1

Figure 2. 1

Maxwell’s Theory
of Electromagnetism

Prepared by:

Ahmad Ataya
Bilal Melhem

January 2, 2023
 2

Acknowledgment
We are not going to prove the conversion of maxwell’s equations in differential form to
integral form as this paper aims to prove the theorem. We usually start with the differential form
because it is more convenient for theoretical discussions. Even though we tried to avoid the math
but deriving these equations step by step with explanation widens the mental scope rather than
studying formulas. There are many more mathematical forms to represent each equation, we
choose the simplest. We assume that the reader has a background theoretically and mathematically
related to the stated topic. All MATLAB codes will be provided along the zip file. Finally, this
paper is not only oriented towards the course’s instructor, we write and explain as if any person is
going to read it.
 3

Abstract
This paper represents the role of Maxwell’s equations in electromagnetics by showing its
full complete derivation with a brief history about the path of this theorem. Also, it provides a
numerical calculation of maxwell’s equation by using various examples. It further includes
multiple applications of maxwell’s equations in electromagnetism to clarify its role. In addition to
applications, it will include a MATLAB simulation to simplify Maxwell’s equations by 3d
simulation and to emphasize its importance in electromagnetic waves.
 4

Table of Contents
Acknowledgment ........................................................................................................................2
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................3
Glossary ......................................................................................................................................7
Introduction: The Maxwellians ....................................................................................................8
0.0 Maxwell’s Language .............................................................................................................9
0.2 The gradient:......................................................................................................................9
0.3 The Divergence ............................................................................................................... 10
0.4 The Curl .......................................................................................................................... 10
0.4.1 The curl of the curl .................................................................................................... 10
1.0 Derivation of Maxwell’s Equations ..................................................................................... 11
1.1 Equation 1: Gauss’s law ................................................................................................... 11
Derivation of Gauss’s law .................................................................................................. 11
General form of Gauss’s law .............................................................................................. 12
1.2 Equation 2: Gauss Magnetism Law: ................................................................................. 14
Ambiguity around divergence of magnetic field ................................................................. 14
Gauss’s magnetism law derivation ..................................................................................... 15
1.3 Equation 3: Faraday-Maxwell’s law ................................................................................. 16
Derivation of Faraday-Maxwell’s law ................................................................................ 16
1.4 Equation 4: Ampere-Maxwell Law .................................................................................. 17
Derivation of Ampere-Maxwell Law .................................................................................. 17
Maxwell’s Correction......................................................................................................... 18
2.0 Solution to Maxwell’s equation in vacuum .......................................................................... 20
2.1 Plane wave solution ......................................................................................................... 21
MATLAB Simulation ........................................................................................................ 22
2.2 Polarization...................................................................................................................... 22
2.2.1 Linear Polarization .................................................................................................... 23
2.2.2 Elliptical Polarization ................................................................................................ 23
2.2.3 Generalization of the solution-3D .............................................................................. 24
3.0 MATLAB GUI Simulation .................................................................................................. 25
Attenuation of electromagnetic waves ....................................................................................... 26
4.0 Applications of Maxwell’s equations ................................................................................... 27
 5

4.1 Wireless Communication ................................................................................................. 28

4.2 Wireless Power Transmission .......................................................................................... 29
4.3 Analysis of Eddy current in NMRs .................................................................................. 29
5.0 Brief History: Continued ..................................................................................................... 31
References ................................................................................................................................ 33
 6

Figure 0. 1 Rotated Beam of Light .............................................................................................8

Figure 0. 2 Vector field of a bar magnet. .....................................................................................9

Figure 1. 1 A charge inside a sphere .......................................................................................... 11

Figure 1. 2 A charge inside a random region ............................................................................. 12
Figure 1. 3 electric field radiation passing from region to another region ................................... 12
Figure 1. 4 Charge 𝑞3, outside the region. Charge 𝑞2, inside the region. ................................... 13

Figure 2. 1 Magnetic field of a bar magnet ................................................................................ 14

Figure 2. 2 Biot Savart Law....................................................................................................... 15

Figure 4. 1 Capacitor connected to a battery .............................................................................. 18

