COURSE OUTLINE Introduction Speech acts Prepositions in English B 1. Doandmoke ¥ V. Reading strategies FT) VI. Reading comprehension Tex! 1: English cfiminal law a Text 2: Consiitutional and administrative Text 3: Intemational law a Text 4: Wil English become entrenched as the medium of intemational law? Administrative law a Text 5: Religious law Text 6: Civillaw % vi BIBLIOGRAPHY cu INTRODUCTION 1, Aims of the course The general aim of this course is to enhance students’ competence in English. It can be detailed in specific objectives along the course outlines as follows: Recapitulation on speech acts: to improve students’ ability in using language communicatively;~ Using prepositions: to enhance students’ mastery over these notions since they are one of the main sources of learners’ mistakes, + Do and make: to help students distinguish the meanings of the verb “faire” which are ‘commonly confused in English; and to increase students’ vocabulary in idiomatic use; - Reading comprehension: to practise reading strategies in interpreting technical texts, and to familiarize students with the register of law in English; ~ Official correspondence: to initiate students into writing about themselves in the professional setting when they apply for jobs or complete administrative forms. AAs prerequisites, students should draw on their knowledge of grammar and conversation in English, as well as on reading strategies previously used in text interpretation, At the end of this course, students are expected to be able to practise speech acts efficiently, to write CV and to fill-in administrative forms with relative mastery 2. Methodology In order to achieve these objectives, the following methods will be used: (2) direct and audio-aural methods to encourage students to speak English, (b) interactive method to ‘make them practise English with their classmates, and (c) oral presentations to guide students to use English in public 3. Evaluation Given the large size of the class, students will be evaluated on the basis of written individual and collaborative tasks, one quiz, one oral presentation and the final exam. Lecture attendances will also be taken into account 1. SPEECH ACTS ASKING FOR AND GIVING PERMISSION Asking for and giving permission: ‘When you ask for permission to use something that belongs to someone else you have to do your best to be polite. It is desirable to use the word “please.” Asking for permission: * Can! go out, please? ‘© May I open the window, please? *¢ Do you mind if] smoke? * Would you mind if I asked you something? ‘© Would it be all right if borrowed your mobile phone? 2Giving permission Refusing to give permission * Yes, please do. © No, please don’t © Sure, go ahead. © I’'msorry, but that’s not possible * Sure. © I'mafraid, but you can’t. * No problem. * Please feel free. MAKING AND RESPONDING TO SUGGESTIONS MAKING SUGGESTIONS ACCEPTING SUGGESTIONS REFUSING SUGGESTIONS: + Ok, yes; lets + No, let's not + Yes, I'd like to. + No, I'd rather not + Yes, I'd love to. + I don’ t feel like it > What a good idea + I dislike going for a walk + Why not? + What an awful/ bad idea! EXPRESSING YOUR OPINION HOW TO EXPRESS YOUR OPINION think... It soems tome that... take the view that.. As far as Tm concerned... In my point of view! my My personal view is that To my mind. opinion, In my experience From my point of view. As far as 1 understand/ can Tam of the opinion that... see/ see it MAKING OFFERS How to make offers in English? Making offers: Can T Help you? Shall Get you some juice? Would you like A glass of water? How about Some pizza?Yes please. I'd like to. I's OK, Ican do it myself. That would be very kind of you. Don’t worry, Ill do it ‘Yes please, that would be lovely No thanks Yes please, I'd love to. No, thank you | If you wouldn’t mind. EXPRESSING OBLIGATION ‘When it’s necessary or obligatory todo something, you express obligation OBLIGATION IN THE ‘PRESENT: Shave to finish my work before this evening T have got to learn English if | want to live in the USA 1 must see the doctor soon because I don't fee! wel * His obligatory that I shop when the traffic light tum red, + Itis necessary that Itake a taxi I'm late Obligation in the past: had to work extra hours to pray my bills Obligation in the future: + Ml have to borrow money TALKING ABOUT ABILITY ‘To express that someone has the power or skill todo something can and able ae used. Notice: Can in the past is was able or could, but will be able to inthe future Examples: ‘When I was young I was able to earn my living pretty well Now I can’t; I'm too old. couldn't hear what he was saying When I finish my studies, I will be able to find a job. EXPRESSING PROHIBITION EXPRESSING PROHIBITION To express prohibition the following expressions are used To express prohibition you can use* Its prohibited to... * You aren't permitted to, * You aren't allowed to... + Itis forbidden to * You musn't ASKING FOR AND GIVING ADVICE GIVING ADVICE * HT were you, I would go to the dentist ‘Why don't you go to the dentist? You'd better brush your teeth regularly * You ought to/should avoid eating sweets DECLINING TO GIVE ADVICE * I don't know what to advise, I'm afraid. {wish I could suggest something, but I can't? + Iwish I could help. + T'matraid I can’t really help you. EXPRESSING PROBABILITY EXPRESSING PROBABILITY OR