes of cooling side TEG
namely natural and fan cooling. Results revealed that heat loss was
directly proportional to the operational load which reflects on the TEG
performance. Furthermore, a 3.2 ◦ C maximum temperature difference
was attained between the hot and cold ends.
On the growing need to investigate TEG models computationally and
experimentally, Mohamed et al. [55] investigated experimentally and
numerically the waste heat utilization from a 2 kW fuel cell vehicle
integrating TEG and a finned heat sink. The computational fluid dy­
namics was validated experimentally with only a 5% deviation. The
results revealed a better waste heat recovery on the series configuration
at lower speed; however, at higher speed (100 km/h) the parallel
configuration achieved a power 1.5 times than that of the series. For
air-cooled FC, Sulaiman et al. [56] studied the utilization of low waste
heat from a two kW polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell and
TEG-heat pipe-heat sink. Results showed a maximum power output of
0.218 W and a voltage of 0.0257 V at forced convective using an inte­
grated cooling fan. Finally, the series orientation achieved a double
power output than that of the parallel orientation. A heat recovery
system was developed by Sulaiman et al. [57] to investigate experi­
mentally and numerically a one kW PEMFC with a TEG system. The
maximum power output of 113 mW with a temperature difference of 3.3
◦
C was achieved. Table 2 presents the summary of accomplished studies
for waste heat recovery using TEG with fuel cells.
3.2. Waste heat recovery system using TEG in organic Rankine cycle
The Rankine cycle is widely used in power plants that involves
converting thermal energy into work using thermodynamics aspects of
heat engines including steam turbines or reciprocating steam engines
[70–72]. Working fluid is the difference between the conventional
Rankine cycle and the organic Rankine cycle where ORC uses organic
fluids such as refrigerants or hydrocarbons [73]. However, the main
issue is that these fluids are based on a lower boiling point thus affecting
the thermal efficiency of the system. An increase in the thermal effi­
ciency of the Rankine cycle means an increase in the total power
generated. Implementing a safe and reliable waste heat recovery tech­
nique such as TEG could be a promising technology for further
enhancement of the thermal efficiency of Organic Rankine cycle. Sim
et al. [74] modeled a single-stage axial flow turbine using a Thermo­
electric generator (ORC-TEG) system to enhance the thermal efficiency
of the waste heat generated. The work showed that the proposed
ORC-TEG system contributed to the power and thermal efficiency
enhancement with a thermal efficiency of 5.08% and a power of 22.03
kW compared to 4.81% and 20.42 kW without implementing the pro­
posed system. Cascade waste recovery method included a hybrid system

Fig. 4. TEG-ORC theoretical model [75], reproduced with permission.

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Table 3
Summary of accomplished works for waste heat recovery using TEG in organic Rankine cycle (ORC).
Ref. Type of Type of the study Objective Main findings
the system

[74] ORC-TEG Mathematical Parametric study and performance of a single-stage axial flow • Power and thermal efficiency enhancement with a thermal
model turbine embedded in a thermoelectric generator (ORC-TEG) efficiency of 5.08% and power of 22.03 kW compared to 4.81%
and 20.42 kW without implementing the proposed system.
[75] ORC-TEG Experimental A cascade system of TGE-ORC for ship WHR • The maximum power achieved was 134.5 W at a TEG/ORC
/theoretical method bottom cycle ratio of 0.615.
• The thermal efficiency was found to be 6.93%.
• The cost of power generation was found to be 0.461 $/kWh.
[76] ORC-TEG Experimental A cascade WHR of ships using an organic Rankine cycle (ORC) • When the bottom cycle scale at 22, the medium evaporation
/theoretical method and thermoelectric generator (TEG) pressure and flowrate were found to be 2.2 MPa and 0.44 kg/s,
respectively.
• The cost of generation was 0.26 $/kW.h.
• The thermal efficiency and the power output was found to be 23%
and 2520 W, respectively.
[77] ORC-TEG Experimental Effect of TEG/ORC bottom cycle ratio on different parameters • When the EG/ORC bottom cycle ratio was at 0.52, the thermal
/theoretical method for WHR in ships efficiency and the power output were 24.68% and 2933.7 W,
respectively.
[78] ORC- Mathematical Enhance WHR using two TEG, one instead of the condenser • According to the best-proposed concepts the exergy was found to
Double model and the other to recover the waste heat from the geothermal be 60.27%.
TEG fluid • The thermal efficiency was 16.23% and the net power output was
67.97 kW.
• The expected product cost was 31.27 $/GJ.
[79] ORC-BC- Mathematical Evaluating different thermodynamics aspects for 5 typical • DORC revealed the best performance when using R123 as the
TEG model engine conditions at different working fluids using a three- working fluid with a power output of 32.63 kW and a thermal and
WHR system consisting of ORC, BC, and TEG exergy efficiencies of 26.55% and 54.63%.
• BC-ORC revealed a lower thermal efficiency because the
regenerator integration and the cooling heat loop suffer from
weak heat utilization.
• The use of TEG-ORC system reveals better performance at an
exhaust temperature below than 423 ◦ C.
[80] DORC-TEG Mathematical The effect of combing TEG on a DORC for WHR in internal • The maximum output power of 30.69 kW at a medium
model combustion engines evaporation pressure of 4 MPa.
• The thermal and exergy efficiencies of the hybrid system were
26.39% and 53.08%, respectively.
[81] ORC-TEG Experimental Implementing TEG (Bi2 Te3) for WHR from a vapor • The simulated vehicles showed a stable operation conditions up
Validation compression cycle to 388 ◦ C.
[82] ORC-TEG Mathematical A cascade WHR of ships using ORC and TEG • When the medium evaporation pressure was 0.9 MPa, the cost of
model generation was 3.09 $/kW.h.
• The thermal efficiency and the power output were found to be
7.25% and 139.22 W, respectively.
[83] ORC-TEG Experimental Performance study for WHR from diesel engine vehicle • The output power for the total system, ORC alone, and TEG alone
was found to be 30.36 kW, 28.12 kW, and 2.24 kW.
• The thermal efficiency of the hybrid system was 5.52%.
[84] TEG-OEC- Mathematical Investigation for the opportunities and challenges involving a • An enhancement in the fuel economy with a 4% CO2 emission
ETC model simulation for an ORC plant for WHR in a compact car. saving.
[85] ORC-TEG Theoretical model The theoretical model for internal combustion engines heat • An enhancement in fuel economy.
recovery to study performances in both supercritical and
subcritical for the hybrid system