Figure 4. 2 Closed circular path with surface 𝑺𝟏....................................................................... 18
Figure 4. 3 Closed circular path with surface 𝑺𝟐 ....................................................................... 18

Figure 5. 1 A simulated electromagnetic wave propagating in space. ......................................... 22

Figure 5. 2 Zero phase ............................................................................................................... 23
Figure 5. 3 90 degress phase ...................................................................................................... 23
Figure 5. 4 Generalizing the Solution ........................................................................................ 24
Figure 5. 5 Circular plot of an electromagnetic wave. ............................................................... 25
Figure 5. 6 Linearly polarized electromagnetic wave ................................................................. 26
Figure 5. 7 Propagation of an electromagnetic wave in water .................................................... 26
Figure 5. 8 Propagation of electromagnetic wave in oil ............................................................. 27

Figure 6. 1 Propagation module for Wi-Fi to detrmine the ideal location for transmission ......... 28
Figure 6. 2 Schematic of Different Types of Nanogenerators ..................................................... 29
 7

Glossary

𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑉/𝑚)

⃗ = 𝐸⃗ 𝜙 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐶/𝑚 2 )
𝐷

⃗ = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐴/𝑚)

𝐻
⃗ = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑊𝑏/𝑚 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑇)
𝐵
𝜙 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

𝐴 = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙

𝜇0 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻/𝑚

𝜖0 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 8.85418712 × 10−12 𝐹. 𝑚 −1

𝜎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐼
𝐽= = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐴/𝑚 2 )
𝐴
⃗∇= 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡

⃗∇. 𝑉
⃗ = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑉

⃗ = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑉

∇×𝑉
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑞 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

𝑄 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 𝑤 + 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚: ∫𝛁 × 𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 = ∮ 𝐅 ⋅ 𝑑𝐫
𝑆 𝐶

𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚: 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛

 8

Introduction: The Maxwellians

If you bring a magnet and expose it to sunlight, nothing seems to happen. Even though
light is considered as electromagnetic radiation or an electromagnetic wave. In other words, light
is three vectors travelling perpendicularly to each other [1]. An electric field and a magnetic field
oscillating in different and perpendicular planes, where the third vector is the direction of
propagation [1]. It is reasonable to ask why an external magnetic field has no effect on the light.
The short answer, is no and yes. No, there is no visible effect as magnetic fields has no effect on
photons directly. Moreover, the light’s magnetic field has a frequency higher than the fastest
magnetic field on earth. However external magnetic fields can rotate or change the polarity of
beam of lights [2].

In 1864, Maxwell hypothesized that light is a transverse electromagnetic wave based on

his well-known equations [3]. Maxwell does not only believe that light could be generated by an
accelerated charged particle. In fact, Maxwell was silent about the generation and detection of
electromagnetic waves [3]. After the death of Maxwell, his equations and ideas were modified and
further elaborated by Hertz who proved Maxwell’s equations by his radio experiment [4]. Other
brilliant mathematicians and physicists gave effort on this case, Oliver Heaviside who has a
commonly used function in signals and systems, the Heaviside or the step function, also rewrote
Maxwell’s equations in the form we know now [5]. In addition to FitzGerald and Lodge, these
were the Maxwellians who continued on the path of Maxwell [3].

Figure 0. 1 Rotated Beam of Light [6]

 9

0.0 Maxwell’s Language

When Someone wants to live in another different speaking country, he starts learning its
language to fit in and understand its culture. Understanding Maxwell’s language is a must before
diving deeply and thoroughly into his equations. You can skip This part if you are familiar with
these mathematical forms.

0.1 Vector Field: [7]

Can be visualized as a collection of vectors with each has its magnitude and direction attached to
a plane.

Figure 0. 2 Vector field of a bar magnet.

0.2 The gradient: [8]

Tells the change of a distribution in three different directions. Imagine you kicked a packet of
flour. The flour will be distributed along three dimensions. But how can we measure the
distribution along a specific direction? We use derivatives. Think of it as the slope of a distribution
in a direction

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⃗=
∇ 𝑥̂ + 𝑦̂ + 𝑧̂ (0.1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Thus
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
⃗𝜙=
∇ 𝑥̂ + 𝑦̂ + 𝑧̂ (0.2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 10

0.3 The Divergence [8]

𝜕𝑉𝑥 𝜕𝑉𝑦 𝜕𝑉𝑧

⃗ .𝑉
∇ ⃗ = + + (0.3)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Think of it as how much electric field is entering or leaving a particular point. When there is an
inward flow of vectors↔ negative divergence, it looks like the vectors are sinking. Scalar output.