IMPROBABILITY: See the difference between probability and possibility smany ways 10 say that something will probably or improbably happen could Will Probably It's Probable | That... improbable | likely unlikely Examples of probability a + Itis probable that my grandfather repairs my bike + May be/ perhaps the problem won't be serious Examples of improbability : + Id be surprised if he got the best score + It's unlikely he will find his lost keysIGATION) EXPRESSING LACK OF NECESSITY (ABSENCE OF OBL! EXPRESSING LACK OF NECESSITY IN THE PRESENT, Have ; - dont year To take my umbrella It ist raining u Needn't| Take my umbrella. It isn't raining + [don't have to drive fast aren + Tdontt need to write the report myself. My secretary can do that for mi COMPLAINING-TALKING ABOUT COMPLAINTS ; Complaints are expressions of « displeasure or annoyance » in response to an action that is seen by the speaker as unfavourable, Thave a complaint to make Your pizza is just too salty Tm sorry to say this but |Your food is inedible 2. I'm afraid there is a slight problem with the service in this hotel 3. excuse me but you are standing on my foot 1. Tm afraid I've got a complaint about your child. He's too noisy. | | J Positive response to complaints + Tmsso sorry, but this will never occur/ happen again I'm sorry, we promise never to do the same mistake again Tm really sorry; we'll do our utmost/ best not to the same mistake again, Negative response to complaints: + Sorry there is nothing we can do about it 1'm afraid, there isn't much we can do about it + We are sorry but the food is just alright APOLOGIZING To apologize isto tell someone that you are sorry for having done something that hhas caused him inconvenience or unhappiness: Examples: I must apologizing to Isabel for my late arrival Here are some expressions you can use to make and respond to apologies.MAKING APOLOGIES | apologize fay ACCEPTING APOLOGIES Lanust tpologiz fr : iat all ie es —— , logize "dike o apologize fo. + Itdoesn't mae EXPRESSING POSSIBILITY EXPRESSING POSSIBILITY Expressing impossibility My grandmother may travel alone + No, it's impossible to repair that old * May be she will make the trip alone Chevrolet + Pethaps she will visit London + Even a good mechanic can't possibly * Possibly, she will go by plane fix it * It's possible that someone will meet . her at the airport MAKING AND RESPONDING TO A REQUEST ‘Here are some examples of how to make a request. [Open the door for me, please? | will you could you possibly | Would you mind (Opening the door for me? _ RESPONDING TO REQUEST MAKING REQUEST: + Sure, here you are ! + Can you show me your photo] . Okay album, please? + No, I'm sorry I need it + Will you lend me your book} ~ 'mafraid Ican't please? * Could you possibly show me the way to the post office, please? ASKING FOR CLARIFICATION When you fail to understand what has been said to you, you can use these expressions: . + Tbeg your pardon ? + I'm not sure | got your point + [beg your pardon, but I dont quite = * i nied + sorry, I didn't get your point + I'm not quite sure I know what you = + sorry, I didn't quite hear what you said I don’t quite see what you' re gettingat mean + Ym not quite sure I follow you ‘+ J don't quite see what you mean HOW YOU ASK FOR CLARIFICATION i ‘When you dortt understand what someone has said, you can ask for clarification using the following expressions: + What do youmeanby..? * Could you explain what + Doyou mean... you mean by..” * Could you say that * Could you give us an again, please? example? + wonder if you could To clarify your idea you can use the following expressions: + Let me explain that + Incther words.. + Let me explain thet in + To say this differently. more detail. + To putt differently. TIL PREPOSITIONS IN ENGLISH The words at, in, of, on and to are examples of prepositions. A word such as a noun, pronoun or gerund following a preposition is said to be the object of the preposition. A phrase beginning with a preposition can be referred to as a prepositional phrase: €.g. He owns the house on the corner. We are waiting for her She has read many books about flying, In the first example, the noun comer isthe object of the preposition on. In the’ second ‘example, the personal pronoun her is the object of the preposition for. IV. 1. The meanings of prepositions The table below gives the most usual meanings of English prepositions. Each ‘meaning is illustrated by an example. About 1, On the subject of This is a story about elephants, 2. Approximately: He is about ten years old Against 1, In opposition to: Theft. is against’ the law.9 2 Touching: supported by: 1 teaned my bicycle against the wan At 1. A specific location: at. 23. Chestnut Street; at the park 2. A point in time at. S$ o'lock; at Christmas 3. A condition: at peace; at War, at reg 4. An activity: at work; at school: at pay 5. Towards: Look at someone; wave at someone Note: When referring to a specific location or to a point in time, at is usually used When referring toa cerain street ora certain day, on is usually used. When referring to a location as an area, or when referring to a unit of time longer than a day, in ig usually ah ©. at Christmas, on Christmas day; in the Christmas holidays Before. , 1. Earlier in time: before two o'clock; before Christmas 2. Earlier in a series: S comes before T in the alphaber Between 1. An intermediate location: Toronto lies between Montreal and Vancouver 2. An intermediate time: between Christmas and New Years Day 3. Intermediate in a series: B comes between A and C in the alphabet 4. An intermediate amount: between five and ten people 5. Within a group of two: The money was shared between two people By 1 Near: a house by the sea 2. Past: He waved as he drove by the house 3. Not later than: Try to finish the work by next week 4. In units of cheaper by the dozen; sold by weight 5. Through the means of: travel by plane; written by him For 1. Duration of time: We walked for two hours. 