consisting of a TEG-ORC system as seen in Fig. 4 was developed by Liu
et al. [75]. The results indicated an enhancement in the power and
thermal efficiency compared to the separate cycle. In another study, Liu
et al. [76] theoretically and experimentally designed a cascade WHR of
ships using an organic Rankine cycle (ORC) and thermoelectric gener­
ator (TEG). In this study, different parameters to investigate the per­
formance of each bottom cycle in the combined system were modeled.
The results concluded that the thermal efficiency of the system was
found to be 23.33% and the output power 2520.3 W. In a similar study,
Liu et al. [77] investigated the effect of TEG/ORC bottom cycle ratio, the
medium evaporation pressure, and flowrate on different parameters for
waste heat recovery in ships. The study revealed a higher thermal effi­
ciency of 24.68% and an output power 2933.7 W.
Aliahmadi et al. [78] suggested three different configurations of
geothermal based ORC by implementing two thermoelectric generators
(TEG) to enhance the heat recovery. The first TEG was used instead of
the condenser and the other to acquire the heat from the reinjected
geothermal fluid. The energy efficiency was found to be 16.23% while
the exergy of the concept was found to be 60.27%. Zhang et al. [79]
proposed a three waste heat recovery system consisting of an organic
Rankine cycle (ORC), Brayton cycle (BC), and thermoelectric generator
(TEG). Using different working fluids, different thermodynamics aspects
for 5 typical engine conditions were evaluated. According to the study,
the dual-loop organic Rankine cycle (DORC) revealed the highest energy
capacity at different operation regions. A study on the effect of combing
TEG on a dual-loop ORC (DORC) for waste heat recovery in internal
combustion engines was performed by Zhang et al. [80]. The study
revealed an output power of 30.69 kW at a medium evaporation pres­
sure of 4 MPa. Furthermore, the thermal and exergy efficiencies of the
hybrid system were found to be 26.39% and 53.08%, respectively.
Table 3 summarizes the accomplished works for studying the waste heat
recovery TEG in organic Rankine cycle (ORC).
3.3. Waste heat recovery system using TEG with heat exchanger
Heat exchanger (HX) is a device that transfers heat between two or
more systems that involve fluids at different operating temperatures
[86–89]. They are a key equipment in many applications ranging from
small-scale to large-scale industrial applications [90]. They can be
grouped according to the way of construction namely Tubular HXs, Plate
HXs, Compact HXs, and Regenerative HXs [91]. The art of inserting a
piece of equipment (i.e. TEG) with features of no moving parts, no

