Dynamic Phenomena of A Financial Hyperchaotic System and DNA Sequences For Image Encryption

Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:32689–32723
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-021-11180-9
Dynamic phenomena of a financial hyperchaotic

system and DNA sequences for image encryption
V. R. Folifack Signing 1,2,3 & R. L. Tagne Mogue 1,2,3 & J. Kengne 1 & M. Kountchou 2,3 &
Saïdou 3,4
Received: 24 October 2019 / Revised: 26 April 2021 / Accepted: 24 June 2021 /

Published online: 3 August 2021
# The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2021
Abstract
With advances in modern technology, the security of information, including the protec-
tion of digital images, is of particular interest. Due to the type of special storage format of
images and the fateful dimension of 1D map that have a small secret key space, in this
paper, a joint-based encryption technique on the pseudo-random and sophisticated
character of hyperchaotic behavior and DNA coding is proposed. The entire dynamics
of a financial hyperchaotic system is studied for a better selection of the sequence key
using nonlinear analysis tools. A rich dynamic of this analysis reveals a plethora of
phenomena such as multistability and offset boosting, which, to our knowledge, have not
yet been the subject of a study on financial hyperchaotic systems. The set consisting of
the pseudo-random aspect of the financial hyperchaotic system used in all stages of
encryption, DNA coding (algebraic operations, complementation, and DNA rules), and
the scrambling of the positions of each image pixel is exploited to reinforce the effec-
tiveness of the confusion and diffusion of digital images. To analyze the security and
robustness of the proposed algorithm, some security tests such as histogram analysis,
correlation, information entropy, as well as key analysis are carried out. The values of
correlation coefficients of the encrypted images using the proposed scheme are close to
zero, The entropy values of the test images are overall greater than 7.99 and the key space
of the is greater than 2100. Besides, differential analysis shows that the number of pixel
change rate (NPCR) and unified average change intensity (UACI) for the proposed
technique are greater than 99.50% and 30%, respectively. Furthermore, the quantitative
analyses of occlusion and data loss attacks as well as the results of comparison with some
advanced algorithms show the efficiency and security of the proposed cryptosystem.
Keywords Image encryption . Financial Hyperchaotic system . Multistability . Offset boosting .

DNA coding
* V. R. Folifack Signing
signingruben@yahoo.fr
Extended author information available on the last page of the article

32690 Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:32689–32723
1 Introduction
Nowadays, the protection or the security of information has become of paramount importance
in different domains. Indeed, espionage affects a very wide range of information such as
images, passwords, video, bank codes, E-mail messages, etc. These attachments can reach
individuals, organizations, or states on different sectors such as military, medical, industrial,
and many others hence the need to protect and secure the information [18, 40]. Many
encryption algorithms have been proposed in the literature and among which image encryption
methods are one of the most effective and traditional techniques for protecting digital images
[55, 60]. Multimedia data such as images have certain characteristics such as large amount of
data, high redundancy, and strong correlation between pixels. Hence, their encryption using
standard algorithms such as Data Encryption Standard (DES), IDES (International Data
Encryption Standard), Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) and many others originally
defined for textual information; take a considerable amount of time for images encryption
[35, 56, 59]. Another problem with these conventional techniques is their low key space,
which consequently makes the cryptosystem vulnerable to brute force attacks [57]. Thus, it is
necessary to design new techniques for image encryption. For this purpose, several encryption
techniques have been proposed in order to overcome this difficulty, namely chaotic encryption
[34, 70] and DNA-based encryption (deoxyribonucleic acid) [16]. Chaotic behavior is ob-
served in deterministic systems and is one of the most fascinating research topics in nonlinear
science [32, 51]. This behavior presents pseudo-random aspect, non-periodic and sensitivity
properties to the initial conditions [49]. A chaotic or hyperchaotic system can generate
sequences in a randomly or pseudo-randomly and thus it is perfectly suited for image
encryption [44].
In recent years, the idea of encrypting images using DNA coding has been received a
great deal of attention from the scientific community due to DNA characteristics such as
massive parallelism, huge storage, and extremely low power consumption [58, 79]. Since
only the use of DNA-based cryptography is not sufficient, work has emerged on
combining DNA coding and chaotic/ hyperchaotic systems in order to obtain more
reliable information security techniques [13, 16, 61, 79]. The constant challenge in the
literature is to propose dynamic systems that can exhibit complex dynamic phenomena
on the one hand and to propose complex encryption techniques taking into account both
a reasonable execution time/speed and robustness that can withstand the various attacks.
As a result, the works in [24, 74] develop interesting themes but for a weak dynamic. On
the other hand, the encryption technique proposed in [77] is better compared to the
chaotic sequence and DNA sequence-based (C-DNA) method [58], the cipher diffusion
in crisscross pattern-based (CDCP) method [82], a class hyperchaos-based (CHC) meth-
od [81] but includes several unnecessary steps which can be omitted to improve the
speed of execution of the encryption. Besides, the differential results through the NPCR
and UACI metrics are relatively low and deserve to be improved. To overcome these
difficulties, we propose in this paper an image encryption technique based jointly on the
DNA sequence and the hyperchaotic sequence for a dual purpose: (a) to fully explore the
dynamics of the system in order to obtain the maximum of dynamic phenomena
encountered in the literature; (b) to propose an image encryption method with a reduced
number of steps and use the hyperchaotic sequence at all these steps but also scrambled
the positions of each image pixel for such robust and efficient encryption. The particu-
larity of the proposed work in this article is highlighted by the following salient points:
Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:32689–32723 32691
& The financial hyperchaotic system presents a muffled dynamic repertoire of phenomena
such as multistability and offset boosting not found in this class of system;
& Coexistence of two and four attractors observed in this system has not yet been studied in
the dynamics of financial systems;
& The random or pseudo-random aspect of hyperchaotic sequence is jointly used with DNA
sequence for image encryption;
& DNA operations (addition, subtraction, and XOR), as well as full bit scrambling are used
to improve the performance of the proposed algorithm.
The remainder of this work is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the related works.
Section 3 describes a preliminary study of the hyperchaotic financial system (Symmetry and
Dissipativity, Equilibrium point and stability) and DNA coding (DNA technique, the set of
eight rules, and algebraic operations). Section 4 explores the complete dynamic behavior as
well as the various found phenomena. Section 5 proposes the algorithm of encryption and
decryption image. Section 6 examines statistical, differential, and robustness analysis as well
as a comparison with other cryptosystems to evaluate the proposed encryption technique.
Finally, Section 7 concludes the work.
2 Related works
The development of bioinformatics has sparked increasing interest in scientific research.