2 Distance: 1 walked = for five _ kilometers. 3. Purpose: T bought this jacket for you. 4. In the direction of. She left for New York. 5. In favor of: We are for the proposal. 6. Considering: The boy is clever for his age. In 1, Place thought of as an area: in London; in Europe 2. Within a location: in the room; in the building 910 in 1992 in March, in i happened iS pie is of time: Tok ll ceturn i 8 Sra) tain time: ' 4 get id English 4, Within @ ee oe poo at oa cn in ont stra, in the navy 6 Condition: ree he a 7. A member of, He eee me tee i i rich 9. vn re to: lacking in ideas, ll i. table; on the wal 1. Touching the surface of on the the Gth of June. 2. A certin day: That happened on nee South Street 2 ‘ A mn ial a on engineering P , a 5. A. state or condition: on strike; on fire, oe 6. By means of live on a pension; shown on tele To 1 In the direction of Turn to the — right. 2. Destination: 1 am going = to—- Rome. 3 Until: from Monday to Friday; five minutes 10 ten 4 Compared with: They prefer hockey to soccer 5. With indirect object: Please give it to me. 6 AS part of infinitive: 1 like to ski; he wants to help. 7 In order to: We went 10 the store to buy soap For have affection for have compassion for @ reason for have respect for have a talent for Pave the way for (prepare for) make allowances for an excuse for have a reputation for have sympathy for lie in wait for (ambush) From absence from In 101. Paying attention to the nouns which are usually fol in the blanks with the correct prepositions chosen from the pairs paetinaed in have faith in interest in ‘take part in make progress in of have an abhorrence of an acknowledgement of take advantage of take care of take command of evidence of On aan attack on dependence on ‘make an impression on play a joke on shed light on (explain) have pity 00 lo have access lo pay attention to ‘an objection to areply to ‘a response to lay sicgc to (besiege) EXERCISE lowed by certain prepositions, fill ven in brackets. For example’ Do you have any objection __ my plan? (on, to) Do you have any objection to my plan? She has a good attitude her job. (of, toward) She has a good attitude toward her job. 1. We played a joke him. (of, on) 2. Who else has access the computer files? (of, to) 3. Lhave no recollection the event. (of, on) 4, Missing the bus is no excuse being late. (for, of) 5. Thave confidence his ability. (for, in) 6. That is only one example what I mean. (in, of) 7. Pay close attention the traffic signals. (for, to) 8, She takes an active interest community events. (in, of) 9. Do you have any proof, that? (of, to) 10, You should make allowances their lack of experience. (for, on) 11. There is a lack information on this subject. (for, of) 12, The report should shed some light the situation. (for, on) 13, He has a talent putting people at ease. (for, with) 14. Ireceived no reply ___my letter. (on, to) 15, We soon took command the situation. (of, with) "other people. (of, with) i It ly finding fault _— i 16. They are constantly HAY cations (0 iif on the ability to deal with 7 oe (for, : Seles le eal what they do not understand. (of, C Seer the participants (of, on) 20. Wewil —— ain prepositions fill in llowed by cert ‘ectives which are usually fol ay sae ae ts chosen from the pairs given in brackets. For exampl i a they were doing. (about, for) cing, (about, for) ‘2, Paying attention ‘the blanks with the correct pr Wewere curious ‘We were curious about what they were d ‘The design of most computers is based __binary arithmetic, (for, on) ‘The design of most computers is. ‘based on binary arithmetic. 1.Weare ready _ anything, (for, to) 2. was anxious her. (about, 10) 3. Photographic film is sensitive __light. (of, to) 4. Seals are adapted life in the water. (at, to) 5. He is descended Mary, Queen of Scots. (from, of) 6. Cotton is more resistant fire than nylon is. (for, 0) 7. After the show, the radio station was besieged telephone calls. (from, with) 8, She was praised her achievements, (for, to) 9. The public library is accessible everyone. (to, with) 10, Are you familiar the procedures? (for, with) 11. They were overjoyed the news. (at, to) 12, We are proud our accomplishments. (for, of) 13, Iwas pleased the results. (of, with) 14. Are you aware the risks involved? (of, with) 15, Lack of exercise can be detrimental one’s health. (of, to) 16. We are satisfied the arrangement. (For, with) 17. She is imerested animals. (for, in) 18, He is well qualified the job. (for, to) 19, Young children are often suspicious strangers. (of, to) 20. A knowledge of mathematics is esse an engineer. (to, with) 3. Paying attention to the verbs which are usually followed by certain prepositions, fill in the