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A.G. Olabi et al.
Fig. 5. The heat recycling using TEG-Hex [95], reproduced with permission
No. 5418370765096.
scaling, maintenance-free, and a long life span reveal a thermal
enhancement for different waste heat recovery systems [92]. However,
further research and development are needed to investigate the effect of
TEG’s different parameters, and configuration on multiple types of HEx.
Crane and Jackson [93] modeled the integration of Bi2Te3 TEG with a
heat exchanger and validated the data from a previous experimental
study. The results concluded that the maximum power density output
was found to be 40 W/l. In an interesting study, the effect of power
pumping at different temperatures for TEG in a microchannels heat sinks
was investigated by Rezania et al. [94]. The study revealed the
maximum power generation was satisfied at a unique flow rate. Meng
et al. [95] suggested a finite time thermodynamic analysis on different
parameters for a gas phase waste heat recovery as shown in Fig. 5 using
Fig. 6. The power output and efficiency for two different HEXs configuration [99], reproduced with permission No. 5418371252701.
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International Journal of Thermofluids 16 (2022) 100249
TEG-Hex. The models showed a net power density of 1.47 kW/m2 at
exhaust gas temperature of 350 ◦ C, and a conversion efficiency of 4.5%.
In addition, Lan et al. [96] developed a dynamic model for WHR
from a vehicle using a counter flow heat exchanger (HEXs) and ther­
moelectric generator (TEG) where the TEG was inserted inside a
heavy-duty truck. According to this study, the developed TEG model was
capable to generate 170–220 W of electricity. With regards to the
optimized parameters, the heat transfer coefficient and thermal contact
conductance revealed the major contribution to the power increase. Lu
et al. [97] experimentally investigated the effect of waste heat recovery
using TEG with non-uniform hot side HEXs. For comparison, three types
of experiments namely heat exchanger with a smooth channel, uniform
winglet vortex, and non-uniform winglet vortex, were investigated. The
results revealed that there is an enhancement in the net power genera­
tion due to the configuration of the winglet vortex generators. Bjork
et al. [98] experimentally investigated the effect of different working
fluids and different interface materials on power generation using a heat
exchanger with TEG. The results concluded that the power generated
from the TEG was found to be 0.22 W/cm2. Lv et al. [99] studied the
effect of three different HEXs configurations (integrated TEG with air
cooling exchanger, integrated TEG with water cooling exchanger, and
integrated TEG with heat pipe cooling exchangers). The study revealed
that the heat pipe cooling exchanger revealed the best performance,
especially in terms of the output power and power efficiency as shown in
Fig. 6. A promising microchannel heat exchanger or compact platelet
heat exchanger was integrated with a thermoelectric generator (TEG)
for achieving a high compact system was investigated by Lee and Lee
[100]. A computational fluid dynamic analysis for the pressure drops
and the thermal resistance of the Printed circuit heat exchangers
(PCHEs-TEG). The results concluded that the power density from the
TEG was found to be 233.1 kW/m3. Chen and Lee [101] used 12 TEG
sandwiched between 3 HEXs for waste gas produced in iron and steel
factories. The results revealed a thermal efficiency enhancement using a
thermoelectric generator with periodic heating. A study in heat transfer
enhancement using liquid to liquid TEG was conducted by Lesage et al.
[102]. The achieved power density was 34.57 kW/m3. Table 4 in­
troduces the summary of accomplished studies for waste heat recovery
using TEG with heat exchangers.
3.4. Waste heat recovery system using TEG in photovoltaics cells
Solar cell is an innovative technology that produces electricity
directly from the light [103–106]. These systems reveal many
A.G. Olabi et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 16 (2022) 100249

Table 4
Summary of accomplished studies for waste heat recovery using TEG in heat exchangers.
Ref Type of Type of study Objectives Main findings
system