0.4 The Curl [8]

Measures the circulation of the vector field. Go back to Figure 0. 2), drop a fan inside this vector
field, at every point in this vector field we can measure the rotation of this fan. If it rotates
clockwise then we say the output vector will point downward and vice versa.

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘⃗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉𝑦 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉𝑧 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉𝑥
⃗ ×𝑉
∇ ⃗ =( ) = ( 𝜕𝑦𝑧 − ) 𝑥̂ + ( 𝜕𝑧𝑥 − ) 𝑦̂ + ( 𝜕𝑥𝑦 − ) 𝑧̂ (0.4)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑦 𝑉𝑧

0.4.1 The curl of the curl [9]

I don’t remember it. No need to. We just need it further on to understand what is going on.

⃗ × (∇
∇ ⃗ ×𝑉
⃗)=∇
⃗ (∇
⃗ .𝑉
⃗ ) − (∇
⃗ .∇
⃗ )𝑉
⃗ (0.5)

⃗ 𝜕2𝑉
𝜕2𝑉 ⃗ 𝜕2𝑉⃗ 𝜕 2 𝑉𝑥 𝜕 2 𝑉𝑥 𝜕 2 𝑉𝑥
=( + + ) ( + + ) 𝑥̂
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

⃗ 𝜕2𝑉
𝜕2𝑉 ⃗ 𝜕2𝑉
⃗ 𝜕 2 𝑉𝑦 𝜕 2 𝑉𝑦 𝜕 2 𝑉𝑦
+ ( 2 + 2 + 2) ( 2 + + ) 𝑦̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

⃗ 𝜕2𝑉
𝜕2𝑉 ⃗ 𝜕2𝑉⃗ 𝜕 2 𝑉𝑧 𝜕 2 𝑉𝑧 𝜕 2 𝑉𝑧
+( + + ) ( + + ) 𝑧̂
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

Keep them in mind we will need them on our way.

 11

1.0 Derivation of Maxwell’s Equations

To be fair, if we want to start talking about electromagnetism, starting with Faraday is a

must but we are going to start by their stated order.

1.1 Equation 1: Gauss’s law [10]

The first equation deals the behaviour of electric fields. These electric fields are generated
by charged particles or charged surfaces/objects.

𝜌
⃗ . 𝐸⃗ =
∇ = 0(𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑚) (1.1)
𝜖0

In other words, the divergence of electric field in a specific region equals to the total charge divided
by the volume times 𝜖0

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜌 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Derivation of Gauss’s law [10] [11]

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
∮ 𝐸⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜙𝐸 = (1.2)
𝜖0
r=cnst
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
q ds 1 𝑞
𝐸= (1.3)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
1 𝑞
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = ∮ 𝑑𝑠 (1.4)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
Figure 1. 1 A charge inside a sphere
1 𝑞
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = ∮ 𝑑𝑠 (1.5)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
1 𝑞
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 (1.6)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
𝑞
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = (1.7)
𝜖0
1
Note that electric field is proportional to 𝑟 2 that means it follows inverse square law. If coulomb’s

law does not follow the inverse square law, gauss’s theorem is not possible. In this example we
showed a sphere which is not enough to prove gauss’s theorem.
 12

General form of Gauss’s law

Figure 1. 2 A charge inside a random

region

r=cnst
nr
q ds

Figure 1. 3 electric field radiation passing from region

to another region
r
𝐴2 = 𝜋(𝑛𝑟)2
2
𝐴1 = 𝜋𝑟

nr

1
Electric field decreases by a ratio 𝑛2 while its area increases by 𝑛2

𝑞
𝜙1 = 𝐸𝐴1 = (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 )
𝜖0
𝐸 2
𝜙2 = 𝑛 𝐴1
𝑛2
𝑞
Thus 𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = 𝐸𝐴 = (1.8)
𝜖0

You think we are done, but we are actually far away. Consider the following case
 13

Multiple charges:

Figure 1. 4 Charge 𝒒𝟑 , outside the region.