It introduces new data structures and computational methods and shows unique applica-
tion perspectives in cryptography, steganography, and other fields. In general, DNA
cryptography uses a DNA molecule as an information carrier and biological technology
as an implementation tool. Due to its significant advantages such as massive parallelism,
huge storage, and extremely low power consumption, DNA cryptography has gained
wide attention [58, 79]. Nowadays, DNA cryptography involves biology, computer
science, mathematics, and other disciplines. Based on traditional cryptosystems, DNA
molecular computational methods are combined to obtain a new, more reliable, and
stable cryptosystem, which brings opportunities and challenges to modern cryptosystems
[11].
In recent years, DNA molecule appears as a recourse in the more or less long term to
archive our computer data at low prices and for thousands of years [1, 16, 72]. This
mode of storage consists of coding the information no longer in the form of 0 and 1, but
by using the four nucleic acid bases namely adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and
thymine (T) which is particularly complex [65]. Thus, 0 of the binary system is
indifferently coded from a molecule A or C, whereas 1 is transformed into molecules
G and T. Thus, encoded or encrypted an image jointly used chaotic or hyperchaotic
behavior and DNA sequence is an effective means of cryptography [2]. To execute
encryption using DNA sequence, random or pseudo-random numbers are transcribed in
DNA domain via certain principles. DNA operations and calculations are highlighted
through the corresponding biological operations. Thus, there are eight different DNA
rules defined as the basis through which all algebraic operations like addition, subtrac-
tion, multiplication, exclusive-or, and exclusive-nor apply [7, 14, 31, 61, 62, 73]. In
general, image encryption techniques jointly based on chaotic sequence and DNA
sequence are applied to all categories of chaotic dynamical systems namely low dimen-
sional dynamical systems and high dimensional dynamic systems [4, 22, 25, 79].
In 2014, Enayatifar et al. proposed a genetic algorithm of image encryption based on a
hybrid DNA model using a logistic map [13]. Cryptanalysis through an encryption
algorithm based on a logistic map combined with DNA coding and entropy information
was explored in 2017 by Su et al. [50]. Recently in 2019, Yu et al. proposed a double-
image encryption technique based on spatiotemporal chaos and DNA operations on a
logistic map [75]. Despite the fateful dimension of chaotic logistics maps and the ease of
implementation, they have a small secret key space and therefore a low-security level. To
overcome this difficulty dynamic systems with three, four dimensions and more are used
and investigated to produce multiple chaotic or hyperchaotic sequences useful for
encryption processes [42, 68]. In the same lines, Zhan et al. jointly exploited a
hyperchaotic system to generate a pseudo-random sequence and DNA sequence to
encrypt images [77]. Their main idea is to apply the pseudo-random hyperchaotic
sequence at almost all stages of encryption. Thus, the pixels of images are transcribed
in binary, which subsequently becomes completely scrambled by the pseudo-random
sequence. Addition and subtraction DNA operations, as well as the complementation, are
subsequently applied. Thus, Amini et al. recently proposed a new adaptive encryption
algorithm approach to color images based on the DNA sequence and a hyperchaotic
system [2]. Their method consists of two main steps namely the arrangement of the
pixels of the image and the scrambled image is encrypted respectively combining the
hyperchaotic system Chen, the DNA sequence, and an adaptive method.
Since only the use of DNA-based cryptography is not sufficient, work has emerged on
combining DNA coding and chaotic/ hyperchaotic systems in order to obtain more reliable
information methods [11, 16, 31, 65]. However, there are some shortcomings in the use of
image encryption based jointly on DNA sequence and sequence generated by chaotic systems
namely: (a) insufficient protection using low-dimensional chaotic systems like a 1D chaotic
map; (b) slow encryption speed for some techniques that use high-dimension chaotic systems
(3D or 4D) [19, 53]. The trade-off between robustness and time/speed execution should be
resolved. To overcome these difficulties, a new image encryption technique jointly based on
the DNA sequence and the hyperchaotic sequence generated by a financial system is proposed
in this article.
3 Preliminaries
3.1 The financial hyperchaotic system
The financial hyperchaotic system studied in this article is introduced by [24, 74] which
is modified to the chaotic system developed by [26, 80]. Note that in these works, the
system consists of three first-order differential equations from four financial processes
namely: stock, labor, production, and money. Especially since this financial chaotic
system contains the elements of the interest rate consisting of three factors including
investment demand, the average profit margin, and price index. Given that, the interest
rate and the average profit margin are linked, Yu et al. [74] added a fourth additional
variable corresponding to the average profit margin and the new financial system modify
consisting of four first-order differential equations is defined:
n
ẋ1 ¼ x3 þ x1 ðx2 −aÞ þ x4 ẋ2 ¼ 1−bx2 −x1 ẋ3 ¼ −x1 −czẋ4 ¼ −dx1 x2 −kx4 ð1Þ
2
Where x1 is the interest rate, x2 the investment demand, x3 the price exponent, and x4 the
average profit margin. The dot represent the first derivatives of the corresponding variables and
the system parameters a, b, c, d, and k are positive real numbers. Financial systems consist of
enterprise units and markets that interact, generally in a complex manner, for the purpose of
economic growth within investment and the demand of commercials. The system investigated
in this article, although it is financial, highlights several dynamic characteristics developed in
the following sections. Thus, the phenomenon of multistability (to be avoided in the encryp-
tion process except in cases of coexistence of chaotic or hyperchaotic behaviors only), offset
boosting (shift in amplitudes or position of behaviors), stability diagrams (very important for
the choice of the sequence used in the cryptosystem) are explored in the system studied in this
work. A summary of these Features in comparison with some 4-D dynamic systems is
presented in Table 1 thus illustrating the advantages of the studied financial system.
3.1.1 Symmetry and Dissipativity
The system is dissipative if the result of the rate of volume contraction of system (1) is negative
(see Appendix for more details). Consequently, all trajectories are confined to space whose
volume is zero [48, 80] and, therefore, existing attractors can be chaotic or hyperchaotic.
Another important property of our system is the symmetry because it provides information on
the simplicity of the dynamics of a system. Thus, the system (4) is invariant with respect to the
transformation:
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ↔ð−x1 ; x2 ; −x3 ; −x4 Þ ð2Þ
It implies that the system (4) is symmetrical about the coordinate x2.
3.1.2 Equilibrium point and stability
The system (1) has three equilibrium points (E1,E2, and, E3) and for the range of system
parameters a = 1, b = 0.11, c = 1.5, d = 0.2, and k = 0.17, the eigenvalues, as well as the
stability of each fixed point, are listed in Table 2. In light of the results of Table 2, the fixed
points E1, E2, and E3 are always unstable and the existing attractors belong to the category self-
excited [45].
According to the Lyapunov dimension (given in the appendix), the financial hyperchaotic
system (1) can exhibit highly sophisticated and abundant complex hyperchaotic dynamical
Table 1 Categorization of some reported chaotic and hyperchaotic systems with different features
Chaotic/hyperchaotic system Nature of system References Features
4-D chaotic Hidden [48] - Quasi-periodic

- Coexistence of attractors
4-D Hyperchaotic Hidden [67] Coexistence of attractors
4-D Hyperchaotic Self-excited [74] Control
4-D Hyperchaotic Self-excited This work - Multistability
- Offset boosting
- Two-parameter dynamic
Table 2 Eigenvalues and stability of equilibrium points
Fixed point Eigenvalue Stability
E1 λ1 = −1.4088, λ2 = −0.1100, λ3 =0.0764, λ4 =7.7534 Unstable

E2 λ1 = −9.3285, λ2 = −1.6860, λ3 = −0.6667, λ4 =0.0235 Unstable
E3 λ1 = −10.1020, λ2 = −1.6416, λ3 = −0.5028, λ4 =0.0220 Unstable
behaviors. It is important to mention that this property is recommended for cryptographic

applications.
3.2 DNA cryptography
3.2.1 DNA encoding and decoding
Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is a biological macromolecule present in all cells as well as in

many viruses. DNA is the carrier molecule of hereditary genetic information. For a DNA
sequence, there are four different nucleic acid bases: Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G),
and Thymine (T) which are complementary two by two (A and T complementary as well as G
and C) [14]. In computer science, a binary number system consists of two complementary
digits 0 and 1. By comparison, 00 and 11 are complementary, 01 and 10 are also comple-
mentary. In the same lines, the four nucleic acids are used respectively to code 00, 01, 10, and
11. In total, there are twenty-four types of methods (rules or schemes) of DNA transformation
of which only eight between them meet the criteria of Watson and Crick [66] which are listed
in Table 3. For an 8-bit gray-scale digital image requires only four DNA bases for encoding.
3.2.2 Algebraic operation for DNA sequences
Typically, DNA-based encryption consists of three stages: encoding, operations, and

decoding. Parallel to the classical algebraic operations, there also are algebraic biological
operations based on DNA sequence among which the addition, subtraction, multiplication,
exclusive or (XOR), exclusive-nor (XNOR), right-circular shift, and left-circular shift [7, 31,
61, 62]. These DNA operations are performed under conventional operations in the binary
system. For an 8-bit gray-scale digital image requires only four DNA bases for encoding.
Table 3. Principle of DNA encoding and decoding and certain operations
Eight kinds of DNA encoding and decoding rules
Rule 1 Rule 2 Rule 3 Rule 4 Rule 5 Rule 6 Rule 7 Rule 8
00-A 00-A 00-C 00-C 00-G 00-G 00-T 00-T