[93] HEX-TEG Numerical Integration of Bi2Te3 TEG with heat exchanger and validated the • The maximum power density output was found to be 40 W/
data from a previous experimental study l.
[95] HEX-TEG Numerical Finite time thermodynamic analysis on different parameters for a • The system showed a net power density of 1.47 kW/m2 and
gas phase waste heat recovery a conversion efficiency of 4.5%.
[96] HEX-TEG Experimental To develop a dynamic model for WHR from a vehicle using a • The TEG model was capable to generate 170–220 W of
/theoretical method counter flow heat exchanger (HEXs) and thermoelectric generator electricity.
(TEG)
[97] HEX-TEG Experimental Waste heat recovery using TEG with a non-uniform hot side HEXs • The net power output for the smooth heat-exchanger was
using winglet vortex generators. 97.1%.
• The net power output for the non-uniform hot side HEXs
using winglet vortex generators was found to be 189.1%.
[99] HEX-TEG Experimental Studied the effect of three different HEXs configurations for TEG on • The power output from the heat pipe cooling exchanger and
/theoretical method power performance air-cooling exchanger was found to be 0.038 W and 0.02 W,
respectively.
• The power efficiency from the heat pipe cooling exchanger
and air-cooling exchanger was found to be 1.3% and 0.6%,
respectively.
[100] PCHEs- 3D CFD analysis Performing computational fluid dynamic analysis for the pressure • The power density from the TEG was found to be 233.1 kW/
TEG drops and the thermal for (PCHEs-TEG) system m3 at a Tin= 448 K and Tout= 293 K.
• Net power generation of 192.6 W at Re= 3441, Tin= 448 K,
and Tout= 293 K.
[149] HEX-TEG Experimental Numerical and experimental validation for the performance of TEG • Improvement in the output power by around 20% is
/theoretical method integrated with HEX attributed to the reduction of the axial conditions.
• The study revealed that the power output is directly
proportional to the gas flow rate.
[150] HEX-TEG Experimental Waste heat recovery for a TEG system involving water-cooling • The maximum voltage of 0.4 V at a current of 0.106 A.
/theoretical method energy exchange circuit • The conversion energy efficiency and the power output
were found to be 1.16% and 41 mW, respectively.
• The power density of the thermoelectric generator module
was found to be 26.3 W/m2.
[151] HEX-TEG Experimental Performance analysis of Bi2Te3 TEG with hexagonal HEX for WHR • The maximum clamping pressure of the TEM of 360 kg/m2.
/theoretical method from the hot-air blower • The system efficiency and the power output were found to
be 1% and 11.5 W, respectively.
• The hot side T of the TEM was 269 C at an inlet T of 360 C.
[152] HEX-TEG Experimental Investigation of WHR of air to liquid system with the rate of • The net power without increasing the pumping power was
/theoretical method temperature change using a sandwiched 32 TEG on a piece of enhanced by 19%.
equipment containing a hot side and a cold-side ducts Increasing the heat load will increase the thermal resistance
and the T of the TEG.
• The system efficiency was 0.9%.
[153] HEX-TEG Numerical Applying TEG for billet cooling process using plate HEX for WHR at • An increase in the amount of the heat absorbed by 45%.
600 C • The power density and the power output were found to be
740 W/m2 and 8 W, respectively.
[154] HEX-TEG Experimental Proposed a TEG sandwiched between a metal foam-filled heat • The Maximum voltage of 0.4 V at a current of 108.1 mV for
exchanger for low-grade waste heat recovery. 16 TEG.
• The efficiency for the heat exchange was found to be
83.56%.
[155] HEX-TEG Numerical The performance of TEG with plate fin HEX was investigated with • An enhancement in the open circuit voltage and the heat by
the effect of longitudinal vortex generators 40%− 74% for the TG with LVGs.
[156] HEX-TEG Experimental Designing a mini channel graphite HEX with TEG for better • Enhancement in the heat flux between 16.9 W/cm2 to 24.5
performance high heat flux and specific energy in the application of W/cm2.
aircraft
[157] HEX-TEG Numerical Investigating the effect of flow rates and temperatures for TEG • A direct relationship between the power capacity with inlet
inserted with HEX for WHR for a passenger car temperature and mass flow rate.
• A 90% enhancement in power generation by increasing
inlet temperature and mass flow rate.
• Double the size of the TEG revealed an enhancement of the
heat transfer rate by 33%.
[158] HEX-TEG Experimental and Investigating the effect of temperature distribution and electrical • A direct relationship between the temperature distribution
simulation model properties of TEG-HEX system for waste heat recovery of the TEG with two main parameters namely heat transfer
coefficient and thermal conductance.
• Weak dependence of the temperature distribution with the
fluid velocity and Peltier number.
[159] HEX-TEG Numerical Performance investigation for optimal waste heat recovery from • There isn’t a noticeable effect for the power per unit mass
internal combustion engines with flow rate; however, it is highly dependent on the
exhaust temperature.

advantages including no moving parts, environmentally friendly (no
emissions), and adaptation to different weather changes [107–109].
However, the temperature rise is considered one of the most challenges
affecting the overall efficiency of solar photovoltaic cells [110–112]. To
address these challenges, research and development have shown a great
interest in combining TEG with photovoltaic cells owing to the ability of
the TEG to withstand high temperatures and to enhance the overall ef­
ficiency which makes them an ideal candidate for this combination
[113,114]. Another feature of this combination is that TEG reveals a
flexible design in either configuration i.e., in series or parallel which
allows flexibility in the system design. An experimental and theoretical
investigation on generating power from the photovoltaic cell waste heat