blanks with the correct prepositions chosen from the pairs given in brackets. For example He likes listening __ music. (on, to) He likes listening to music. They cooperated ___one another. (of, with) They cooperated with one another.1 Heatandlight radiate the sun. 2 Wie she eee Will be held depends ; ve reat (of, on) 4 You nesdto conccaraag— S*PSHE5 plays. (om. 1) 5, The students ested < What you are doing, (into, on) 6. A balanced meal consstg the high student fees. (against, from) with) ——— Vitamins, minerals, proteins and carbohydrates. (of, 7. Twenty people applied 8. She likes to participate y ——— the job. (for, with) extracurricular activities. (in, with) fied ae the meal. (for, on) . We do not approve i i 11, He subscribes ane ——— four magazines. (of, to) 12. The dog barked the mailman ie a 13. Please refiain smoking. (from, to) 14. Do you concur my conclusions? (for, with) 15. The problem stems a Jack of proper training, (for, from) 16. We apologized our absence. (for, to) 17. He is engaged starting a business, (in, on) 18. The two children stared each other. (a, to) 19. They registered the course. (for, of) 20. We rely the city bus service. (on, with) IV. DO AND MAKE ‘These verbs often depart from their fundamental meanings of “act” and “construct” in idiomatic usage Examples of fundamental meaning of do and make: What are you making? - A cake ‘What are you doing? — baking a cake. Idiomatic use of these two verbs can only be leamt by experience. The following two exercises « practice a number of do and make idioms. COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES WITH DO AND MAKE. 1 .. alot of money last year. 2 *y .... peace at last. 3. Talways .... my best. 4. shall... all the arrangements for you, 5. Ithas nothing .... with you, 6 1. 8. 9. He .... a lot of business with us. ‘This is all I have, Will it... ? People must .... without such luxuries in wartime. He .... a good speech yesterday. 10. She .... eat his dinner. 34 1, Lill have nothing to... with such people, 12. My friend Maisic always ... fun of mo. 13, My friend Cyril can .... tricks with his ears, 14, A soldier must ... his duty. 15, Itis my birthday; .... come to tea. 16, I think the train leaves at nine, but you had better... certain. 17. Thave nothing to... this aftemoon 18, Itwon't you any harm to take another week's holiday 19. How do you ....? 20, Have you ... your homework? SUPPLY A PART OF THE VERB DO OR MAKE; That glass of wine has ... me good. She will ... him a good wife. Will you ... me a favour? ‘Are you trying to ... me out a liar? ‘You must ... up for lost time se- Up Your mind to... what is right. “Will this ... for you?” “I think I can ... it It doesn’t .... Your face any good to .... up too much. 9. Lean’ .... out what he is trying to 10, You can’t... use of that anymore: it’s... for LL. You've only half an hour left: so you'd better ... the most of it 12, He ... a big mistake in ... business with such a firm 13, Why can’t you .... him ..._ his work properly? 14. I’m afraid this is the best I can ... for you; I know it’s not very big, but you'll have to... it 15, Tcould ... with a few more people like you to ..._up for the time I've lost with the others 16, ... your worst! Say what you like and have ... with it. 17. It was all the pilot could ... to ... the necessary height to clear the mountains. 18, It... not .... to ..... um of your superiors 19, I'm afraid half a spoonful won’t ... at all; he'll have to ... without it altogether. 20. There's nothing .... here; let’s .... our way out. VI. GUESSING MEANINGS FROM (CON-)TEXTS One of the main activities in English for Academic Purposes (EAP), particularly English for Academic Reading (EAR) is how to understand a text. There are many techniques which can help the reader, among which: vocabulary interpretation, sentence analysis, paragraph analysis and cognates. 2.1. READING STRATEGIES 415 Reading comprehensively is a problem for those whose native language is not English. However, our students have to read English texts and journals since most scientific and technical knowledge is written in this language. Scientific and technical texts contain a great deal of information, most of which consists of fact. Not only readers of such texts should be able to extract information but they should also understand the material fully. Hence, careful and thorough reading is required. The problem can be alleviated to the extent that English teachers equip their students with the tools that will enable them cope with English texts on various subjects. The tools include the kinds of knowledge and techniques needed to tackle, among others, the following problems in reading English: 1. Interpreting the meaning of words, 2. comprehending sentences, and 3 comprehending paragraphs. Following are some of the reading strategies required to this end 1. Vocabulary interpretation When the reader encounters a new word, he can do the following in order to understand it a) Use a dictionary Depending on the context, the reader can use a bilingual (French-English) or a monolingual (English alone) dictionary. The bilingual dictionary gives the translation of the word whereas the monolingual dictionary supplies either the definition or the explanation of the word. This technique is very simple and helps the learner to solve his comprehension problem quickly. However, the user must learn meaning discriminations which are shown in parentheses ( ) or in brackets [ ] in order to know the context in which to use such or such a translation. Meaning discrimination is done or supplied in the source language because the user knows the different meanings and can find the relevant one according to the context. E.g. Louervi1. (glorifier) to praise 2. (donner en location) to rent (out), to let (out) (UK); — & lover for rent, to let (UK). 