01-C 01-G 01-A 01-T 01-A 01-T 01-C 01-G
10-G 10-C 10-T 10-A 10-T 10-A 10-G 10-C
11-T 11-T 11-G 11-G 11-C 11-C 11-A 11-A
Some DNA operations
Addirion A C G T Subtraction A C G T XOR A C G T
A A C G T A A T G C A A C G T
C C G T A C C A T G C C A G T
G G T A C G G C A T G G T A C
Usually, the image is converted into a DNA sequence by means of DNA coding, and then the
converted DNA sequence is transformed by the idea of DNA operation (cited above) as well as
DNA complementation to complete the information diffusion operation. Thus, for the eight
rules of DNA encoding, there are also eight types of DNA rules for each operation. Using Rule
1 of Table 3, the addition, subtraction, and exclusive or (XOR) operations are performed
respectively [10].
4 Bifurcations setting
In this section, the system (1) is solved numerically through the standard four order Runge-
Kutta algorithm at Δt = 10−3s for obtaining bifurcation diagrams, frequency spectra, phase
portraits, and two-parameter diagrams. The entire dynamics of the system (1) is studied and
highlighted by dynamic behaviors and phenomena.
4.1 Effect of parameters on the dynamics
The parameters a, b, c, and k each affect the dynamics of the system (1) when considered as a
bifurcation control parameter. For each parameter of system corresponds to a bifurcation
diagram. Figure 1 presents the bifurcation diagrams of the local maxima of the state variable
x1 of the system and their corresponding Lyapunov exponent spectra. The color difference
highlights the hysteresis phenomenon which is obtained by varying the bifurcation control
parameter in both two directions with the same initial conditions (0.1, 0, 0, 0). It is important to
mention that the hysteresis phenomenon can be easily observed for each bifurcation parameter
by the color difference as shown in the bifurcation diagrams in Fig. 1. This color difference is
obtained by superimposing two data (the curve in magenta when the values of the control
parameter are increased and that in green when the values of the same control parameter are
decreased). This hysteresis phenomenon is explored in detail in the next section. For Fig. 1(a),
the fixed parameters of the system are b = 0.11, c = 1.5, d = 0.2, k = 0.17, and a is varied in the
range0.1 ≤ a ≤ 5. For Fig. 1(b), the fixed parameters of the system are a = 1, c = 1.5, d = 0.2,
k = 0.17, and b is varied in the range0.1 ≤ b ≤ 0.3. For Fig. 1(c), the fixed parameters of the
system are a = 1, b = 0.11, d = 0.2, k = 0.17, and c is varied in the range0.1 ≤ c ≤ 3. For Fig.
1(d), the fixed parameters of the system are a = 1, b = 0.11, d = 0.2, c = 1.5, and k is varied in
the range0.1 ≤ k ≤ 2.
4.2 Multistability and offset boosting
Multistability is one of the most coveted phenomena in the study of dynamic systems obtained
when a system has several stable states (fixed point, limit cycle, chaotic, hyperchaotic, or
quasi-periodic) for a fixed range of parameters and varying only the initial conditions [27, 29,
30, 41]. This phenomenon is observed for all the bifurcation parameters as mentioned
previously. When consider the bifurcation diagram of Fig. 1(a) for example in the range 2 ≤
a ≤ 3where the system presents two completely different behaviors (periodic and chaotic or
hyperchaotic). For a = 2.85 we have a cut of the initial conditions of Fig. 2(a) obtained by
plotting the local maxima of the state variable x1 according to the initial conditions x1(0) in the
range 0 ≤ x1(0) ≤ 5.
4 4
a(i) b(i)
3 3
2 2
x1
x1
1 1
0 0
−1 −1
1 2 3 4 5 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
a b
0.05
0.04 a(ii) b(ii)
Lyapunov exponents
Lyapunov exponents
0.02 0
0
−0.02 −0.05
−0.04
1 2 3 4 5 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
1
0 −1.14
−1 −1.16
−2
1 2 3 4 5 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
a b
4 4
c(i) d(i)
3 3
2 2
x1
x1
1 1
0 0
−1 −1
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0.5 1 1.5 2
c k
0.05 0.5
c(ii) d(ii)
Lyapunov exponents
Lyapunov exponents
0 0
−0.05 −0.5
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0.5 1 1.5 2
0
0
−1
−1
−2
−3 −2
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0.5 1 1.5 2
c k
Fig. 1. Bifurcation diagrams of the variable x1 versus the systems’ parameters a, b, c, k and their corresponding
spectrum of Lyapunov exponents
Fig. 2. (a) Bifurcation like sequence showing local maxima of the coordinatex1versus initial statex1(0) highlight-
ing the zones of double chaotic attractor (b) and limit cycle of period 1 (c)
This diagram confirms the presence of two different behaviors (chaotic and a limit cycle of period
1) which is distinguishable. To illustrate this difference of behavior, Fig. 2(b) presents a sample of
chaotic behavior obtained for the initial conditions (1, 0.2, 0.6, −0.3)and Fig. 2(c) shows the limit
cycle of period 1 for the initial conditions (2.4, 0.2, 0.6, −0.3). When we now consider the
bifurcation diagram of Fig. 1(d) in the range 1.02 ≤ k ≤ 1.06 as shown in Fig. 3(a), we observe a
hysteresis window where two different behaviors coexist. A one-dimensional cut of the initial
conditions for k = 1.036 of these behaviors is presented in Fig. 3(b) by plotting the local maxima of
the variable x1 as a function of x1(0) in the range 6 ≤ x1(0) ≤ 10. The coexistence of four different
attractors (two chaos of Fig. 3(c) with two limit cycle of Fig. 3(d)) illustrates this phenomenon. To
the best of our knowledge, coexistence of two and four different attractors has not yet been found in
a financial system and this discovery enriches the literature in this study.
Another type of coexistence is called offset boosting obtained when a system behavior can move
under the effect of an added parameter next to a system variable (not any system variable). The only
condition for obtaining this phenomenon is that the state variable in question appears on a single line of
thesystemasin[28,52].Theoffsetboostingphenomenonisobservedinthedynamicsofthesystem(1)
by adding a parameter m such as x3 → (x3 + m). Thus, for m = −2, 0, and 2 for example, the chaotic
behavior is booster in three respective positions as shown in Fig. 4 (see legend for other details).
4.3 Two-parameter diagrams
Knowing the effect of a parameter on the entire dynamics of the system is important but it is
more interesting to have an overall idea of the influence of one parameter on another for any
Fig. 3. (a) Widening of the bifurcation diagram of Fig.1d in the range 1.02 ≤ k ≤ 1.06; (b) bifurcation like
sequence showing local maxima of the coordinatex1versus initial statex1(0) highlighting the zones of single band
chaotic attractors (c) and limit cycles of period 3 (d)
choice [3]. For this reason, we opted to study the influence of the various parameters on the
dynamics of the system (1) to have an idea of the type of behavior for the precise value of the
parameters. Fig. 5 presents the different stability diagrams for which the largest Lyapunov
exponent band is activated for a better decision on the type of behavior. In light of Fig. 5, for
each diagram, a behavior corresponds to a color and is confirmed by the values of Lyapunov
exponent. For example, for the Lyapunov stability diagram of Fig. 5(a), the data in blue are the
low-frequency behaviors; those in cyan, yellow, orange, and light red are also periodic but
Fig. 4. Offset boosting of the chaotic attractor for varying the control parameter m: in (x1, x3) and (x2, x3) planes
for m = 2 (blue), m = 0 (magenta), and m = −2 (green). Others parameters are a = 1, b = 0.11, c = 1.5, d = 0.2, and
k = 1.
high frequency. On the other hand, dark red data marks chaotic or hyperchaotic behaviors
(positive Lyapunov exponent).
Remember that these Lyapunov stability diagrams are of paramount importance for the
choice of parameters, for better control of the system, and also for a practical study. The
chaotic or hyperchaotic behavior is appropriate for the encryption of the information.
Lyapunov stability diagram is better indicated for the choice of the range of the parameters
used. Thus, a sample of the system parameters a = 0.31, b = 0.11, c = 1.5, d = 0.2, k = 0.17 is
chosen for detailed encryption later in this article. Fig. 6 shows the phase portraits of the
hyperchaotic behavior on different planes of the coordinates of the system for the choice of the
previous parameters.
5 Encryption and decryption algorithm
In this section, the structure of the image encryption technique based jointly on the
hyperchaotic sequence and the DNA sequence is presented. This scheme only applies to the
protection of grayscale images and offers the possibility of using images with different
resolutions. The proposed technique consists of four main steps as shown in Fig. 7. These
steps constitute the generation of the secret key, the scrambling of the bits, the DNA
Fig. 5. Standard Lyapunov stability diagrams (a), (b), (c), and (d) in the (a, b), (a, k), (a, c),and (k, c) planes
obtained by scanning upward the values of control parameters where Lyapunov exponents are unable to
discriminate individual behaviors. (Color figure online)
Fig. 6. Phase diagrams of the hyperchaotic attractor on different planes of parameters’ system obtained fora = 1,
b = 0.11, c = 1.5, d = 0.2, and k = 0.17
operations, the complement of DNA and the decoding. A special feature of this technique is
the use of the encryption key at all stages. Furthermore, the algorithm of each step of the
encryption and decryption process is produced in the appendix for more details.
Step 1: Generation of secret key.
The hyperchaotic system is pre-integrated after a minimum time tmin according to the fourth
order Runge-Kutta algorithm enough to eliminate the transient phase to avoid any undesirable

effect then stoker after another m × n times the four state variables of the system x1j , x2j ,
j j
x3 , and x4 of each iteration j. The setting parameters for the encryption/decryption
process are those of Fig. 6, judiciously chosen in the analyzes of section 4, namely a = 1,
b = 0.11, c = 1.5, d = 0.2, and k = 0.17with the initial conditions x1(0) = 0.1, x2(0) = 0.2, x3(0) =
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of the encryption process
0.6, x4(0) = − 0.3. After that, the secret key can be generated in the form:

k ¼ α1 ; α2 ; α3 ; …αmn ð3Þ
a j b j
where αj are obtained by concatenation of the values kαi and kαi which are expressed
as follows:
a j
kαi ¼ mod jxij j 1015 =108 ; 256 ð4Þ
j
¼ mod mod jxij j 1015 ; 108 ; 256
kαbi ð5Þ

With j = {1 to m × n}, i = {1, 2, 3, 4}, and kαai ; kαbi ∈½0; 256.
where mod(•) denotes the modulo operation and ⌊•⌋ denotes flooring operation.
Step 2: Total bit shuffling.
The idea in this step is to make more complex the degree of encryption. The position of each
pixel of the original image is fully scrambled bit by bit with the secret key of the first step to
obtain a binary scrambled sequence. Thus, the pixels of the original image are converted into
bits on a dimension (1D) to obtain the S0 sequence globally bit by bit of the hyperchaotic
sequence k to obtain the sequence S1.
Step 3: DNA addition and XOR.