8
A.G. Olabi et al.
Fig. 7. Photovoltaic- thermoelectric generator and phase change material
system [117], reproduced with permission No. 5418380471433.
was conducted by Sabry et al. [115]. In this study, different TEG models
were simulated to investigate the performance of the system which was
then validated experimentally. The results concluded a power
enhancement compared to concentrated photovoltaic cells alone. Makki
et al. [116] proposed a theoretical module based on integrating a heat
pipe photovoltaic thermal absorber with thermoelectric generator for
better heat management and power generation. The results revealed an
enhancement in power generation owing to the TEG integration.
Fig. 8. Output power of different models [121], reproduced with permission No. 5418381147267.
9
International Journal of Thermofluids 16 (2022) 100249
An important class of thermal management is the use of phase
change materials (PCM) for better energy conversion and waste heat
recovery. They are capable of absorbing heat from photovoltaic cells and
storing it as latent heat at a constant phase change temperature Darkwa
et al. [117] proposed a system that combines thermoelectric (TEG) with
phase change materials (PCM) for enhancing the efficiency of crystal
silicon solar cells as shown in Fig. 7. The effect of different phase tem­
peratures as well as the PCM thickness were numerically evaluated and
experimentally validated. The hybrid system (PV/TEG/PCM) revealed a
power enhancement at a mere of 9% compared to PV and PV/TEG. With
regards the thickness effect, the results revealed a better heat manage­
ment for thicker (50 mm) PCM layer.
A mathematical model for attaching TEG to the back of a multi-
crystalline photovoltaic cell was proposed by Sark [118] for waste
heat recovery. The hybrid system revealed improvement of the elec­
trical, and overall efficiencies. Furthermore, the system revealed a per­
formance enhancement of 24% compared to PV alone. A numerical
study for exploring the effect of the semiconductor material and the
solar energy concentration for photovoltaic and thermoelectric gener­
ator was conducted by Ju et al. [119]. The system revealed an overall
efficiency of 27.49%. Furthermore, the overall power output was
enhanced by 10% from the TEG with a solar efficiency enhancement of
1%. In another study, Attivissimo et al. [120] connected TEG to the back
side of the PV to enhance the waste heat recovery of a polycrystalline
photovoltaic cell. The TEG improved both the PV and overall power
output of the system. Fathabadi [121] proposed two methods for
enhancing the efficiency of solar cell based firstly in attaching TEG on
the back of the PV for a thermally regenerative electrochemical cycle
(TREC) system while in the other study he used a water-cooled TEG
model. As shown in Fig. 8, the output power of the system was found to
be around 195 W after 13 h which is higher than that PV system alone.
The TEG contributed 23% of the output power. A geometry analysis for a
dye-sensitized solar cells-TEG system for WHR was conducted by
Hashim et al. [122]. The study revealed a small enhancement in terms of
solar efficiency. Furthermore, the dye-sensitized solar cells revealed a
power and efficiency enhancement by increasing the temperature be­
tween 300 K to 340 K.
The application of nanofluids for enhancing heat transfer received
considerable attention owing to the potential on enhancing the thermal
A.G. Olabi et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 16 (2022) 100249

Table 5
Summary of accomplished studies for waste heat recovery using TEG in photovoltaics.
Ref. Type of Type of Study Objectives Main findings
system

[115] CPV-TEG Experimental and Implementing TEG for passive cooling and power generation for • The power of the hybrid system increased by 7.4%.
mathematical model concentrated photovoltaic cell
[117] PV/TEG/ Experimental and Integration phase change materials (PCM) with thermoelectric • The effect of the thickness revealed an enhancement of
PCM mathematical model generator (TEG) to a photovoltaic system for better waste heat the performance for the (50 mm) compared to the thinner
recovery. ones.
• The power output of (PV/TEG/PCM) revealed an
enhancement at a mere of 9% compared to PV and PV/
TEG.
• The phase change temperature was found to be 40–45 C.
• The thermal conductivity was found to be 5 W/mK at a
PCM thickness of 50 mm.
[117] TEG-PV Mathematical model Attaching TEG material to the back of multi-crystalline • The hybrid system revealed electrical, TEG, and overall
photovoltaic for enhancing overall performance efficiencies of 14%, 5%, and 35%, respectively.
• The system revealed a performance enhancement of 24%
compared to PV.
TEG-PV Mathematical model Investigating the effect of the semiconductor material and the • An overall efficiency of 27.49% was revealed.
solar energy concentration for photovoltaic and thermoelectric • The overall power output was enhanced by 10% from the
generator TEG with a solar efficiency enhancement of 1%.
[120] TEG-PV Simulation TEG was connected to the back side of PV to enhance the waste • The TEG contributed to almost 14% of the power output.
heat recovery of polycrystalline photovoltaic cell • An overall efficiency was up to 70%.
[121] TREC- Mathematical model Enhancing the efficiency of solar cell based firstly on attaching • The system output power was found to be around 195 W
TEG-PV TEG on the back of the PV for a thermally regenerative after 13 h which is almost 4 times higher than that PV
electrochemical cycle (TREC) system while in the other study he system alone.
used a water-cooled TEG model • TEG contributed to 23% of the total output power.
[122] TEG-PV Mathematical model geometry analysis for a dye-sensitized solar cells-TEG system for • The study revealed a small enhancement in terms of solar
WHR efficiency.
• The dye-sensitized solar cells revealed a power and effi­
ciency enhancement by increasing the temperature be­
tween 300 K to 340 K.
[160] CPV-TEG Thermodynamic Exergy analysis for a CPV-TEG system • Enhancement in the output power was about to 86%.
analysis • Concentration ratio was directly related to the
irreversibilities.
[161] CPV-YEG Experimental and Experimental and machine learning investigating for the • The maximum power achieved was when the ratio of the
machine learning study performance of a CPV system with TEG for waste heat recovery. cross-sectional area of the TEG to the PV was 4.41.
• The overall efficiency was almost 30%.
[162] PV/T- Experimental data Performance analysis with and without gravity-driven heat pipe • The thermal and conversion efficiencies were 10.23% and
LEPVT- (GHP) for a photovoltaic cell (PV/T), linear Fresnel 2.55%, respectively, with gravity-driven heat pipe (GHP)
TEG concentrating photovoltaic cell (LEPV/T, thermoelectric compared to 2.91% and 1.56% without GHP.
generator (TEG). • The TEG output power of the hybrid system was found to
be 13.64 kW.
[163] PV-PCM- Simulation Enhancing power efficiency by using phase change material and • Solar cell efficiency was increased by 1.38%.
TEG thermoelectric generator • The electrical output efficiency was enhanced by 100%.
• The achieved output power was 75.68 W during winter
climate.
[164] PV-TEG Experimental Utilizing waste heat from PV on a rooftop by attaching parallel 4 • At 40 C the efficiency of the TEG-PV was 14.55%
TEG compared to 13.80% for the PV
• 2- An improvement to these results could be further
enhanced by a metal plate with higher conductivity.
[114] PV-TEG MATLAB/Simulink Designing a PV-TEG to provide energy for indoor farming • Maximum power from the TEG 1.6 W
• 2- Maximum power from the PV 40 W
[165], LCPV/T- Experimental Converting low-grade electricity to high-grade electricity by • The power output from the PV 436.13 W
TEG connecting in series TEG with LCPV • 2- The TEG only contributed to a 1.68 W of the total
output power
[130] PV-TEG Experimental Using nanofluid (Co3O4/water) along with phase change • NPs contributed to a 14% enhancement in the electrical
material to enhance the overall efficiency for WHR efficiency and an improvement of 17.8% was achieved in
the exergy efficiency.
• Using 1% of NPs to PCM would contribute to an electrical
efficiency enhancement of 12.3%
[131] PV-TEG Experimental Using nanofluid (SiO2 /water), (Fe3 O4 /water) to enhance the • SiO2/ water revealed the highest efficiency with an
overall efficiency for WHR enhancement of 3.35% compared to natural cooling.
• The power revealed a 1.54 improvement.
[166] PV-TEG Numerical Using nanofluid (Al2O3/water) to enhance the overall efficiency • Enhancement was revealed in the output power, electrical
of WHR efficiency, and heat flux.
[167] PV-TEG Modeling and Modeling different types of nanofluids to absorb waste heat of a • Fe3O4 /water revealed the maximum heat transfer.
Simulation PV-TEG system
[168] PV-TEG mathematical model Studying the performance of covered and uncovered PV-TEG • NF contributed to the overall efficiency enhancement.
system
[169] CPVT- Mathematical model Different parameter analysis for CPVT, CPVT with water, and • The total exergy was found to be 62.68 W for 0.5%
TEG CPVT with 0.5% graphene graphene compared to 61.4 W for water.
• The maximum electrical power was improved by 11.15%
for the nanofluid.

