Active Learning in Secondary School Mathematics

Author(s): Chris Kyriacou

Source: British Educational Research Journal , 1992, Vol. 18, No. 3 (1992), pp. 309-318
Published by: Wiley on behalf of BERA

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1500835

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British Educational Research Journal, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1992 309

Active
Active Learning
LearningininSecondary
SecondarySchool
School
Mathematics

CHRIS KYRIACOU, Department of Educational Studies, University of York

ABSTRACT In recent years there has been widespread advocacy for a greater variety
of learning activities to be used in the teaching of mathematics in secondary schools,
and in particular calls for greater use of active learning. In essence, active learning
may be described as the use of learning activities where pupils are given a marked
degree of ownership and control over the learning activities used, where the learning
experience is open-ended rather than tightly pre-determined, and where the pupil is
able to actively participate in and shape the learning experience. The term 'active
learning' has commonly been applied to a diverse range of learning activities, such as
practical work, computer-assisted learning, role play exercises, work experience,
individualised work schemes, small group discussion, collaborative problem-solving
and extended project work. In the first phase of the study, seven categories of learning
activities used in mathematics lessons were identified. One activity was considered to
describe traditional teaching, and the other six activities to describe types of active
learning. In the second phase of the study, heads of mathematics departments
completed a questionnaire in which they estimated the frequency of occurrence of
these seven activities. The findings indicate that active learning is fairly common-
place now, but in most schools, only for a minority of lessons. In addition, the replies
indicate a marked shift towards greater use of active learning in recent years,
particularly in the use of investigational tasks, small group discussion, computer-
assisted learning and extended project work.

Introduction

During the 1980s, the teaching of mathematics in secondary schools experienced a

number of major changes, which can be characterised as a move away from
expository teaching towards the use of a greater diversity of learning activities, and
a greater emphasis on problem-solving and investigational approaches to tasks. In
the United Kingdom there were three major sources for such changes. First, the
Cockcroft Report (Cockcroft, 1982) and the subsequent advocacy of new ap-
proaches to the teaching of secondary school mathematics by the Department of

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310 C. Kyriacou

Education
Education andand
Science
Science
(DES) and
(DES)
Herand
Majesty's
Her Majesty's
InspectorateInspectorate
(HMI) (e.g. HMI,(HMI) (e.g. H
1985).
1985).Second,
Second,a whole
a whole
host of host
majorofcurriculum
major curriculum
developmentdevelopment
projects in secon-
projects in se
dary
daryschool
schoolmathematics,
mathematics,including,
including,
towards thetowards
end of the
thedecade,
end of thethe
introduc-
decade, the intro
tion
tionofof General
General Certificate
Certificate
of Secondary
of Secondary
Education (GCSE)
Education
Mathematics
(GCSE)(e.g.
Mathematics (e.g.
Ahmed,
Ahmed, 1987;
1987;
APU,APU,
1989; 1989;
Isaacson,
Isaacson,
1987; Midland
1987;Examining
MidlandGroupExamining
and ShellGroup and Shel
Centre
Centre for
for
Mathematical
MathematicalEducation,
Education,
1989). Third,
1989).
a number
Third,of amajor
number
curriculum
of major curricul
innovations
innovations in secondary
in secondary
schoolsschools
which had which
an influence
had an oninfluence
teaching and onlearning
teaching and lear
across
acrossthe the
whole
whole
curriculum,
curriculum,
most notably,
most thenotably,
Technical
the
andTechnical
Vocational and
Education
Vocational Educa
Initiative
Initiative (TVEI),
(TVEI),
the Certificate
the Certificate
of Pre-Vocational
of Pre-Vocational
Education (CPVE),
Education
Records(CPVE),
of Record
Achievement,
Achievement, and and
GCSEGCSE
itself (e.g.
itself
Harris,
(e.g.1991;
Harris,
HMI, 1991;
1988a, 1988b;
HMI, Kyriacou,
1988a, 1988b; Kyriaco
1986,
1986,1991).
1991).
In addition
In addition
to these,
to the
these,
decade
theended
decade
with ended
the introduction
with thein introduction
1989 in 1
of
ofthe
theNational
NationalCurriculum,
Curriculum,
which included
which the
included
programme
the of
programme
study for mathema-
of study for mathema
tics (see DES, 1989; National Curriculum Council, 1989). A particularly note-
worthy aspect of these developments has been the increasing advocacy for greater
use of active learning in secondary school mathematics.