S1 is encoded in a DNA sequence S'1 by the first DNA coding rule. The DNA addition is
performed on each element of S'1 with a specified initial sequence d0(in this work, d0 = ' A') to
obtain d1.
A decimal sequence ks is extracted from k and converted to binary digits and then encoded
into DNA to obtain a kd sequence. The XOR operation is now performed between kd and d1 to
obtain a sequence S2.
Step 4: DNA complement and decoding.
The obtained sequence S2 is complemented in DNA domain, then decode in order to

obtain the encrypted image sequence S. This step is the start of the decryption process
and decisive for the success of this process. In principle, the cryptosystem should be
able to recover or reconstruct the original information in the event of loss or addition
of data. This, therefore, requires a thorough assessment of noise and occlusion attacks.
The decryption algorithm is naturally the reverse process of the encryption algorithm. These
are the same encryption steps but in reverse order. It should be important to mention that the
encryption process uses the addition and XOR operations (Table 3) while the decryption
process uses the subtraction and XOR operations of Table 3.
6 Experimental results and performance analysis
All experiments are performed on a personal computer TOSHIBA AMD A8–6410 CPU
2.0GHz, 4GB Memory with Windows 10 64-bit as the operating system, and the operations
are simulated with MATLAB R2018a 64-bit. The standard grayscale test images used in this
work are summarized in Table 4 with different resolutions and format types. Standard open-
source test images for image processing and encryption are available on web pages http://
decsai.ugr.es/cvg/dbimagenes/ or http://sipi.usc.edu/database/database.php?volume=
misc&image=23#top. The secret keys are a = 0.31, b = 0.11, c = 1.5, d = 0.2, k = 0.17,x1(0) =
0.1, x2(0) = 0.2, x3(0) = 0.6, x4(0) = − 0.3. The encryption and decryption results of the
proposed technique are illustrated in Fig. 8 where the first column consists of original
images, the second ciphered images, and the third deciphered images. In light of Fig. 8, it
can be confirmed that the proposed cryptosystem could encrypt the images without any
leakage of visual information with a good correspondence between the original images and
the encrypted images. The results of statistical, differential, encryption key, data loss, and noise
analysis detailed in this section will help to assess the robustness of the proposed technique.
6.1 Exhaustive analysis
6.1.1 Key sensitivity analysis
Any reliable encryption algorithm must be extremely sensitive to the minor change of the
secret key to ensure, to a certain extent, security against brute force attacks. The sensitivity of
the key of a crypto-system can be observed by two different methods: (a) The cipher image
must be very sensitive to the secret key; i.e. if two slightly different keys are used to encrypt
the same image, then the two cipher images must be completely independent of one another
(low correlation). (b) The cipher image cannot be decrypted correctly if the secret key is
Table 4 Test images used with their resolution and format type
Image Lena Aerial Barbara Peppers Circuit Airport
Resolution 256 ×256 364×366 402×566 512×512 272×280 1024×1024

File format JPG PNG TIFF TIFF JPG TIFF
slightly modified during the decryption phase. Fig. 9 shows the cipher images of Lena (Fig. 9
(a)) and Peppers (Fig. 9 (b)). The used keys are different just at 10−25 of the initial condition
(x1(0) = 0.1, x2(0) = 0.2, x3(0) = 0.6, x4(0) = − 0.3) for the correct key and x1(0) = 0.1 + 10−25,
x2(0) = 0.2, x3(0) = 0.6, x4(0) = − 0.3 for the wrong key). This great sensitivity amply shows
that the cipher images by the proposed algorithm are extremely sensitive to the secret key and
are not vulnerable to brute force attacks.
6.1.2 Key space analysis
A good encryption technique should not only be sensitive to secret keys but also the key space
should be large enough to make brute force attacks impractical. The key space is the total
number of different parameters (initial conditions and constants) which enter into the consti-
tution of the encryption key. Thus, in the proposed algorithm, the secret key contains the initial
values of system (1), iteration time N0(N0 = 1000), size of the image (256 × 256), and the
constants C0 (a, b, c, d, and k). It should be important to mention that the calculation precision
of the double-precision number is taken as 10−16for the initial values
(H x1 ¼ H x2 ¼ H x3 ¼ H x4 ¼ 1016 ). Therefore, the total key space is calculated as:
KeySpace ¼ N 0 CO H x1 H x2 H x3 H x4 256 256≈CO 1071 ð16Þ
Although C0 is known, the key space is approximately 5.898 × 1072. For an effective crypto-
system, the size of the key space must be greater than 2100 to make brute force attacks
Fig. 8. Result of encryption and decryption process of Lena, Aerial, Barbara, Peppers, Circuit, and Airport
images: the first row contains the original images, the second their corresponding ciphered images and the third
the deciphered images.
a(i) a(ii)
b(i) b(ii)
Fig. 9. Deciphered Lena (a) and Peppers (b) images with the correct key (first column for initial conditionsx(0) =
0.1, y(0) = 0.2, z(0) = 0.6, w(0) = − 0.3) and incorrect key (second column for initial conditionsx(0) = 0.1 + 10−25,
y(0) = 0.2, z(0) = 0.6, w(0) = − 0.3)
unfeasible [33, 43]. As a result, the encryption technique proposed in this work has a key space
large enough to withstand all types of brute force attacks.
6.2 Statistical analysis
6.2.1 Histogram analysis
A histogram represents the number of pixels distribution of an image. Fig. 10 shows the histograms
of the original images and those of the corresponding encrypted images of Fig. 8. In light of Fig. 10,
visual inspection shows that the pixels distribution of all histograms of the original images are
distinct; unlike those of the encrypted images where only those of Lena, Aerial, Barbara, and
Peppers images are closer to a uniform distribution than the histograms of the encrypted images of
Circuit and Airport. These experiments show that the proposed cryptosystem can effectively resist
statistical attacks.
6.2.2 Correlation coefficient analysis
The calculation of the correlation coefficient between adjacent pixels makes it possible to evaluate
the cryptographic quality of the cryptosystem. If two pixels are closely associated, the correlation
coefficient will be close to 1 or − 1. A value close to zero indicates that the two pixels are not linked
and cannot be predicted [54]. This metric is calculated from the following formula:
800 1400 3000

1200 2500
Pixel distribution
Pixel distribution
Pixel distribution
600
1000
2000
800
400 1500
600
1000
400
200
200 500
0 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Grayscale Value Grayscale Value Grayscale Value

a(i) Plain-Lena b(i) Plain-Aerial c(i) Plain-Barbara
600 1200 2000
Pixel distribution
Pixel distribution
Pixel distribution
500 1000
1500
400 800
300 600 1000
200 400
500
100 200
0 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250

a(ii) Encrypted-Lena b(ii) Encrypted-Aerial c(ii) Encrypted-Barbara
3000 1000
15000
2500
Pixel distribution
Pixel distribution
800
Pixel distribution
2000
600 10000
1500
400
1000
5000
500 200
0 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
d(i) Plain-Peppers e(i) Plain-Circuit f(i) Plain-Airport
2500 10000
700
600
Pixel distribution
Pixel distribution
8000
Pixel distribution
2000
500
1500 6000
400
1000 300 4000

200
500 2000
100
0 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250

d(ii) Encrypted-Peppers e(ii) Encrypted-Circuit f(ii) Encrypted-Airport
Fig. 10. Histograms of the original and histograms of the corresponding cipher images of Fig.8.
E ððx−EðxÞÞðy−E ðyÞÞÞ
rxy ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffipffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð6Þ
DðxÞ DðyÞ
1 N
E ð xÞ ¼ ∑ xi ð6aÞ
N i¼1
1 N
DðxÞ ¼ ∑ ðxi −E ðxÞÞ2 ð6bÞ
N i¼1
Where x and y are the values of the gray level of the pixels at the same index of the images I and
I′; E(x) and D(x) the variances with N the number of used pixels. We calculated the correlation
coefficient of the adjacent pixels of the original images and those ciphers taken horizontally,
vertically and diagonally. Table 8 groups together the correlation coefficients obtained.
250 250 250

Pixel value on location (x+1,y+1)

200 200 200
150 150 150
100 100 100
50 50 50
0 0 0
0 100 200 0 100 200 0 100 200
Pixel value on location (x,y) Pixel value on location (x,y) Pixel value on location (x,y)
a(i) b(i) c(i)
250 250 250

200 200 200
150 150 150
100 100 100
50 50 50
0 0 0
0 100 200 0 100 200 0 100 200
a(ii) b(ii) c(ii)
250 250 250
200 200 200
150 150 150
100 100 100
50 50 50
0 0 0
0 100 200 0 100 200 0 100 200
d(i) e(i) f(i)
250 250 250
200 200 200
150 150 150
100 100 100
50 50 50
0 0 0
0 100 200 0 100 200 0 100 200
d(ii) e(ii) f(ii)
Fig. 11. Correlations of adjacent pixels of original and corresponding encrypted images: (a) Lena, (b) Aerial, (c)
Barbara, (d) Peppers, (e) Circuit, and (f) Airport.
Table 5 The correlation coefficients in different direction of some original and ciphers images
Images Original correlation coefficients Ciphers correlation coefficients
Horizontal Vertical Diagonal Horizontal Vertical Diagonal
Lena 0.9441 0.9736 0.9356 −0.0016 0.00019 −0.0035