3. (prendre en location) to rent. 4. (réserver) to book. Se louervpsout (se féliciter)~se louer de qqch/de faire qqch to be very pleased about sthg/about doing sthg. (Larousse, Dictionnaire de poche) 1516 Louer' [Iwe] v.tr. 1. (ato hire, rent, let, (out) (2,10); maison a }., house to let; . une ferme a bail, to lease out a farm; (b) (of farmland) se 1. Pour Ia saison, to engage oneself for the season 2. To rent (house, etc.) 4, from); to reserve, book (seat, etc.); I. une maison pour été, to take @ house for the summer, cet appartement se loue trés cher, this flat is very expensive to rent Louer* 1. vitr. to praise; to commend; |. qn de, pour, qch., to praise 5.0. for sth.; louons le seigneur! Dieu soit loué thank God! 2. se 1. avoir fait qch., to congratulate oneself upon having done sth.; Se 1. de qch., to be pleased, well satisfied, with sth; je n’a Thave nothing but praise for him. (Harrap’s Shorter) ) Analysis of the word into its parts This is also called ‘morphological analysis’ because the learner analyzes the ‘word into its meaningful elements. If he can identify the prefixes, suffixes and word stems (or Greek and Latin origins) and if he knows their meanings, he can guess at the meaning of the whole: ‘4 mel. detui, €.g, Mary is both philanthropic and bibliophile. The first word can be analyzed as phik: love of anthrop-: of human being ics adjective suffix maker Hence philanthropic should mean something like: lover of human beings The second word can be analyzed as Biblio-: of books Phite: lover of. The whole bibliophile thus means fover of books. b) Guessing the meaning from the context ‘This strategy requires that the reader relies on some context clements such as words, phrases, Punctuation marks. They can take one of these forms: 1. Definition A-word may be formally defined, or the sentence itself may contain enough explanation to make the meaning easy to find: E.g, Typhoons are cyclones, storms with strong winds rotating around a low- Pressure centre, 167 ‘The use of storms just after cyclones shows the definition of the first word. 2. Contrast/opposition When two words are contrasted, if the meaning of one of them is known, this helps to explain the meaning of the other: E.g, The question was important to the child, but it appeared trivial to the teacher. ‘The connective but contrasts important to trivial (theretore, not important). 3. Consequence/Results or Cause/effect relationship If we know the consequence or result of something, we can guess at the meaning of what could lead to this consequence Eg, The question was so tough that no student succeeded Interpretation or inference: a question to which no one succeeds is very difficult, hence fough must mean ‘very difficult’. 4. Reason The knowledge of the reason can also help guess at the meaning of the word: E.g. Pamela is barren; that is why she has no baby since she married. Women who do not give birth are sterile; therefore barren should mean ‘sterile’ 5. Comparison Often a comparison is expressed that can help us guess at the meanings of a word Eg At firs the road might be well, yet after many years of use, it will be bumpier. ‘When a road is used for many years, it deteriorates (= with bumps) $. Sentence interpretation Sometimes the text becomes difficult to understand because of complex ‘sentences. Therefore, the learner should proceed to one of these strategies, @) Sentence Analysis 718 ‘Sentence analysis can be used in order to find out the relationship among words. ‘Such is particularly the case with complex noun modification: The English course postponement : the allempt 1 postpone (or of the attempt postponement of) the course of English. Students’ general meeting recall : the notice about the recall of the general notice meeting of students. The V.A.T. new regulation: the annouticement of the modification of the modification announcement new regulation of V.A.T. N.B.: In English, complex nouns are processed (analyzed) from right to left, apart from adjectives which remain in front of the nouns that they modify EXERCISE. Proveed to sentence interpretation by simplifying these complex nouns Political system classification Constitution revision scheme: Politics change suggestion : Population reduction policy Health control session : ‘Typhoid treatment requirements: ‘The tuberculosis vaccination campaign: . ‘The hospital repair cost:+) Recognition of punctuation clues Commas, parentheses, colons and other punctuation marks can also give us clues to the meaning of a word E.g, The sand provides the silica; the soda ash, the soda. The semi-colon (;) replaces and, while the comma (,) replaces the verb provides: The sand provides the silica and the soda provides soda. ©) Recognition of reference terms (co-teference) Scientific writing uses grammatical words such as pronouns (he, she, it, they), demonstrative words (those, these, that, this), relative pronouns (which, that, whom etc), other Pro-torms (the latter, the former, so etc.) They should be able to find the relationship between word and its co-referent, that is, 2 word which refers to it: E.g. Two other kinds of printers are thermal printers and laser printers. The former use heat print output on paper and the latter use a letter-strong beam of light. @) Recognition of signal words & signal word is a word or phrase that functions as a connective (or connectoriconjunction) between sentences or paragraphs, They can show one of these relationships: ‘Addition and, also, as well as, and also, besides, apart from, in addition, moreover, furthermore etc + accordingly, hence, henceforth, due to, as a resull, 80, on account oF Causeleffect te. 