10
A.G. Olabi et al.
Fig. 9. The model that contains TEG-APU for hybrid electric vehicle [136], reproduced with permission No. 5418390476448.
conductivity of the fluid [123–126]. The shape, dimension, and volume
fraction contribute to the heat transfer enhancement of the system
[127–129]. Rajaee et al. [130] investigated the potential of using
nanofluid (Co3O4/water) for further enhancement of heat transfer. The
results concluded that the nanoparticles (NPs) contributed to a 14%
enhancement in the electrical efficiency and an improvement of 17.8%
was achieved in the exergy efficiency. In another study, Soltani et al.
[131] studied the effect of five different nanofluids for enhancing heat
transfer in a PV-TEG system. In this study, SiO2/ water revealed the
highest efficiency with an enhancement of 3.35% compared to natural
cooling while the power revealed a 1.54 improvement. Table 5 presents
the summary of accomplished studies for waste heat recovery using TEG
with photovoltaics.
3.5. Waste heat recovery system using TEG in combustion engines and
hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
The applications of TEG in the field of electric vehicles received great
attention in the past few years owing to the support in controlling the
waste heat generated from hybrid electric vehicles as well as supporting
battery charging [132–134]. A simulation for investigating the effect of
TEG in hybrid electric vehicle performance was conducted by Dabadi
et al. [135]. The maximum electric power increased by applying the
TEG. Nader [136] used TEG as an energy converter for hybrid electric
vehicles (HEVs) as a potential for fuel saving. In this study, an investi­
gation of a TEG model as an auxiliary unit power (APU) in the middle of
a hot and a cold HEXs as shown in Fig. 9. The TEG revealed saving in the
fuel consumption with a 7.7%.
Due to the high heat produced by the internal combustion engine
that almost responsible for 35% of the combustion energy. Dzulkfli et al.
[137] modeled different thermoelectric generator configurations for
utilizing the heat from ICA in a 1.8 L Toyota Prius-type hybrid electric
vehicle. In this study, the material of constructing the TEG plays a
critical factor in affecting the performance of the TEG while the smaller
size revealed a better efficiency compared to the large TEG model. The
results concluded that the maximum power from the TEG was 1015 W.
Zheng and Fan [138] integrated TEG as a 2nd generator for investigating
the potential of fuel saving in hybrid electric vehicles and conventional
vehicles. The simulation results revealed a fuel saving of 2.5% and 7.5%
for hybrid electric vehicles and conventional vehicles, respectively. In
11
International Journal of Thermofluids 16 (2022) 100249
another study, an investigation of fuel economy for a diesel-type vehicle
by inserting TEG for utilizing waste heat from the internal combustion
engine was conducted by Mohamed [139]. In this study, TEG model was
inserted between a hot and a cold source instead of metal plates to
convert the waste heat for 4 cylinders, 1.9698 L Volkswagen panel van
diesel engine into electricity. With regards to the TEG efficiency, this
study revealed an enhancement of 4.63% and a decrease of 2.3% for
diesel fuel consumption. An optimization for the thermal constraints on
enhancing the overall power output and heat utilization by using TEG
for a diesel engine [140]. The results concluded a fuel economy was
from 0.5% to 0.7%.
Enhancing heat transfer by the use of nanofluids for TEG in car have
been demonstrated by Karana and Sahoo [141]. In this study, a mixture
of NPs composed of (ZnO, and SiO2) was used to enhance the heat
transfer using a thermoelectric generator for automobile application.
With regard to the power enhancement, the study revealed a 20%
enhancement using a 7% ZnO nanofluid. Using SiO2 nanofluid can
contribute to the TEG area reduction by 34% while providing the same
efficiency as natural water coolant. Finally, at an inlet temperature of
227 ◦ C the conversion efficiency using SiO2 as a nanofluid was found to
be 11.93%. Table 6 introdues the summary of accomplished studies for
waste heat recovery using TEG with an internal combustion engine and
HEV.
3.6. Other waste heat systems using TEGs
Zoghi et al. [142] developed a hybrid system consisting of a steam
Rankine cycle, thermoelectric generator, heat exchanger, and absorp­
tion refrigeration system for WHR in a gas turbine cycle. The electricity
generated from the TEG was found to be 357 kW which was used for a
4.1 kg/h hydrogen production using a proton exchange membrane
electrolyzer. A thermodynamic analysis for combining TEG and ab­
sorption heat pump for waste heat recovery from SOFC was developed
by Mei et al. [143]. The study revealed an enhancement in terms of the
performance of the cogeneration system. Bella [144] investigated a
carbon dioxide system based on Brayton cycle for WHR using TEG. The
study revealed a saving of 20% in fuel. Salek et al. [145] developed a
system for HHO generation and injection at ultra-low rate in the main
fold petrol engine. The study revealed a CO emission reduction of 98.
Zaher et al. [146] investigated the effect of different performance
A.G. Olabi et al. International Journal of Thermofluids 16 (2022) 100249