The Nature of Active Learning

The term active learning has commonly been applied to a diverse range of learning
activities, such as practical work, computer-assisted learning, role play exercises,
work experience, individualised work schemes, small group discussion, collabora-
tive problem-solving and extended project work. It is worth considering this list for
a moment to ask, 'what do they have in common that might clarify what active
learning is?'
A number of phrases have been used to capture the essence of active learning,
such as learning by doing, learning by experience, learning through action, learning
through talk, student-centred learning, peer collaboration and co-operative learning
(e.g. Bossert, 1989; Brandes & Ginnis, 1986; Damon & Phelps, 1989; Dennison &
Kirk, 1990; Ross & Raphael, 1990; Slavin, 1989). Some authors have sought to
identify the key qualities or characteristics that underlie active learning. For
example, Waterhouse (1990) has identified two basic characteristics: an emphasis
on learning by doing and an emphasis on pupil decision-making. Good & Brophy
(1989) argued that active learning involves providing pupils with an opportunity in
which they raise their own questions and use teachers and other resources to pursue
self-defined goals. Barnes (1989) has suggested seven key principles of active
learning:

-purposive: the task is seen by the learner as relevant to his/her concerns;

-reflective: the learner reflects on the meaning of what is being learnt;
-negotiated: the teacher and learner negotiate the goals and methods of learning;
-critical: the learner appreciates different ways of interpreting learning;
-complex: the learning tasks reflect real life complexity;
-situation-driven: the learning tasks arise out of the needs of the situation;
-engaged: the learning activities reflect real life tasks.
Barnes groups the first four principles as aspects of participation, and the last three
as aspects of realism.
My view is that active learning, in essence, can be described as the use of learning
activities where pupils are given a marked degree of ownership and control over the
learning activities used, where the learning experience is open-ended rather than

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 Active Learning in Secondary School Mathematics 311