'f| when, on condition that, suppose that, unless, provided, suppose Condition ; that, supposing that =like, unlike, likewise, in the same way Comparison -20 : but, though, although, even though, still, yet, however, whereas etc. Contrasv/opposition possibly, probably, perhaps, maybe etc. Doubv/hypothesis, above all, really, in effect, particularly, especially, in particular @o Emphasis *at first, first, second, eventually, ater on, after a short time ele Sequence either ..-or, neither... nor, or, ete Alternative in order to, so as, so that, etc Purpose/aims + for example, for instance, that is, namely, such as ete Examples and restatements EXERCISE GIVE THE MEANINGS (comparison, sequence, doubt, causeleffect, alternative, example, crenist condition, emphasis, hypothesis, purpose, addition etc) OF THE UNDERLINED. SIGNAL WORDS FOR EACH SENTENCE: 2) Similarly, one can pay by means of a traveler cheque: .. >) An insurer will pay all the taxes accordingly: : ©) Although money is a good servant, itis a bad master. = 4) Inflation will particularly. strike the economies of developing countries: ©) Therefore, students will ike English: £ Inflation will certainly strike the economies of developing countries 4) An insurer will likely pay all the taxes: 4) Money is both a good servant and a bad master. . j)Thatis why students will dislike English... ') An insured will consequently require pay all the taxes. ') Crisis will probably strike developing countries: m) Finally, students will learn English... 1) Money is a good servant, yet a bad master: ©) Likewise, One can pay by means of a bank card:,.... 20a V, READING COMPREHENSION TEXT 1: ENGLISH CRIMINAL LAW English criminal law refers to the body of law in the jurisdiction of England and Wales which deals with crimes and their consequences, and which is complementary to the civil law of England and Wales, Criminal acts are considered offences against the whole of a community. The state, in addition to certain international organizations, has responsibility for erime prevention, for bringing the Culprits to justice, and for dealing with convicted offenders. The police, the criminal courts and prisons arc all publicly funded services, though the main focus of criminal law concerns the role of the courts, how they apply criminal statutes and common law, and why some forms of behaviour are considered criminal. ‘The English legal system is common within other Commonwealth states, notably Australia, although goverment legislative practices and rare legal procedures, example being court hierarchy, may differ to both a significant and minor extent ‘The fundamentals of a crime are known as the actus reus and the mens rea. These two Latin terms mean “guilty act" (doing that which is prohibited) and "guilty mind” (ic. the intent to Commit the crime). The traditional view is that moral culpability requires that one should have recognized or intended that one was acting wrongly. Defences exist to some crimes, A person who is accused may in certain circumstances plead they are insane and did not understand what they were doing, that they were notin control of their bodies, they were intoxicated, mistaken about what they were doing, ated in self defence, acted under duress or out of necessity, or were provoked. These are issues to be raised at tral, for which there are detailed rules of evidence and procedure to be followed EXERCISE L 2, x Find the topic ofthis text (see the firs line ofthe first paragraph) Tdentify the main idea of the text (what action is taking place), Read sentences in order to idemify signal words and their meanings. 22 ‘TEXT 2: CONSTITUTIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE LAW Constitutional and administrative law govern the affairs of the state. Constitutional law ‘concerns both the relationships between the executive, legislature and judiciary and the human rights or civil liberties of individuals against the state. Most jurisdictions, like the United States and France, have a single codified constitution with a bill of rights. A few, like the United Kingdom, have no such document. A “constitution” is simply those laws which constitute the body politic, from statute, case law and convention, A case named Eniick v Carrington illustrates a constitutional principle deriving from the common law. Mr Entick's house was searched and ransacked by Sheriff Carrington. When Mr Entick complained in court, Sheriff Carrington argued that a warrant from a Government minister, the Earl of Halifax, was valid authority. However, there was no written statutory provision or court authority. The leading judge, Lord Camden, stated that, 1. The great end, for which men entered into society, was to secure their property. That right is preserved sacred and incommunicable in all instances, where it has not been taken away or abridged by some public law for the good of the whole ... If no excuse can be found or produced, the silence of the books is an authority against the defendant, and the plaintiff must have judgment. 