Table 6
Summary of accomplished studies for waste heat recovery using TEG in internal combustion engine and HEV.
Ref Type of Type of study Objectives Main findings
system

[136] TEG-APU Simulation Using TEG as an auxiliary power unit (APU) for better fuel • The TEG model revealed an enhancement in fuel consumption
efficiency in hybrid electric vehicle with a 7.7% than that of an internal combustion engine.
[137] TEG-ICE Simulation The effect of different thermoelectric generator configurations • The material of constructing the TEG plays a critical factor
for utilizing the heat from ICA in a 1.8 L Toyota Prius-type affecting the performance of the TEG while the smaller size
hybrid electric vehicle revealed a better efficiency compared to the large TEG model
• The maximum power from the TEG was 1015 W.
• Fuel economy was increased by 1.74% for New European
Driving Cycle.
[138] TEG-based MATLAB/ Using TEG as a 2nd generator for enhancing fuel economy in • A fuel saving was achieved by 2.5% and 7.5% for hybrid
vehicle power Simulink ICE and HEV electric vehicles and conventional vehicles, respectively.
system
[139] TEG-ICE Experimental/ 30 TEG model was inserted between a hot and a cold source • TEG efficiency was found to be 4.3%.
Simulation instead of metal plates to convert the waste heat for a 4-cylin­ • A decrease of 2.3% in the diesel fuel consumption.
der, 1.9698 L Volkswagen panel van diesel engine into
electricity
[140] TEG-ICE Mathematical Optimization for the thermal constraints on enhancing the • A fuel economy of 0.5% to 0.7%.
model overall power output and heat utilization by using TEG for a
diesel engine
[141] TEG-ICE Mathematical/ Using NPs composed of (ZnO, and SiO2) were used to enhance • The study revealed a 20% power enhancement using a 7%
Simulation the heat transfer using a thermoelectric generator for ZnO nanofluid.
automobile application • Using SiO2 nanofluid can contribute to the TEG area
reduction by 34% while providing the same efficiency as
natural water coolant.
• The conversion efficiency using SiO2 as a nanofluid was found
to be 11.93%.
[170] TEG-ICE Mathematical Effect of ZnO and MgO MPs for the performance of TEG in • Using 1% MgO revealed an enhancement in the power output
model automobile applications by 11.37%.
• Using 1% MgO revealed an enhancement in the conversion
efficiency by 10.95%.
• Using MgO nanofluid can contribute to the TEG area
reduction by 33% while providing the same efficiency as
natural water coolant.
[171] TEG-ICE Design and Different type of TEG was designed for achieving higher power • The power output of this study was 3.2 kW.
optimization production in diesel engines • The efficiency from the 2 systems was higher by 44.2%.
[172] TEG-ICE Experimental/ A simulation study for WHR for a 2.0 L petrol engine using TEG • The maximum output power was found to be 36.4 W.
Simulation and an experimental study based on different performance • The overall efficiency and TEG efficiency of 1.21% and
parameter 2.88%, respectively.
• According to the experimental results, the overall efficiency
was 1%.
[173] TEG-ICE Mathematical/ Investigating the performance of TEG application in • The maximum power was 2.05.
Simulation motorcycles for WHR • The efficiency of the system was 2.41%.
[174] TEG-ICE Experimental Enhancing the low thermal conversion efficiency when • Achieving an increase of the system efficiency by 4%
implementing TEG with HEX by using nanofluid TiO2 compared to natural water.
• The power efficiency from the NPs was enhanced by 0.05%
compared to natural water.
[175] TEG-ICE Designing and Installing TEG for a 440-kW truck for WHR and testing different • An estimation that the maximum net power truck will
testing parameters for heavy-duty vehicles enhance by 50%.
• With regards the fuel economy, an estimation of 4500 L
saving in heavy duty vehicles and the net cost of the power
was estimated to be 150 $/W.
[176] TEG-ICE Experimental/ Utilization of waste heat from heavy vehicle • Around 1 kW of waste heat was recovered.
Simulation • The net cost of the power was estimated to be 150 $/W.