Aerial 0.9733 0.9763 0.9650 0.0022 0.0006 0.0010
Barbara 0.9083 0.8891 0.8502 0.0009 0.0002 −0.0016
Peppers 0.9733 0.9763 0.9650 0.0022 0.00059 0.00098
Circuit 0.9766 0.9775 0.9678 −0.0005 −0.0016 0.0008
Airport 0.9093 0.9030 0.8591 0.0008 0.0001 −0.0003
In light of Table 8, the measured correlation coefficients of the original images are close to
1, while those of the cipher images close to 0, it is deduced that the encryption algorithm has
considerably attenuated the correlation between the pixels of the cipher images. Fig. 11
respectively represents (row after row) the correlation distributions of the horizontal adjacent
pixels of the original images and the cipher images. This Fig. 11 confirms the results of Table 5
since the distribution of adjacent pixels of the original images focuses on the diagonal, the
pixels are then strongly correlated, whereas those of the cipher images are not correlated and
have a uniform distribution. Hence the image encryption is secure against the statistical attack.
6.2.3 Information entropy analysis
Information entropy (IFE) is an important indicator used for random characteristics. It describes the
complexity of a system, solves the problem of the quantitative measurement of information and is
also used to measure the degree of chaos of the cipher image. The greater the entropy of information,
the more uncertain the information we have. It can be evaluated as follows:
255
IEF ðxi Þ ¼ − ∑ pðxi Þlog2 pðxi Þ; ð7Þ
i¼0
where p(xi) represents the probability of the gray level x(i). The information entropy is
evaluated for Lena, Cameraman, and Peppers images. The gray scale images having 28possible
values, the ideal entropy value is equal to 8 bits. With regard to the entropic values in Table 6,
it is observed that all information entropy values for the cipher images are very close to 8 bits.
Thus, the algorithm used is secure against entropy attacks.
Table 6 Information entropy (IFE) of original and ciphers images
Images Resolution IFE of Original IFE of Ciphers
Lena 256×256 7.4483 7.9973

Aerial 364×366 7.5925 7.9971
Barbara 402×566 7.7357 7.9983
Peppers 512×512 7.5925 7.9968
Circuit 272×280 7.2069 7.9278
Airport 1024×1024 6.8303 7.9873
6.3 Differential attack
A desirable property of cryptosystems is the high sensitivity to small changes in the original
image. A cryptanalyst can slightly modify a property of the encrypted image (only one pixel
for example) and observe the change of the result. Therefore, he may be able to find a
significant link between the input image and the encrypted one. If a small change in the
original image can cause any modification of the encrypted image, then the differential attack
becomes unnecessary. To calculate the influence of a change of a single-pixel on the cipher
image by any algorithm and therefore the resistance to differential attacks, two common
quantities can be used; NPCR (Number of Changing Pixel Rate), and UACI (Unified Averaged
Changed Intensity) [6, 54] defined by the following formulas:
M −1 N −1
∑ ∑ Dði; jÞ
i¼0 j¼0
NPCR ¼ 100 ð8Þ
M N
1 M −1 N −1 jC ði; jÞ−C ði; jÞj

1 2
UACI ¼ ∑ ∑ 100 ð9Þ
M N i¼0 j¼0 255
where M and N respectively represent the width and the height of an image. C1(i, j) and C2(i, j)
are cipher images before and after changing the pixel value at location (i, j) of the plain image.
D(i, j) is a matrix of the same size as C1 and C2 such that:
1; if C 1 ði; jÞ≠C 2 ði; jÞ

Dði; jÞ ¼ ð10Þ
0; if C 1 ði; jÞ ¼ C 2 ði; jÞ
NPCR measures the percentage of the number of different pixels relative to the total number of
pixels between the two images. While UACI measures the average difference in intensity
between the two images. The expected NPCR and UACI values for a 256 grayscale image are
99.6094% and 33.4635% [39, 64] respectively. The calculation result of NPCR and UACI is
grouped in Table 7 and we can see that NPCR is close to 99.60% and the UACI to [7, 14, 31,
62]% hence a good proposed algorithm that can effectively withstand differential attacks.
6.4 Robustness analysis
The real problem is that data is often transformed when it is transferred over the Internet using
a physical communication system. An innocuous modification of the cipher image may result
in significant distortion of the decryption process, which prevents the recovery of the original
Table 7 Average performance of NPCR (%) and UACI (%)
Images Resolution NPCR (%) UACI (%)
Lena 256×256 99.6540 33.4509

Aerial 364×366 99.6029 30.6868
Barbara 402×566 99.6217 30.9748
Peppers 512×512 99.6367 33.3528
Circuit 272×280 99.5956 33.1389
Airport 1024×1024 99.6135 30.2685
image, as indicated in the refs. [5, 36] an error in a pixel, we completely lose the original
image. A decent system must be designed so that it does not have a domino effect in the
decryption process and withstand image processing operations such as noise attack and
geometric attack (cropping attack). The Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR) between the
original image and the decrypted image is calculated to analyze the quality of the image
recovered after an attack. The larger the PSNR is, the stronger the robustness of the encryption
algorithm. This ratio is evaluated by the following equations:
MAX 2I
PSNR ¼ 10 log10 ; ð11Þ
MSE
1 M N
MSE ¼ ∑ ∑ ½Pði; jÞ−Dði; jÞ2 ; ð12Þ
M N i¼1 j¼1
where M, N represent the length and the width of the image, P(i, j) a pixel of the original image
and D(i, j) a pixel of the decrypted image, MAXI the maximum value of the pixel image.
6.4.1 Occlusion attack
It may happen that during transmission or communication, a portion of the image may be disturbed
or lost and the proposed encryption must be able to restore the decryption of this loss image
appropriately [54]. To show the robustness of the proposed algorithm, the cipher image is cut in
geometric proportions of size 64 × 64, 128 × 128, and 256 × 128 illustrated by the first line of
Fig. 12. The second line of Figs. 12(a) - (c) show the corresponding decryption images, which are
Fig. 12. Results of occlusion attack: The first row shows the cropping pattern and the second row shows the
results respectively
fuzzy but recognizable. Each deciphered image may very well reflect the main information of the
original image when a portion of the cipher image is cropped. In other words, even if 50% of pixels
of the encrypted image were occluded, the image can be reconstructed successfully. This indicates
that the proposed algorithm may very well withstand crop attacks.
6.4.2 Noise attack
In reality, noise is present daily. This noise has an impact on the quality of the visual
information of digital images. For this purpose, the salt & pepper, Gaussian, Poisson, and
speckle noises with the same density of 0.1 are added to the cipher images to evaluate the noise
immunity. Fig. 13 shows the decryption results highlighting the effect of the mentioned noises
on the decrypted images whose degradation varies depending on the type of noise added. In
the light of Fig. 13, we can see that Gaussian and speckle noise have a more degrading effect
than that caused by salt & pepper and speckle noises. According to the added noise, the
decrypted image remains visible thus showing the capacity of the cryptosystem to resist noise
attacks [54, 58, 71].
6.5 Speed performance analysis and comparisons
6.5.1 Speed performance analysis
The speed of execution is an important aspect that influences the computational complexity,
the feasibility and also the performance of a cryptosystem [71]. In general, the encryption
speed depends on the execution processor (CPU), the processor of the graphics card (GPU),
compiler, and so on. The MATLAB software is for this purpose a simulation tool suitable for
the execution of the algorithm, but its effectiveness is low. The simulation results for all gray
level images considered in this article are summarized in Table 8. This Table shows that the
execution speed is inversely proportional to the resolution of the image.
6.5.2 Comparisons
To show complexity and consideration of the proposed cryptosystem, the statistical and
differential results are compared with other existing image encryption algorithms for a view
of some performance indicators and presented in Table 9 through the coefficients of correla-
tion, entropy, NPCR, and UACI. The correlation coefficients of our algorithm in all horizontal,
vertical, and diagonal directions are relatively small and close to 0 than other methods of
encryption [7, 14, 62, 71] which shows that the proposed cryptosystem is more resistant to
statistical attacks.
As a result, the entropic information of our technique is higher. The NPCR and UACI
values of our algorithm are closer to ideal values and significantly larger compared to other
techniques. This shows that our algorithm can effectively combat selected plaintext attacks.
Table 10 illustrates and compares the key space of the proposed method with other
methods. Since the key space in encryption techniques depends on the number of system
variables, the image size, and other parameters, the proposed method offers a large key
space compared to some algorithms. For comparison purposes, salt & pepper noise is
quantitatively evaluated by the peak noise ratio PSNR. To this end, salt & pepper noises
with different densities 0.005, 0.05, 0.1 and 0.5 are added to the encryption images to
Fig. 13. Effect of salt & pepper (first column), Gaussian (second column), Poisson (third column), and Speckle
(fourth column) noise on decryption performance for a 0.1 density.
Table 8 Speed of encryption and decryption process
Image Resolution Encryption Speed (Mbit/s) Decryption Speed (Mbit/s)
Lena 256×256 12.60 13.30