2. The fundamental constitutional principle, inspired by John Locke, holds that the individual can do anything except that which is forbidden by law, and the state may do nothing except that which is authorised by law. Administrative law is the chief method for people to hold state bodies to account. People can sue an agency, local council, public service, or government ministry for judicial review of actions or decisions, to ensure that they comply with the law, and that the government entity observed required procedure. The first specialist administrative court was the Conseil d'Eiat set up in 1799, as Napoleon assumed power in France. EXERCISE 1, Find the topic of this text (see the first line of the first paragraph), 2. Identify the main idea of the text (what action is taking place) 3. Read sentences in order to idemtfy signal words and their meanings 2 .23 TEXT 3: INTERNATIONAL LAW International law can refer to three things: public international law, private international law or conflict of laws and the law of supranational organisations. + Public international law concerns rel jonships between sovereign nations, The sources for public international law development are custom, practice and treaties between sovereign nations, such as the Geneva Conventions. Public international law can be formed by international organisations, such as the United Nations (which was established after the failure of the League of Nations to prevent World War 11).""! the International Labour Organisation, the World Trade Organisation, or the International Monetary Fund, Public international law has a special status as law because there is no international police force, and courts (e.g. the International Court of Justice as the primary UN judicial organ) lack the capacity to penalise disobedience, However, a few bodics, such as the WTO, have effective systems of binding arbitration and dispute resolution backed up by trade sanctions. «Conflict of laws (or "private international law” in civil law countries) concerns which jurisdiction a legal dispute between private parties should be heard in and which jurisdiction's law should be applied. Today, businesses are increasingly capable of shifting capital and labour supply chains across borders, as well as trading with overseas businesses, making the question of which country has jurisdiction even more pressing Increasing numbers of businesses opt for commercial arbitration under the New York Convention 1958. European Union law is the first and, so far, only example of an internationally accepted legal system other than the UN and the World Trade Organisation. Given the trend of increasing global economic integration, many regional agreements—especially the Union of South American Nations—are on track to follow the same model. In the EU, sovereign nations have gathered their authority in a system of courts and political institutions. These institutions are allowed the ability to enforce legal norms both against or for member states and citizens in a manner which is not possible through public international law. As the European Court of Justice said in the 1960s, European Union law constitutes "a new legal order of international law" for the mutual social and economic benefit of the member states. EXERCISE B24 1, Find the topic of this text (see the first line of the first paragraph), 2. Identify the main idea of the text (what action is taking place). 3. Read sentences in order to identify signal words and their meanings. Text 4; WILL ENGLISH BECOME THE MEDIUM OF INTERNATIONAL LAW? My point can be made in quite a simple way, with a facetious question: Why have I not used the correct Japanese name for “the International Criminal Court”, and why are not the ICC judges, jurists, prosecutors and defendants all conducting their cases in Japanese? Some will be quick—presumably Japanese jurists quickest of all—to assure me that all ICC business is inspectable in Japanese, that everything such an international body says and does is made available in Japanese, and indeed that where a Japanese judge or legal agent is involved, some of the opinion writing or testimony may have originated in Japanese Actually it was only in July of this year, 2007, that Japan fully joined the ICC, so some of the court's documentation may not yet be easily available in Japanese! There is no clash of languages, but a maintenance of each in parallel with all the others. If English appears to predominate in some kinds of practical matters, this is for purely pragmatic reasons and therefore in a sense arbitrary: if the world had turned out differently the pragmatic language choice could have been Spanish or Esperanto or Mandarin or Hindi. believe these answers leave some things out of the account, concerning the non= arbitrary implications where a particular language and its shaping