Charge 𝒒𝟐 , inside the region.

+
r=cnst 𝑞2

q ds

+ 𝑞
3

𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝜙

𝑞1 𝑞2
𝜙1 = 𝜙2 =
𝜖0 𝜖0

𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒

𝑞1 + 𝑞2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜙 = (1.9)
𝜖0
Charges outside the region [10] [11]
According to Gauss’s theorem charges outside the region must have zero contribution. The
charge 𝑞3 has flux entering the region exactly equal to the flux exiting the region. Thus, its
contribution to the system is zero. It has no effect.

Gauss’s law can be applied to rods and other surfaces instead of 𝜌 , use 𝜆 , and 𝜎 depending
on what you are studying. The most important condition is that coulomb’s law follows inverse
square law. A dipole does not follow gauss’s theorem since its 𝐸⃗ has 𝑟 3 in the denominator thus
an r will be left in the numerator when applying gauss’s law. Gauss’s theorem can be used for
charges.
 14

1.2 Equation 2: Gauss Magnetism Law: [13]

⃗ .𝐵
∇ ⃗ =0 (2.1)

⃗ is always zero for any magnetic object ever existed

As simple as it is, the divergence of 𝐵
and will exist. This is significantly important; it gives a deduction that there are no sources or sinks
in magnetic fields. Compared to electric fields which do have sinks and sources depending on the
charge. The very first thing comes in mind is the magnetic field of a bar magnet and try to find if
there are any sinks or sources visually.

Figure 2. 2 Magnetic field of a bar magnet

Ambiguity around divergence of magnetic field [13]

Consider a random region denoted by the black circle in Figure 2. 2), magnetic field flows
in and then flows back out again then the divergence is zero. Looking at the grey circle at the north
pole, it is clearly seen that that the magnetic field is only flowing out. The only reason it makes it
look like a source is that this figure is incomplete, the magnetic field lines are present inside the
magnet and the magnetic field lines that flow out from the north, they flow back in. Thus, the
divergence of the magnetic field is zero.

There is an important thing Maxwell is trying to tell, he is saying that there is nothing called
magnetic monopole or an individual pole. If you are thinking of cutting a magnet in half to get a
monopole magnet, you will be getting two smaller magnets. While this is actually proven right,
many scientists are saying that magnetic monopoles can be induced, but there is no evidence yet
[15]. Which means Maxwell was wrong if proven right and a new era of physics opens its doors.
 15

Gauss’s magnetism law derivation [12]

Figure 2. 3 Biot Savart Law

𝜇 𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼 3
𝐵 (𝑟 ) = ∭ 𝐽(𝑟𝐼 ) × 𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙 (2.2)
4𝜋 |𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼 |3

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐽 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑, 𝑖𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ

𝜇0 𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼
∇. 𝐵(𝑟) = ∭ ∇𝑟𝑚 . (𝐽(𝑟𝐼 ) × 3
) 𝑑 3 𝑉𝑜𝑙 (2.3)
4𝜋 | 𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼 |

𝐵𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒

𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼 𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼 𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼
∇𝑟𝑚 . (𝐽(𝑟𝐼 ) × ) = ( ) . (∇ 𝑟 × 𝐽 ( 𝑟𝐼 ) ) − 𝐽 ( 𝑟𝐼 ) . (∇ 𝑟 × ( )) (2.4)
|𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼 |3 |𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼 |3 𝑚 𝑚 |𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼 |3
 16

𝐵𝑢𝑡 (∇𝑟𝑚 × 𝐽 (𝑟𝐼 ) = 0 ) 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐽(𝑟𝐼 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑚

𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼 −1 𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼
( ) = ∇ 𝑟 ( ) 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 ( ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑟𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑟
|𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼 |3 𝑚 |
𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼 | |𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼 |3

𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, ∇𝑟 𝑚 × ( )=0
|𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼 |3

𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, ∇𝑟𝑚 . (𝐽(𝑟𝐼 ) × )=0
|𝑟𝑚 − 𝑟𝐼 |3

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, ∇. 𝐵(𝑟) = 0 (2.5)