Circuit 272×280 10.093 12.09
Aerial 364×366 6.35 6.78
Barbara 402×566 3.67 4.11
Peppers 512×512 3.21 3.34
Airport 1024 ×1024 0.729 0.84
assess noise immunity and summarized in Table 11. The comparison result in Table 11
shows that the proposed scheme could be more resistant to salt & pepper noise.
Table 12 shows the PSNR between the original images and the decrypted images
under the data loss attack in comparison with other techniques. The results show that the
image can be reconstructed successfully even if 50% of pixels of the encrypted image
would be lost. This indicates that the proposed algorithm may very well withstand crop
attacks. It is important to mention that the properties of the implementation tool namely
RAM, processor frequency, graphics card frequency are very important parameters that
strongly participate in the appreciation of a cryptosystem specially the execution speed.
Table 13 shows the speed of execution of the algorithm proposed in this article in
comparison with some others. From Table 13, the proposed encryption algorithm has a
faster encryption and decryption speed than some existing algorithms and, therefore, can
be used in real-time image encryption and decryption.
7 Discussion
The cryptosystem proposed in this article is jointly based on the hyperchaotic sequence and the
DNA sequence. From the above analysis, we can see that the encryption scheme can withstand brute
force attacks, statistical attacks, differential attacks, noise attacks as well as data loss attacks. The
experiments also show that the proposed technique is comparable to some advanced image
encryption methods. Also, the present technique can handle images of different sizes, which makes
it more convenient. Six images of different resolution and format type were used in this work but it
appears from statistical and differential investigations that only four images showed a better result
namely the image of Lena, Aerial, Circuit, and Peppers.
A limitation of the proposed technique is the execution speed for some images. It takes
about 3.21 MBits/s and 0.729 MBits/s to encrypt an image of 512 × 512 and 1024 × 1024 size
Table 9 Results of comparison with other algorithms
Algorithm Correlation coefficients Information entropy NPCR (%) UACI (%)
Horizontal Diagonal Vertical
Ours −0.0016 −0.0035 0.00019 7.9973 99.6540 33.4509

Ref. [63] −0.0013 0.0018 0.0023 7.9974 99.60 33.38
Ref. [14] 0.0692 0.0544 0.0396 7.8152 96.42 27.35
Ref. [62] −0.0029 0.0045 0.0015 7.9970 99.61 33.38
Ref. [7] −0.0245 −0.0193 −0.0226 7.9972 99.60 28.62
Table 10 Comparison of key space with other encryption techniques
Algorithm Key space
Ours 5.898×1072
Ref. [38] 2166 ≈9.353×1049
Ref. [61] 8.39×1045
Ref. [10] 1060
Ref. [17] 8×1055
Ref. [12] 2128 ≈3.40×1038
Ref. [23] 2.5×1057
respectively in our experimental environment. Despite the fact that this execution speed is
relatively reasonable, this technique takes a considerable time because the DNA operations
(DNA coding, decoding, and algebraic operation) are in fact chain operations. This can be
solved by introducing DNA operations lookup tables. Another possible way is to use a more
efficient GPU to speed up DNA operations or in another environment other than MATLAB
which is better suited to chain operations. This technique only performs encryption of
grayscale images since the color images are consist of three components (Red Green, and
Blue) takes a considerable execution time; this is then a weakness for the proposed technique.
8 Conclusion
Due to the type of special storage format of digital images and the fateful dimension of
1D map that have a small secret key space, we proposed in this article a joint-based
encryption technique on the pseudo-random and sophisticated character of hyperchaotic
behavior and DNA coding. A financial hyperchaotic system has been studied in detail
and used to generate a pseudo-random sequence. A rich dynamic of this analysis reveals
a plethora of phenomena such as multistability and offset boosting which, to the best of
our knowledge has not yet been the subject of a study in financial hyperchaotic systems.
The set consisting of the random aspect of hyperchaotic system used and DNA coding
Table 11 PSNR between original and decrypted image of Lena under attack of salt & pepper noise
Algorithm Density of salt & pepper noise added
0.005 0.050 0.100
Ours 31.4477 21.7103 18.7514

Ref. [20] 30.8394 21.4269 18.2828
Ref. [73] 30.8286 21.1474 18.2490
Ref. [61] 27.7089 18.1812 15.2871
Ref. [76] 31.4956 21.3079 18.2648
Ref. [8] 30.2494 20.3405 17.4711
Ref. [21] 31.2751 21.2502 18.3147
Ref. [37] 31.2906 21.1349 18.0661
Ref. [58] 31.4161 21.5482 18.5665
Table 13 Encryption speed comparison
Algorithm Encryption speed (Mbit/s)
Ours 12.60
Ref. [75] 7.8692
Ref. [21] 3.9367
Ref. [20] 2.3861
Ref. [78] 1.81
Ref. [9] 1.28
(algebraic operations, complementation, and rules of DNA coding) are exploited to

reinforce the efficiency of the confusion and diffusion digital images. The hyperchaotic
sequence used at all stages of the algorithm, the overall bit scrambling, and DNA coding
are the peculiarity of the proposed algorithm. The proposed algorithm achieves average
entropy of 7.99, a correlation close to zero, NPCR and UACI greater than 99.5% and
33% respectively, key space greater than 2100, an overall fast execution speed for
encryption (12.60 Mbit/s for a 256 × 256 resolution image) and decryption (13.30
Mbit/s for the same 256 × 256 resolution image) process but is highly dependent on
the resolution of the image. Besides, the efficiency of the algorithm is compared to other
leading techniques in the literature. In addition to the considerable results of statistical,
differential, execution speed, and key space analyzes, the effect of salt & pepper noise
and data loss have considerable values compared to some existing techniques, namely up
to 18.7514 dB for 0.1 density noise and 11.5011 dB for 50% data loss.
Appendix A: Preliminary study for system dynamics
A.1. Study of Dissipativity
The necessary condition to study the dissipation of the system (1) is expressed by the
following equation [15, 46]. System (1) can be written as:
Table 12 PSNR between original and decrypted image of Lena under cropping attack
Algorithm Occlusion
64×64 128×128 256×128
Ours 20.7754 14.7442 11.5011

Ref. [20] 20.7788 14.7340 11.4238
Ref. [73] 21.3236 14.8134 11.5291
Ref. [61] 20.7460 14.7595 11.7448
Ref. [76] 20.3469 14.3600 11.3754
Ref. [8] 20.3745 14.4533 11.4365
Ref. [21] 20.4047 14.4521 11.4674
Ref. [37] 20.1994 10.2007 11.1939
Ref. [58] 20.0200 14.6140 11.8632
8
>
> f ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ ¼ x3 þ x1 ðx2 −aÞ þ x4
< 1
f 2 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ ¼ 1−bx2 −x21
ðA1Þ
>
> f 3 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ ¼ −x1 −cx3
:
f 4 ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 Þ ¼ −dx1 x2 −kx4
The rate of volume contraction of system (A1) is computed as:

∂ f 1 ∂ f 2 ∂ f 3 ∂f 4
∇V ¼ þ þ þ ¼ x2 −ða þ b þ c þ k Þ ðA2Þ
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂x4
A.2. Equilibrium point
To study the stability of equilibrium point amounts to determine this point which is
obtained by solving the system equation ẋ1 ¼ ẋ2 ¼ ẋ3 ¼ ẋ4 ¼ 0 in order to know if it
is stable or unstable. Thus, system (1) has three equilibrium points which are
expressed as follows:
k ðac þ 1Þ ϑ dϑ
E 1 ¼ ð0; 1=b; 0; 0Þ; E 2;3 ¼ ϑ; ;∓ ; ðca þ 1Þ ðA3Þ
cðk−d Þ c cðd−k Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
With ϑ ¼ dcþkcabþkbþkc
cðd−k Þ
The Jacobian matrix of the system (1) around any fixed point E1, E2, or E3 is defined by:
2 3
x2 −a x1 1 1
6 −2x1 −b 0 0 7
J ¼6 4 −1
7 ðA4Þ
0 −c 0 5
−dx2 −dx1 0 −k
A.3. Lyapunov dimension
Using the Wolf algorithm [45] and for the range of the system parameters a = 1, b =
0.11, c = 1.04, d = 0.2, and k = 0.17, the four Lyapunov exponents are computed as
follows: L1 = 0.0505454, L2 = 0.0166925, L3 = 0, and L1 = − 0.679484. We find that in
these conditions, the system (1) is hyperchaotic because it consists of two positive
exponents L1and L2, one null Lyapunov exponent L3, and a negative Lyapunov L4
[47]. We find that, L 1 + L 2 + L 3 = 0.0672379 positive and L 1 + L 2 + L 3 + L 4 = −
0.6122461negative, consequently, the dimension of Kaplan Yorke [69] for this finan-
cial hyperchaotic system (1) is found as:
L1 þ L2 þ L3
DKY ¼ 3 þ ¼ 3:098954354 ðA5Þ
jL4 j
Appendix B: Algorithms of the encryption and decryption process

References
1. Adleman LM (1994) Molecular computation of solutions to combinatorial problems. Science 266(5187):