tightly
tightlypredetermined,
predetermined, andand
where
where
the pupil
the pupil
is able is
to able
actively
to actively
participate
participate
and shape and sha
the
the learning
learningexperience.
experience.
Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, it it
is important
is important
to note
to note
two caveats
two caveats
to this to
definition.
this definition.
First, some
First, som
writers
writersinindiscussing
discussing active
active
learning
learning
place place
emphasis
emphasis
on the nature
on theofnature
the pupils'
of the pupi
mental
mentalexperience
experiencerather
rather
thanthan
on the
on nature
the nature
of the of
learning
the learning
activitiesactivities
set up by set
the up by the
teacher
teacher(see
(seeKyriacou
Kyriacou& Marshall,
& Marshall,
1989,1989,
for a for
discussion
a discussion
of this distinction).
of this distinction).
Such Suc
writers
writerssee
seeactive
active
learning
learning
as being
as being
a mental
a mental
experience
experience
characterised
characterised
by developing
by developing
understanding
understanding and
and
insight
insight
involving
involving
intellectual
intellectual
cognitive
cognitive
re-structuring,
re-structuring,
which maywhich may
be
be contrasted
contrastedwith
with
'passive'
'passive'
mental
mental
experiences,
experiences,
such assuch
rote learning,
as rote learning,
where thewhere th
degree
degreeof
ofincreased
increased
understanding
understanding
that that
results
results
may bemay
minimal!
be minimal!
For
For example,
example, Salomon
Salomon & Globerson
& Globerson
(1989)(1989)
use the
use
phrase
the phrase
"mindful "mindful
activity",activity",
and
and have
haveexplored
explored thethe
extent
extent
to which
to which
cooperative
cooperative
pupil teams
pupilincrease
teams partici-
increase partic
pants'
pants'mindful
mindful engagement
engagement in learning
in learning
and thus
andimprove
thus improve
its outcomes.
its outcomes.
Certainly,Certainl
mathematics
mathematics lessons
lessonsareare
no strangers
no strangers
to thetoacquisition
the acquisition
of skillsof
andskills
techniques
and technique
used
used totoget
getcorrect
correctanswers
answers
wherewhere
understanding
understanding
may bemayvirtually
be virtually
absent (seeabsent (see
Schoenfeld,
Schoenfeld,1988).1988).
MyMy definition,
definition,
however,
however,
focusesfocuses
primarily
primarily
on the learning
on the learning
activities
activitiesrather
rather than
thanon the
on the
pupils'
pupils'
mentalmental
experience,
experience,
and thisand
is the
this
meaning
is the of
meaning o
active
activelearning
learning overwhelmingly
overwhelmingly adopted
adopted
by advocates
by advocates
and practitioners.
and practitioners.
Neverthe- Neverth
less,
less, one
oneclearly
clearly
cannot
cannot
entirely
entirely
divorce
divorce
the nature
the nature
of the learning
of the learning
activity from
activity
how from how
it
it is
is experienced
experienced byby
pupils.
pupils.
Indeed,
Indeed,
the latter
the latter
is absolutely
is absolutely
fundamental
fundamental
to its impact
to its impact
on
on pupils'
pupils'learning.
learning.
The
The second
secondimportant
importantcaveat
caveat
is that
is that
activeactive
learning,
learning,
as I have
asdefined
I have itdefined
above, it above
includes
includesa anumber
number of of
constituent
constituent
elements,
elements,
(e.g. ownership,
(e.g. ownership,
control, control,
involvement,
involvemen
negotiation,
negotiation,choice,
choice,
discovery,
discovery,
responsibility,
responsibility,
meaningfulness,
meaningfulness,
relevance,relevance,
personal person
application)
application)(cf.
(cf.
Barnes,
Barnes,
1989;
1989;
Brandes
Brandes
& Ginnis,
& Ginnis,
1986; Dennison
1986; Dennison
& Kirk, 1990;
& Kirk, 199
Waterhouse,
Waterhouse,1990).
1990).
NotNot
all of
all these
of these
will be
will
applicable
be applicable
in everyincase
every
of active
case of activ
learning.
learning.Indeed,
Indeed,
thethe
first
first
phase
phase
of the
ofstudy
the study
reported
reported
here, involved
here, involved
observation
observation
of of
mathematics
mathematics lessons
lessons
andand
discussion
discussion
with with
mathematics
mathematics
teachersteachers
about their
about
general
their gener
approach
approachtototeaching,
teaching,
their
their
choice
choice
of learning
of learning
activities,
activities,
and whatandthey
what
thought
theythe
thought the
term
term'active
'activelearning'
learning'
meant?
meant?
This This
led toled
a recognition
to a recognition
that active
thatlearning
active refers
learning
to refers to
aa family
familyofofconcepts,
concepts, so that
so that
in looking
in looking
at anyatone
any particular
one particular
learning learning
activity, activity
some,
some,but
butnot
notall,all,
of of
these
these
elements
elements
may be
maypresent.
be present.
Elsewhere,
Elsewhere,
in collaboration
in collaboration
with
withtwo
twocolleagues,
colleagues,we we
havehave
triedtried
to group
to group
these elements
these elements
into fiveinto
mainfive
themes
main
or themes or
key
key concepts
conceptsunderlying
underlying
active
active
learning
learning
(see Kyriacou
(see Kyriacou
et al., 1990,
et al.,
for1990,
details).
for details).
These were:

(1) the use of concrete materials and direct experience;

(2) the use of investigative or problem oriented techniques;
(3) the use of small group work;
(4) pupil ownership of the learning process or task;
(5) personal focus and relevance of the learning process or task.
The applicability of any one (or more) of these five key concepts to a learning
activity can lead to it being described as active learning. This family relationshi
enables learning activities which differ in a number of respects to be linked together
in terms of this family relationship.