1.3 Equation 3: Faraday-Maxwell’s law

Oersted discovered in 1819 that a steady current produces a steady magnetic field. A little
later Faraday suggested that maybe a steady magnetic field produces a steady current which turned
out to be not true. Faraday had a battery, a switch, and a solenoid. He closed the switch, current
flows, then a magnetic field runs around the solenoid. Then he put around the solenoid a second
loop. He noticed when there is a current in the first solenoid and there is no current in the second
but there is a magnetic field in the second conductor but never any current. Therefore, a steady
magnetic field produced by solenoid does not induce steady current in conductor number two.
However, Faraday noticed as he opens or closes the switch at the exact moment, current is flowing
in the second loop. Therefore, Faraday concluded that a time varying magnetic field induces
electric field. In other words, electromagnetic induction [14] [9].

⃗
𝜕𝐵
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − (3.1)
𝜕𝑡

Current opposes the change of the magnetic field. Therefore, the minus sign (Lenz’s law)

Derivation of Faraday-Maxwell’s law [14]

𝑑𝜙
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = − (3.2)
𝑑𝑡

𝜙 = ∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 (3.3)

𝑑
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = − ∫ 𝐵⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 (3.4)
𝑑𝑡 𝑠
 17

⃗
𝜕𝐵
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = − ∫ . 𝑑𝑠 (3.5)
𝑠 𝜕𝑡

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚, ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ (∇

⃗ × 𝐸⃗ ). 𝑑𝑠 (3.6)
𝑠

⃗
𝜕𝐵
⃗ × 𝐸⃗ ). 𝑑𝑠 = − ∫
∫ (∇ 𝑑𝑠 (3.7)
𝑠 𝑠 𝜕𝑡

⃗
𝜕𝐵
𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔, ⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = −
∇ (3.8)
𝜕𝑡

This discovery changed our world and played a role in the technological revolution of the late
nineteenth and early twenty century.

1.4 Equation 4: Ampere-Maxwell Law [15]

𝜕𝐸⃗
⃗ ×𝐵
∇ ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽 + 𝜖0 𝜇0 (4.1)
𝜕𝑡

Maxwell himself added the second term

𝜕𝐸⃗
⃗ ×𝐵
𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚, ∇ ⃗ = 𝜖0 𝜇0 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜕𝑡

Derivation of Ampere-Maxwell Law [15] [16]

Consider a current flowing in a wire. Around this wire there is a magnetic field.
According to BiotSavart:
𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵= (4.2)
2𝜋 𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼
∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑟 (4.3)
2𝜋 𝑟

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤, ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼 (4.4)

Which gives us the magnetic field around a closed loop. But reconsider the following circuit:
 18

Maxwell’s Correction
Figure 4. 1 Capacitor connected to a battery

In this circuit the flowing electric current generates magnetic field around the wire connected
⃗ all line segments equal 𝜇0 × 𝐼 around
across the capacitor. Using Ampere’s law which says the 𝐵
any closed loop.

Figure 4. 2 Closed circular path with surface 𝑺𝟏

Thus, the magnetic field at point P along the wire carrying current in a circular closed path with
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑐
surface 𝑆1 is ∮𝑠 𝐵
1

Figure 4. 3 Closed circular path with surface 𝑺𝟐

Suppose the loop is enclosed with a different shaped surface area called 𝑆2 , where the boundaries
of the surface area 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are the same thus we should get the same answer as Ampere’s law
does not depend on shape of surface area.

⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = 0 , which is wrong because the surface area 𝑆2 is not touching the current carrying wire.
∮𝑠2 𝐵

In order to satisfy the continuity equation of electric charge, Maxwell introduced the displacement
current and added it to Ampere’s law as a correction.
 19

First, Maxwell considered a Gaussian surface that encloses the plate. It is known from Gauss’s law
that the electric flux will pass between the plates.

𝑑𝑄
𝜇0 𝐼 = 𝜇0 (4.5)
𝑑𝑡

𝜖𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑄
𝜇0 𝐼 = 𝜇0 × × (4.6)
𝜖𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑡

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒

𝑑 𝑄
𝜇0 𝐼 = 𝜇0 𝜖𝑑𝐴 (4.7)
𝑑𝑡 𝜖𝑑𝐴

𝑄
𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 ′ 𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑤 (𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 = )
𝜖

𝑑
𝜇0 𝐼 = 𝜇0 𝜖𝑑𝐴 𝐸 (4.8)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝜙𝐸
𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟, 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴 =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝜙𝐸
𝜇0 𝐼 = 𝜇0 𝜖 (4.9)
𝑑𝑡

Then he added it to Ampere’s law

𝑑𝜙𝐸
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 ′ 𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼 + 𝜇0 𝜖 (4.10)
𝑑𝑡

Note that there is proof of converting the integral form into the differential form, but it is out of
scope of this paper.