1021–1024
2. Amani HR, Yaghoobi M (2019) A new approach in adaptive encryption algorithm for color images based
on DNA sequence operation and hyper-chaotic system. Multimed Tools Appl 78(15):21537–21556
3. Argyris JH, Faust G, Haase M, Friedrich R (2015) An exploration of dynamical systems and chaos:
completely revised and enlarged second edition. Springer
4. Babaei M (2013) A novel text and image encryption method based on chaos theory and DNA computing.
Nat Comput 12(1):101–107
5. Behnia S, Akhshani A, Mahmodi H, Akhavan A (2008) A novel algorithm for image encryption based on
mixture of chaotic maps. Chaos, Solitons & Fract 35(2):408–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chaos.2006.05.
011
6. Biham E, Shamir A, (1992) Differential cryptanalysis of the full 16-round DES. In: Annual International
Cryptology Conference. Springer, pp 487–496
7. Chai X, Chen Y, Broyde L (2017) A novel chaos-based image encryption algorithm using DNA sequence
operations. Opt Lasers Eng 88:197–213
8. Chai X, Gan Z, Yuan K, Chen Y, Liu X (2019) A novel image encryption scheme based on DNA sequence
operations and chaotic systems. Neural Comput & Applic 31(1):219–237
9. Chai X, Fu X, Gan Z, Lu Y, Chen Y (2019) A color image cryptosystem based on dynamic DNA
encryption and chaos. Signal Process 155:44–62
10. Chen J, Zhu Z-l, L-b Z, Zhang Y, Yang B-q (2018) Exploiting self-adaptive permutation–diffusion and
DNA random encoding for secure and efficient image encryption. Signal Process 142:340–353
11. Cui S, Peng W, Song C (2019) Research on DNA Cryptosystem Based on DNA Computing. In:
International conference on bio-inspired computing: theories and applications. Springer, Singapore, pp
189–197
12. Dagadu JC, Li J, Aboagye EO, Deynu FK (2019) Medical image encryption scheme based on multiple
Chaos and DNA coding. IJ Network Security 21(1):83–90
13. Enayatifar R, Abdullah AH, Isnin IF (2014) Chaos-based image encryption using a hybrid genetic algorithm
and a DNA sequence. Opt Lasers Eng 56:83–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2013.12.003
14. Faragallah OS (2015) Efficient confusion–diffusion chaotic image cryptosystem using enhanced standard
map. Signal, Image Video Process 9(8):1917–1926. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11760-014-0683-y
15. Folifack Signing V, Kengne J (2019) Reversal of period-doubling and extreme multistability in a novel 4D
chaotic system with hyperbolic cosine nonlinearity. Int J Dynamics Control 7(2):439–451. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s40435-018-0452-9
16. Gehani A, LaBean T, Reif J (2000) DNA-based cryptography. DIMACS DNA based computers V.
American Mathematical Society
17. Gong L, Qiu K, Deng C, Zhou N (2019) An optical image compression and encryption scheme based on
compressive sensing and RSA algorithm. Opt Lasers Eng 121:169–180
18. Guan Z, Si G, Wu J, Zhu L, Zhang Z, Ma Y (2017) Utility-privacy tradeoff based on random data
obfuscation in internet of energy. IEEE Access 5:3250–3262
19. Guesmi R, Farah MAB, Kachouri A, Samet M (2016) A novel chaos-based image encryption using DNA
sequence operation and secure hash algorithm SHA-2. Nonlinear Dynamics 83(3):1123–1136
20. Hu T, Liu Y, Gong L-H, Guo S-F, Yuan H-M (2017) Chaotic image cryptosystem using DNA deletion and
DNA insertion. Signal Process 134:234–243
21. Hu T, Liu Y, Gong L-H, Ouyang C-J (2017) An image encryption scheme combining chaos with cycle
operation for DNA sequences. Nonlinear Dynamics 87(1):51–66
22. Huang X, Ye G (2014) An image encryption algorithm based on hyper-chaos and DNA sequence.
Multimed Tools Appl 72(1):57–70
23. Huang Z-J, Cheng S, Gong L-H, Zhou N-R (2020) Nonlinear optical multi-image encryption scheme with
two-dimensional linear canonical transform. Opt Lasers Eng 124:105821
24. Jahanshahi H, Yousefpour A, Wei Z, Alcaraz R, Bekiros S (2019) A financial hyperchaotic system with
coexisting attractors: Dynamic investigation, entropy analysis, control and synchronization. Chaos, Solitons
Fract 126:66–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chaos.2019.05.023
25. Jain A, Rajpal N (2016) A robust image encryption algorithm resistant to attacks using DNA and chaotic
logistic maps. Multimed Tools Appl 75(10):5455–5472. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-015-2515-7
26. Jian J, Deng X, Wang J (2009) Globally exponentially attractive set and synchronization of a class of
chaotic finance system. In: International Symposium on Neural Networks. Springer, pp 253–261
27. Kengne J (2017) On the dynamics of Chua’s oscillator with a smooth cubic nonlinearity: occurrence of
multiple attractors. Nonlinear Dynamics 87(1):363–375
28. Kengne J, Mogue RLT (2019) Dynamic analysis of a novel jerk system with composite tanh-cubic
nonlinearity: chaos, multi-scroll, and multiple coexisting attractors. Int J Dynamics Control 7(1):112–133
29. Kengne J, Tsafack N, Kengne LK (2018) Dynamical analysis of a novel single Opamp-based autonomous
LC oscillator: antimonotonicity, chaos, and multiple attractors. Int J Dynamics Control 6(4):1543–1557
30. Kengne J, Abdolmohammadi H, Signing VF, Jafari S, Kom G Chaos and Coexisting Bifurcations in a
Novel 3D Autonomous System with a Non-Hyperbolic Fixed Point: Theoretical Analysis and Electronic
Circuit Implementation.
31. King OD, Gaborit P (2007) Binary templates for comma-free DNA codes. Discret Appl Math 155(6–7):
831–839
32. Kocarev L, Tasev Z (2003) Public-key encryption based on Chebyshev maps. In: Proceedings of the 2003
International Symposium on Circuits and Systems, 2003. ISCAS'03. IEEE, pp III-III
33. Li Y, Wang C, Chen H (2017) A hyper-chaos-based image encryption algorithm using pixel-level
permutation and bit-level permutation. Opt Lasers Eng 90:238–246
34. Li B, Liao X, Jiang Y (2018) A novel image encryption scheme based on logistic map and dynatomic
modular curve. Multimed Tools Appl 77(7):8911–8938
35. Lian S (2008) Multimedia content encryption: techniques and applications. CRC press
36. Liao X, Kulsoom A, Ullah S (2016) A modified (dual) fusion technique for image encryption using SHA-
256 hash and multiple chaotic maps. Multimed Tools Appl 75(18):11241–11266
37. Liu H, Wang X (2012) Image encryption using DNA complementary rule and chaotic maps. Appl Soft
Comput 12(5):1457–1466
38. Liu L, Zhang Q, Wei X (2012) A RGB image encryption algorithm based on DNA encoding and chaos
map. Comput Electric Eng 38(5):1240–1248
39. Luo Y, Tang S, Liu J, Cao L, Qiu S (2020) Image encryption scheme by combining the hyper-chaotic
system with quantum coding. Opt Lasers Eng 124:105836
40. Mylrea M (2017) Smart energy-internet-of-things opportunities require smart treatment of legal, privacy and
cybersecurity challenges. J World Energy Law Business 10(2):147–158
41. Negou AN, Kengne J (2018) Dynamic analysis of a unique jerk system with a smoothly adjustable
symmetry and nonlinearity: reversals of period doubling, offset boosting and coexisting bifurcations.
AEU-Int J Electronics Commun 90:1–19
42. Norouzi B, Seyedzadeh SM, Mirzakuchaki S, Mosavi MR (2015) A novel image encryption based on row-
column, masking and main diffusion processes with hyper chaos. Multimed Tools Appl 74(3):781–811
43. Pak C, Huang L (2017) A new color image encryption using combination of the 1D chaotic map. Signal
Process 138:129–137
44. Pisarchik A, Zanin M (2008) Image encryption with chaotically coupled chaotic maps. Phys D: Nonlinear
Phenom 237(20):2638–2648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physd.2008.03.049
45. Signing VF, Kengne J (2019) Reversal of period-doubling and extreme multistability in a novel 4D chaotic
system with hyperbolic cosine nonlinearity. Int J Dynamics Control 7(2):439–451
46. Signing VRF, Kengne J, Kana LK (2018) Dynamic analysis and multistability of a novel four-wing chaotic
system with smooth piecewise quadratic nonlinearity. Chaos, Solitons Fractals: Interdisciplin J Nonlinear
Sci Nonequilibrium Complex Phenomena 113:263–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chaos.2018.06.008
47. Singh JP, Roy B (2016) The nature of Lyapunov exponents is (+,+,−,−). Is it a hyperchaotic system? Chaos,
Solitons Fract 92:73–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chaos.2016.09.010
48. Singh JP, Roy B (2017) The simplest 4-D chaotic system with line of equilibria, chaotic 2-torus and 3-torus
behaviour. Nonlinear Dynamics 89(3):1845–1862
49. Steven HS (1994) Nonlinear dynamics and chaos: with applications to physics, biology, chemistry, and
engineering. Westview press
50. Su X, Li W, Hu H (2017) Cryptanalysis of a chaos-based image encryption scheme combining DNA coding
and entropy. Multimed Tools Appl 76(12):14021–14033
51. Tenny R, Tsimring LS, Larson L, Abarbanel HD (2003) Using distributed nonlinear dynamics for public
key encryption. Phys Rev Lett 90(4):047903
52. Tsafack N, Kengne J (2018) A novel autonomous 5-d hyperjerk RC circuit with hyperbolic sine function.
Sci World J 2018:1–17
53. Tsafack N, Kengne J, Abd-El-Atty B, Iliyasu AM, Hirota K, Abd El-Latif AA (2020) Design and
implementation of a simple dynamical 4-D chaotic circuit with applications in image encryption. Inf Sci
515:191–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ins.2019.10.070
54. Rehman A u, Liao X (2019) A novel robust dual diffusion/confusion encryption technique for color image
based on Chaos, DNA and SHA-2. Multimed Tools Appl 78(2):2105–2133. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11042-018-6346-1
55. Vaidyanathan S, Akgul A, Kaçar S, Çavuşoğlu U (2018) A new 4-D chaotic hyperjerk system, its
synchronization, circuit design and applications in RNG, image encryption and chaos-based steganography.
European Phys J Plus 133(2):1–18
56. Volos C, Akgul A, Pham V-T, Stouboulos I, Kyprianidis I (2017) A simple chaotic circuit with a hyperbolic
sine function and its use in a sound encryption scheme. Nonlinear Dynamics 89(2):1047–1061
57. Wang X, H-l Z (2016) A novel image encryption algorithm based on genetic recombination and hyper-
chaotic systems. Nonlinear Dyn 83(1–2):333–346. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11071-015-2330-8
58. Wang X, Liu C (2017) A novel and effective image encryption algorithm based on chaos and DNA
encoding. Multimed Tools Appl 76(5):6229–6245
59. Wang Y, Wong K-W, Liao X, Xiang T, Chen G (2009) A chaos-based image encryption algorithm with
variable control parameters. Chaos, Solitons Fractals 41(4):1773–1783
60. Wang X-Y, Yang L, Liu R, Kadir A (2010) A chaotic image encryption algorithm based on perceptron
model. Nonlinear Dynamics 62(3):615–621
61. Wang X-Y, Zhang Y-Q, Bao X-M (2015) A novel chaotic image encryption scheme using DNA sequence
operations. Opt Lasers Eng 73:53–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2015.03.022
62. Wang X, Liu C, Zhang H (2016) An effective and fast image encryption algorithm based on Chaos and
interweaving of ranks. Nonlinear Dynamics 84(3):1595–1607
63. Wang X, Wang Y, Zhu X, Unar S (2019) Image encryption scheme based on Chaos and DNA plane
operations. Multimed Tools Appl 78(18):26111–26128
64. Wang X, Xue W, An J (2020) Image encryption algorithm based on LDCML and DNA coding sequence.
Multimedia Tools and Applications:1–24
65. Watson JD, Crick FH (1953) Molecular structure of nucleic acids: a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid.
Nature 171(4356):737–738
66. Watson JD, Crick F (1953) A structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid.
67. Wei Z, Zhang W (2014) Hidden hyperchaotic attractors in a modified Lorenz–Stenflo system with only one
stable equilibrium. Int J Bifurcation Chaos 24(10):1450127
68. Wei X, Guo L, Zhang Q, Zhang J, Lian S (2012) A novel color image encryption algorithm based on DNA
sequence operation and hyper-chaotic system. J Syst Softw 85(2):290–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.
2011.08.017
69. Wei Z, Wang R, Liu A (2014) A new finding of the existence of hidden hyperchaotic attractors with no
equilibria. Math Comput Simul 100:13–23
70. Wong K-W, Kwok BS-H, Law W-S (2008) A fast image encryption scheme based on chaotic standard map.
Phys Lett A 372(15):2645–2652
71. Wu X, Kan H, Kurths J (2015) A new color image encryption scheme based on DNA sequences and
multiple improved 1D chaotic maps. Appl Soft Comput 37:24–39
72. Xiao G, Lu M, Qin L, Lai X (2006) New field of cryptography: DNA cryptography. Chin Sci Bull 51(12):
1413–1420
73. Xie T, Liu Y, Tang J (2014) Breaking a novel image fusion encryption algorithm based on DNA sequence
operation and hyper-chaotic system. Optik 125(24):7166–7169
74. Yu H, Cai G, Li Y (2012) Dynamic analysis and control of a new hyperchaotic finance system. Nonlinear
Dynamics 67(3):2171–2182
75. Yu W, Liu Y, Gong L, Tian M, Tu L (2019) Double-image encryption based on spatiotemporal chaos and
DNA operations. Multimed Tools Appl 78(14):20037–20064
76. Zefreh EZ (2020) An image encryption scheme based on a hybrid model of DNA computing, chaotic
systems and hash functions. Multimed Tools Appl 79(33):24993–25022
77. Zhan K, Wei D, Shi J, Yu J (2017) Cross-utilizing hyperchaotic and DNA sequences for image encryption. J
Electronic Imaging 26(1):013021. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.JEI.26.1.013021
78. Zhang X, Ye R (2020) A novel RGB image encryption algorithm based on DNA sequences and chaos.
Multimedia Tools and Applications:1–25
79. Zhang Q, Guo L, Wei X (2010) Image encryption using DNA addition combining with chaotic maps. Math
Comput Model 52(11–12):2028–2035
80. Zhao X, Li Z, Li S (2011) Synchronization of a chaotic finance system. Appl Math Comput 217(13):6031–
6039
81. Zhu C-X, Sun K-H (2012) Cryptanalysis and improvement of a class of hyperchaos based image encryption
algorithms
82. Zhu C-X, Hu Y-P, Sun K-H (2012) New image encryption algorithm based on hyperchaotic system and
ciphertext diffusion in crisscross pattern. Dianzi Yu Xinxi Xuebao(J Electron Inform Technol) 34(7):1735–
1743
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.
Affiliations
V. R. Folifack Signing 1,2,3 & R. L. Tagne Mogue 1,2,3 & J. Kengne 1 & M. Kountchou 2,3 &
Saïdou 3,4
1
Unité de Recherche de Laboratoire d’Automatique et Informatique Appliquée (URAIA), Department of
Electrical Engineering, IUT-FV Bandjoun, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon
2
Unité de Recherche de Matière Condensée, d’Electronique et de Traitement du Signal (URMACETS),
Department of Physics, University of Dschang, P.O. Box 67, Dschang, Cameroon
3
Research Center for Nuclear Science and Technology, Institute of Geological and Mining Research,
P.O. Box 4110, Yaoundé, Cameroon
4
Nuclear Physics Laboratory, Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, P.O. Box 812, Yaoundé,
Cameroon