Active Learning in Mathematics

Studies of active learning in mathematics also reflect the range of definitions o

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312 C. Kyriacou

active learning and related notions considered earlier. On the one hand, there
fairly straight-forward studies which see active learning primarily as deno
particular types of teaching methods, such as small group work and compu
assisted learning (e.g. Good et al., 1990a; Kyriacou & Newson, 1991; Webb, 19
Such studies often seek to identify the nature of good practice that is effecti
bringing about the intended educational benefits.
On the other hand, there are studies which raise more profound questions a
what is mathematics?, what constitutes mathematical activity?, and what con
tutes mathematical learning? Many such writers embed their view of active learni
in a framework concerned with the nature of the intellectual activity taking place
most often located within a constructivist model of mathematical learning.
example, van Oers (1990) talks of "meaningful mathematical actions", Leder
Gunstone (1990) of "active participants in the learning process", Forman (198
pupils taking an "active role in discovering and applying mathematical concep
and Cobb (1990) of "mathematical experience establishing meaningful conne
tions".
A number of studies have explored the claims made by teachers for using active
learning (Good et al., 1990b; Kyriacou & Newson, 1991; Palincsar et al., 1989;
Schoenfeld, 1989). These claims typically include greater pupil involvement and
interest, encouraging pupils to communicate mathematical ideas, confidence build-
ing, and more meaningful learning. Few studies of the extent to which active
learning is used in classroom compared with a traditional didactic approach have
been reported. Weiss (1990) using a postal questionnaire survey in the USA, asked
elementary and high school teachers to indicate which, of a list of possible class
activities, took place in their most recent lesson in a randomly selected class. Her
findings indicated that most high school mathematics lessons are still largely
didactic, based on lecture, discussion and seatwork assigned from the textbook
(occurring in 89% of lessons). Nevertheless, there was also evidence of a fair degree
of work occurring in small groups (40%), and, although to a much lesser extent, use
of hands-on or manipulative materials (16%), and use of computers (8%). She
concluded that, in line with other studies, there was little evidence of more active,
student-centred activities. Indeed, even the apparent use of small group work, may
reflect nothing more than pupils working alongside each other, whereas active
learning requires group work to be much more than this (e.g. collaboration, sharing
ideas, and discussion). Case studies of individual mathematics teachers have also
given some insight into common practice, and largely confirm the continued
dominance of the didactic method (e.g. Stein et al., 1990).
The picture in the United Kingdom, as indicated in governmental reports by the
DES and HMI, would appear to be similar. For example, the HMI (1988a) reported
that only one-third of mathematics lessons they observed in secondary schools
employed a range of activities, which included practical activities, investigations
and problem-solving that encouraged pupils to think things through for themselves
and to discuss their work with their teachers and other pupils. In their report on the
first year of National Curriculum Mathematics, the HMI (1991) noted some
evidence of an increasing use of microcomputers, practical work and investigational
and problem-solving activities for Year 7 (namely first year secondary) pupils.
However, this was usually as 'bolt-on extras' that were not fully integrated into the
whole mathematics programme, and often failed to utilise genuine small group
collaboration and discussion.

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 Active Learning in Secondary School Mathematics 313

Rationale for the Study

The present study was designed to clarify the nature of active learning in secondary
school mathematics. As was noted earlier, the first phase of the study was based on
classroom observation and interviews with mathematics teachers. This phase also
included the use of transcripts of teachers involved in a series of exploratory group
discussions about active learning (a technique elaborated by Brown et al., 1990).
From these different sources of data, a coding framework comprising seven widely
used learning activities was developed (these activities are described in Table I).

TABLE
TABLE I. Percentage
I. Percentage
of secondary
of secondary
school mathematics
school mathematics
lessons in which each
lessons
of seven
in which
learningeach of s
activities
activities is estimated
is estimated
to occurto(based
occuron data
(based
from
on52data
heads from
of mathematics
52 heads departments)
of mathematics departm

Percentage
Percentage of lessons
of lessons
in which
in which
each
eachlearning
learningactivity
activity
is is
estimated to occur

Lower school Upper school

Learning activities classes classes

(1) Teacher explains/demonstrates a mathematical process or 43 63

technique together with oral questioning of pupils to
check understanding, followed by pupils undertaking
written problems applying the process or technique
(2) Problem-solving or investigational task from which pupils 27 22
derive mathematical knowledge and understanding
(3) Group discussion and collaboration in which pupils are 30 22
required to work in pairs or small groups on the task set
(4) Practical simulations using pupils and/or materials to 14 10
describe or represent mathematical knowledge or
processes
(5) Use of structured individualised programmes of work 41 14
such as work cards or booklets
(6) Computer-based activities in mathematics 8 5
(7) A mathematical project based on an extended piece of 11 13
work