discourses emerges by default as the adopted solution to a pragmatic communicational challenge. The parity in principle of the world’s languages in the workings of global institutions stands at some distance—greater or lesser—from their differential use and importance in practice. EXERCISE Find the topic of this text (sce the first line of the first Paragraph). Tdentify the main idea ofthe text (what action is taking place) ‘Read some sentences in order to identify signal words and their meanings. ‘What is law according to Han’? What does Austin say about law? How does Dworkin describe law? Aweaen 2425 TEXT §; RELIGIOUS LAW Religious law is explicitly based on religious precepts. Examples include the Jewish Halakha and Islamic Sharia—both of which translate as the "path to follow"—while Christian canon law also survives in some church communities. Often the implication of religion for law is unalterability, because the word of God cannot be amended or legislated against by judges or governments. However a thorough and detailed legal system generally requires human claboration. For instance, the Quran has some lav, and it acts asa source of further law through imerpretation, Qiyas (reasoning by analogy), /jma (consensus) and precedent. This is mainly contained in a body of law and jurisprudence known as Sharia and Figh respectively. Another sxampleis the Torah or Old Testament, inthe Pentateuch or Five Books of Moses. This contains the basic code of Jewish law, which some Israeli communities choose to use, The Halakha isa code of Jewish law which summarises some of the Talmud's interpretations Nevertheless, Israeli law allows litigants to use religious laws only if they choose. Canon law is only in use by members of the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion. Sharia law codifying elements of Sharia law. Since the mid-1940s, efforts have been made, in country after Country, to bring Sharia law more into line with modern conditions and conceptions. In modern times, the legal systems of many Muslim countries draw upon both civil and common law ‘radtions as wel as Islamic law and custom. The constitutions of certain Muslim states, such literature and affected world politics, EXERCISE 1. Find the topic of this text (see the first line of the first paragraph). 2. Identify the main idea of the text (what action ig taking place). 2526 3. Read sentences in order to identify signal words and their meanings TEXT 6: CIVIL LAW Civil law is a Legal system inspired by Roman law, the primary feature of which is that laws are written into a collection, codified, are not determined, as in common law, by judges Conceptually, it is the group of legal ideas and systems ultimately derived from the Code of Justinian, but heavily overlaid by Germanic, ecclesiastical, feudal, and local practices, as well as doctrinal strains such as natural law, codification, and legislative positivism. Materially, civil law proceeds from abstractions, formulates general principles, and distinguishes substantive rules from procedural rules. It holds legislation as the primary source of law, and the court system is usually inquisitorial, unbound by precedent, and composed of specially-trained judicial officers. The principle of civil law is to provide all citizens with an accessible and written collection of the laws which apply to them and which judges must follow. It is the most prevalent and oldest surviving legal system in the world. Colonial expansion spread the civil law system and European civil law has been adopted in much of Latin America as well as in parts of Asia and Atica. The primary source of law is the legal code, which is a compendium of statutes, arranged by subject matter in some pre-specified order; a code may also be described as “a systematic collection of interrelated articles written in a terse, staccato style.” Law codes are usually created by a legislature's enactment of a new statute that embodies all the old statutes relating, to the subject and including changes necessitated by court decisions. In some cases, the change results in a new statutory concept. The two other major legal systems in the world are common Jaw and Islamic law. Civil law systems may be subdivided into further categories. Countries where Roman law in some form is stil! living law and there has been no attempt to create a civil code. Andorra and San Marino. Countries with mixed systems in which Roman law is an academic source of authority but common law is also influential: Scotland and the Roman-Dutch law countries (South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka and Guyana). Countries with codes intended to be comprehensive, such as France: itis this last category that is normally regarded as typical of “civil law” systems. 26 »27 ‘The Scandinavian systems are of intermediate character, as they have a background of Roman and customary law together with partial codification Considered as a hybrid system, i French customary law and consid The law of Quebec may also be that a French-type civil code coexists with pre-revolutionary lerable common law influence EXERCISE Find the topic of this text (See the first line of the first paragraph), Adentify the main idea of | the text (what action is taking place). Read sentences in order to identity signal words and their meanings, 27