Dynamic Phenomena of A Financial Hyperchaotic System and DNA Sequences For Image Encryption

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dynamic Phenomena of A Financial Hyperchaotic System and DNA Sequences For Image Encryption

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Multimedia Tools and Applications (2021) 80:32689–32723

Dynamic phenomena of a financial hyperchaotic

Received: 24 October 2019 / Revised: 26 April 2021 / Accepted: 24 June 2021 /

Keywords Image encryption . Financial Hyperchaotic system . Multistability . Offset boosting .

Extended author information available on the last page of the article

The development of bioinformatics has sparked increasing interest in scientific research.

3.1 The financial hyperchaotic system

3.1.1 Symmetry and Dissipativity

3.1.2 Equilibrium point and stability

Chaotic/hyperchaotic system Nature of system References Features

4-D chaotic Hidden [48] - Quasi-periodic

Table 2 Eigenvalues and stability of equilibrium points

Fixed point Eigenvalue Stability

E1 λ1 = −1.4088, λ2 = −0.1100, λ3 =0.0764, λ4 =7.7534 Unstable

behaviors. It is important to mention that this property is recommended for cryptographic

3.2 DNA cryptography

3.2.1 DNA encoding and decoding

Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is a biological macromolecule present in all cells as well as in

3.2.2 Algebraic operation for DNA sequences

Typically, DNA-based encryption consists of three stages: encoding, operations, and

Table 3. Principle of DNA encoding and decoding and certain operations

Eight kinds of DNA encoding and decoding rules

Rule 1 Rule 2 Rule 3 Rule 4 Rule 5 Rule 6 Rule 7 Rule 8

00-A 00-A 00-C 00-C 00-G 00-G 00-T 00-T

4.1 Effect of parameters on the dynamics

4.2 Multistability and offset boosting

4.3 Two-parameter diagrams

5 Encryption and decryption algorithm

Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of the encryption process

Step 3: DNA addition and XOR.

Step 4: DNA complement and decoding.

The obtained sequence S2 is complemented in DNA domain, then decode in order to

6 Experimental results and performance analysis

6.1 Exhaustive analysis

6.1.1 Key sensitivity analysis

Image Lena Aerial Barbara Peppers Circuit Airport

Resolution 256 ×256 364×366 402×566 512×512 272×280 1024×1024

6.1.2 Key space analysis

KeySpace ¼ N 0 CO H x1 H x2 H x3 H x4 256 256≈CO 1071 ð16Þ

6.2 Statistical analysis

6.2.1 Histogram analysis

6.2.2 Correlation coefficient analysis

800 1400 3000

Grayscale Value Grayscale Value Grayscale Value

300 600 1000

Grayscale Value Grayscale Value Grayscale Value

1000 300 4000

Grayscale Value Grayscale Value Grayscale Value

250 250 250

Pixel value on location (x+1,y+1)

150 150 150

100 100 100

Pixel value on location (x+1,y+1)

Pixel value on location (x+1,y+1)

150 150 150

100 100 100

Pixel value on location (x+1,y+1)

Pixel value on location (x+1,y+1)

200 200 200

150 150 150

100 100 100

Pixel value on location (x+1,y+1)

Pixel value on location (x+1,y+1)