The first activity was regarded as descriptive of traditional teaching

other six activities described types of active learning. The exact wor
seven activities were developed, following further piloting. No claim i
that these seven activities are exhaustive or mutually exclusive. Indee
clearly neither. Rather, they are simply the categories readily ident
observation and interviews with mathematics teachers in the first
study. In any given lesson, more than one is likely to take place, eithe
and/or simultaneously.
The second phase of the study, reported here, sought to get the views o
of heads of mathematics departments in secondary schools regarding t
which these learning activities occurred in mathematics lessons in thei
decision to focus on their perceptions at this stage was governed by the d
some indication of the viability of these categorisations and some in
their frequency from a number of schools. Nevertheless, the exten
reported perceptions may differ from reality is well known. The reader m

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314 C. Kyriacou

extremely
extremely cautious
cautious in
inextrapolating
extrapolatingfrom
fromreported
reportedperceptions
perceptions
to to
a consideration
a consideration
of o
their
their actual
actual use.
use. Having
Havingsaid
saidthat,
that,the
theview
viewisistaken
taken
here
here
that
that
such
such
data
data
do
usefully
usefully inform
inform thethe development
developmentofofthe
theideas
ideaspresented
presentedhere
here
and
and
the
the
attempt
attempt
explore
explore them
them in
in the
the context
contextof
ofactual
actualclassroom
classroompractice.
practice.

Method

A questionnaire was sent to a random sample of 100 heads of mathematics

departments in 11-16 and 11-18 comprehensive schools in England. A covering
letter was enclosed with each questionnaire together with a stamped addressed
envelope for return. No name was required to ensure confidentiality of response.
The questionnaire comprised three sections. The first section listed seven learn-
ing activities (see Table I), and the heads were asked to "Estimate how frequently
out of 100 randomly selected mathematics lessons in your department this current
academic year you would expect to find each of these activities occurring". The
heads were asked to make a separate estimate for 'lower school' classes (i.e. 1st, 2nd
and 3rd year groups) and for 'upper school' classes (i.e. 4th and 5th year groups).
The second section asked the heads: "Would you say that now compared with five
years ago in your school, such activities are used more so now, less so than
previously, or about the same?" (together with a three-point response rating scale
with these labels). The third section asked the heads: "Do you have any comments
to make about the nature of teaching mathematics nowadays, in particular with
respect to types of learning activities and forms of assessment?" (together with a
space for reply). Fifty-two replies were received. All completed sections one and
two, and 40 made comments in section three.

Results and Discussion

The mean of the estimates made by the heads in section one are shown in Tab
As can be seen, 'explaining/demonstrating/questioning' (activity 1) is widely us
and is estimated to feature in 43% of lower school mathematics lessons and in 63%
of upper school mathematics lessons. Of particular interest, however, was evidenc
of divergent practice between the 52 schools. Whilst for five schools this activit
appeared to be very frequently used (above 80% in both lower school and uppe
school classes, there were six schools where this activity was infrequently use
(below 20%) in both lower school and upper school classes, and two schools wher
there was a marked shift from infrequent use (below 20%) in lower school classes to
very frequent use (above 80%) in upper school classes. This third group of schools is
particularly noteworthy, in indicating a marked shift from perhaps more divers
and progressive approaches in the lower school to a more formal, didactic approac
in the fourth and fifth years.
Looking at the other six learning activities considered in Table I, the use of
structured individualised programmes (activity 5) appears to feature widely in th
lower school years. Indeed, the mean estimate of 41% for lower school lessons
comparable in its occurrence with traditional teaching (activity 1). In contrast,
whereas traditional teaching appears to then increase for the upper school years
structured individualised programmes shows a marked decrease. In section 3 of th
questionnaire a number of heads commented favourably on two widely used
programmes: the use of SMP 11-16 and SMILE.