parameters in an annular thermoelectric generator (A-TEG). According
to the investigation, it was concluded that the material volume can be
reduced by 75% with a power reduction of only 1/10 percent. The
effectiveness of natural evaporative cooling that depends on the con­
vection heat dissipation and evaporative cooling occurring on the fins
was integrated with thermoelectric generator for enhancing the overall
performance [147]. The maximum power was found to be 4.1 W. Punin
et al. [148] proposed a model for simulating the electrical energy for
WHR from the sugar industry using TEG. According to the model, the
maximum power was found to be 0.126 kW with a thermal efficiency of
11.5%.
4. Barriers and challenges of TEGs in WHRs
In the last few decades, the high cost of electricity as well as the
impact of power generation on the environment are the driving forces to
focus on improving the performance of the waste heat recovery systems
using TEGs in different sectors. Some of the challenges and barriers of
TEG utilization in various applications are mentioned below:
• It is difficult to decide the appropriate range of temperature for op­
timum efficiency of the TEG.
• Lack of technical knowledge and installation platform for employing
TEG in various applications.
• The shortage of the techno-economic feasibility analysis and tech­
nological features for best insulation with high-efficiency.
• The possible failure of TEG to operate correctly in some applications.
• Missed diagnostics and fault management of the TEG in waste heat
recovery in various applications.
• Requirement of the optimal design and operating conditions of TEGs
for WHRs in various applications.
• Necessities to enhance the properties of TEGs for suitable hybrid
systems to improve the overall efficiency.

12
A.G. Olabi et al.
• More research efforts of utilizing the nanostructure materials in TEG
is required.
• No enough studies about the role of the TEG in the reduction of the
emissions. Considering that the integration of emission reduction
into the WHRs with TEGs of various applications will help for cleaner
and more efficient future.
• Evaluating the payback period, which refers to the time required to
reimburse the funds expended in these systems is a good indicator for
evaluating the system’s economic performance.
5. Conclusions
Waste-heat exists widely in a wide range of industries and accounts
for a considerable portion of the worldwide total fuel consumption.
However, for several applications, the waste-heat has weak recovery
potential and the recovery process is difficult, which is a major challenge
for researchers and enterprises. Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) have
been found as a practical solution for direct electrical generation from
the waste heat in various industrial processes. Furthermore, waste heat
recovery systems based on TEGs are safe, have long working life, do not
include mechanical mechanisms, and are suitable for bulk as well as
compact applications. In this study, the research on WHR based on TEGs
in diverse industries was discussed. First, the present paper discusses the
background, fabrication, and material of the TEGs. Then, the applica­
tions of the TEGs for WHRs in different applications such as fuel cells,
heat exchangers, photovoltaics, internal combustion engines, electric
vehicles, hybrid waste heat recovery systems, etc., are introduced. As
well, the barriers and challenges of TEGs in WHRs are presented. Con­
cerning the optimal solution of WHR based on TEGs on a board range of
applications, there is no simple answer to cover different thermal ap­
plications. The thermal characteristics, system configuration, size, cost,
and WHR potential should be evaluated. In general, the combination of
waste heat recovery with TEGs in different thermal systems is more
likely to be adopted with high efficiency. Finally, by considering the
growing harsh environment, it is suggested that an efficient WHR
approach combined with TEGs would be a prospective goal for re­
searchers and enterprises in the future.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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