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 Active Learning in Secondary School Mathematics 315

Group
Groupdiscussion
discussionand
and
collaboration
collaboration
(activity
(activity
3) also3)features
also features
fairly widely.
fairly widely.
Com- Com-
ment
ment was
wasmade
madehere
herebybya number
a number
of heads
of heads
that such
that activity
such activity
was often
wassimply
oftenan simply an
expected
expectedway
wayofof
working
working rather
rather
thanthan
a formally
a formally
established
established
one. This
one.
implies
This that
implies that
group
groupdiscussion
discussion
andand
collaboration
collaboration
mightmight
rangerange
from from
activities
activities
in which
inpupils
which are
pupils are
simply
simplyallowed
allowedtoto
talk
talk
to to
each
each
other
other
to activities
to activities
in which
in which
the task
the
requires
task requires
a formal a formal
and
and considered
consideredcollaboration
collaboration between
between the pupils.
the pupils.
An example
An example
of the latter
of themight
latterbemight be
a task
taskinvolving
involving a group
a group of ofthreethree
pupilspupils
planning
planning
a day atripdayintrip
whichin each
whichpupileach pupi
alone
alone had
hadaccess
access totonecessary
necessary sources
sources
of information
of information (e.g., railway
(e.g., railway
timetables
timetables
and and
fares,
fares,nature
natureandandcostcostof of
entertainments,
entertainments, naturenature
and costandofcost
foodofavailable)
food available)
that the that the
group
grouphashastotouse
use totomakemaketheirtheir
planning
planningdecisions.
decisions.
The diversity
The diversity
of activities
of activities
used used
involving
involving'group
'group discussion
discussion andandcollaboration'
collaboration'
certainly
certainly
requiresrequires
detaileddetailed
research research
and
and evaluation,
evaluation,particularly
particularly given
givenits apparent
its apparentrapid rapid
expansion
expansion
in recent in years
recent(seeyears (see
Bain,
Bain, 1988;
1988;Kyriacou
Kyriacou & Marshall,
& Marshall, 1989;1989;
Kyriacou
Kyriacou& Newson,
& Newson,
1991). 1991).
Problem-solving
Problem-solving ororinvestigational
investigational taskstasks
(activity
(activity
2) features
2) features
fairly widely
fairly aswidely
well. as well.
The
The remaining
remainingthree three activities,
activities,practical
practical
simulations
simulations
(activity
(activity
4), computer-based
4), computer-based
activities
activities(activity
(activity 6) 6)
andand
projects
projectsbased based
on extended
on extendedwork (activity
work (activity
7), were7),all were all
reasonably
reasonablyevident,
evident, butbutat aatlower
a lowerlevellevel
(below (below
20%) for
20%) both
forlower
bothandlowerfor and
upper for upper
school
schoollessons.
lessons.WithWith respect
respect to computer-based
to computer-based activities,
activities,
it is perhaps
it is perhaps
worth worth
bearing
bearingininmind
mind thatthatmathematics
mathematics staffstaff
may may
be involved
be involved
in non-mathematical
in non-mathematical
computer-based
computer-based activities,
activities, particularly
particularly computer
computerawareness
awareness
and information
and information
tech- tech-
nology
nologycourses,
courses, although
although thatthat
is not
is not
the direct
the direct
concernconcern
of thisofstudy.
this With
study. respect
Withtorespect to
projects
projectsbased
basedonon extended
extended work,work,sincesince
1989 1989
therethere
has been hascompulsory
been compulsory
courseworkcoursework
within
withinGCSEGCSEstarting
starting with
with YearYear
10. In10.theIn development
the development phase ofphase
this of
study,
thisa study, a
number
numberof ofheads
heads indicated
indicated thatthat
theythey had already
had alreadybeen using
been extended
using extended
pieces ofpieces of
work as part of GCSE coursework or piloting its use in preparation for its
compulsory introduction. Its reasonably evident level of occurrence in lower school
lessons is noteworthy, and may reflect a preparation for GCSE task demands, or
even other assessment demands, such as those linked to Records of Achievement.
One important point about the activities listed in Table I is the degree of
interaction and overlap between them. Whilst the data presented here may give
some useful pointers to the current state of practice as perceived by heads, each of
these activities require detailed evaluation before any broad generalisations can be
made.

Heads' estimates of the extent to which these activities are being used more so
now in their schools compared with 5 years ago offer some evidence of the pace of
change occurring in recent years. Forty-three heads estimated that activity 1 is
being used less frequently now. A large majority of heads also estimated that
activities 2, 3, 6 and 7 are being used more frequently now (50, 40, 40 and 39 heads
respectively-with the remaining heads, except in one case, rating use about the
same). For activities 4 and 5 there was an almost even split between heads rating
use more frequent now (25 and 27 heads respectively) and those rating use about
the same, although in the case of structured individualised programmes (activity 5
six heads indicated that less use was being made now.
The comments made in section three of the questionnaire by heads raised a
number of issues, of which the six most frequent were (in order) the following:

-acute time pressures on staff, in part caused by the greater time involved in
teaching and assessing work based on the new approaches, and in part caused by
a reduction in the number of periods timetabled for mathematics;

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316 C. Kyriacou

-difficulties in encouraging
encouraging some
some staff
staff to
to adopt
adopt new
new approaches
approaches to
to teaching
teachingaa
learning;
-a marked shift towards greater use of investigational and problem-solving activi-
ties;
-concerns about the implementation of the National Curriculum, and in particu-
lar a concern that the assessment tests used will lead to going back to more
traditional approaches to teaching and learning;
-a feeling that pupils generally found mathematics more interesting and enjoyable
nowadays, and that low ability groups in particular were being successfully
motivated by structured individualised programmes of work such as SMP 11-16
(in the lower school) and SMILE;
-that GCSE, whilst successful in many respects, was causing problems regarding
coursework for low ability pupils and was making the transition to A-level
mathematics very difficult.

Conclusions

The perceptions of heads of mathematics departments reported here offer some

indication of current practice regarding active learning in the teaching of mathema-
tics, and the nature of related change. Overall, the traditional approach of explain
ing/demonstrating/questioning appears to feature widely. However, this overall
picture covers diverse practice between schools. In some schools traditional teach
ing seems to be clearly dominant, whilst in others it appears to be relatively littl
used. This difference appears to be more marked for lower school classes.
The use of structured individualised programmes of work also seems to be widely
used in the lower school years. The heads also reported a marked shift towards
investigational and problem-solving approaches, and increasing use of other 'new
approaches' to teaching and learning. The diversity of current practice, not only
between schools, but also to some extent between different mathematics teachers in
the same school, raises a number of issues concerning staff development and
INSET in the context of the National Curriculum. Heads have also indicated some
concerns regarding staff development and change. Some heads indicated that w
so many recent changes taking place, colleagues were feeling 'snowed under'
Another head raised the issue of much of the teaching being done by staff who we
not primarily mathematicians, and the problems involved in developing the
approaches. Indeed, the problem of an adequate supply of teachers of mathema
has been echoed, alongside other shortage areas, as a major concern in the H
(1990) report on standards in schools.
The difficulties in accommodating the requirements of the various innovati
taking place has also been highlighted. In the immediate future schools are hav
to reconcile the demands of GCSE, TVEI, Records of Achievement, and the
National Curriculum. Particular difficulties have been indicated here. Most nota-
bly, time pressures, GCSE coursework, and trying to provide a coherent experi
of mathematics between lower and upper school and between upper school and
A-level mathematics. The nature of the testing to be adopted as part of the Nationa
Curriculum is seen by some heads as a further compounding of these difficulties.
Comparisons between this study and studies reported elsewhere must be trea
with caution, particularly in view of the different descriptions of learning activiti
used. Nevertheless, this study does indicate a greater use of active learning he

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 Active Learning in Secondary School Mathematics 317

than
than that
thatreported
reportedbyby
Weiss
Weiss
in her
in her
overview
overview
of the
of teaching
the teaching
of mathematics
of mathematics
in the in the
United States.
Finally, whilst the study must be considered exploratory given the size of the
sample and the form of the questionnaire, it does raise the issue of to what extent
the strengths and shortcomings of the active learning utilised in recent years are
being adequately monitored, discussed and evaluated in a way that can help schools
develop good practice. The use of subject specific fora on INSET days in which staff
from mathematics departments at different schools can meet to compare experi-
ences could make a useful contribution to staff development. Such discussion
however is likely to be much more effective and useful if reference can be made to
research appropriate to the issues being considered. It appears that such research is
now urgently required.

Correspondence: Chris Kyriacou, Department of Educational Studies, University of

York, Heslington, York YO 1 5DD, United Kingdom.

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