These derived equations give a very good idea how scientists and brilliant mathematicians
used to tackle and analyse problems. Understanding every term, every substitution, and every sign
widens the scope of understating instead of studying formulas and applying them during tests
without knowing the underlying meaning of the numbers calculated.
 20

Recap

𝜌
⃗ . 𝐸⃗ =
∇ ↔ 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
𝜖0

⃗ .𝐵
∇ ⃗ = 0 ↔ 𝑛𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

⃗
𝜕𝐵
⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = −
∇ ↔ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐸⃗
⃗ ×𝐵
∇ ⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽 + 𝜖0 𝜇0 ↔ 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟, 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑑𝑡

2.0 Solution to Maxwell’s equation in vacuum [9]

𝜕
⃗ × (∇
∇ ⃗ × 𝐸⃗ ) = − ⃗ ×𝐵
(∇ ⃗) (5.1)
𝜕𝑡

𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟, ⃗ × (∇
∇ ⃗ ×𝑉
⃗)=∇
⃗ (∇
⃗ .𝑉
⃗ ) − (∇
⃗ .∇
⃗ )𝑉
⃗ (5.2)

⃗ . 𝐸⃗ = 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
𝑏𝑢𝑡 ∇

𝜕
⃗ × (∇
∇ ⃗ × 𝐸⃗ ) = − ⃗ ×𝐵
(∇ ⃗ ) = −∇2 𝐸⃗ (5.3)
𝜕𝑡

𝜕 2 𝐸⃗ 𝜕 2 𝐸⃗ 𝜕 2 𝐸⃗ 𝜕 2 𝐸⃗
−𝜖0 𝜇0 2 = − ( 2 + 2 + 2 ) (5.4)
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 2 𝐸⃗ 𝜕 2 𝐸⃗ 𝜕 2 𝐸⃗ 𝜕 2 𝐸⃗
𝜖0 𝜇0 = ( + + ) (5.5)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

This equation is a milestone in the history of mankind. It was the great victory of Maxwell. This
is a wave equation of the electric field in vacuum. This equation told Maxwell that he is able to
1
create an electric field with speed 𝑣 = 𝑐 = . Maxwell knew that light is electromagnetic.
√ 𝜖0 𝜇0

𝜕2𝐵⃗
⃗ × (∇
∇ ⃗ ×𝐵
⃗ ) = ∇2 𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜖0 (5.6)
𝜕𝑡 2

In other words, Maxwell is saying one cannot exist without the other, one is the other. In
conclusion, Maxwell characterized the electromagnetic wave by two interdependent oscillations.
 21

2.1 Plane wave solution [9] [18]

The two equations are three dimensional, however maxwell collapsed them to one dimensional.

Assume 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸0 𝑥 cos(𝑤𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧) ↔ 𝐸𝑦 = 0 ↔ 𝐸𝑧 = 0 (5.7)

𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥 𝜕 2𝐸𝑥
Thus = 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝜕𝑧 2 𝑑𝑡 2

𝜕𝐸𝑥 ⃗
𝜕𝐵
⃗ × 𝐸⃗ =
∇ 𝑦̂ = − (5.8)
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑡

𝑊ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝐵? ↔ 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝜕𝐸𝑥 ⃗
𝜕𝐵
= 𝑘𝐸0 𝑥 sin(𝑤𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧)𝑦̂ = − (5.9)
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑡

⃗ = 𝑘𝐸0 sin(𝑤𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧)𝑦̂ 𝑑𝑡 ↔ 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝜕𝐵 (5.10)
𝑥

𝑘𝐸0 𝑥
⃗ =
𝐵 cos(𝑤𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧) (5.11)
𝑤

𝐸0𝑥
⃗𝑦 =
𝐵 cos(𝑤𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧) 𝑦̂ (5.12)
𝑐

This is another proof that one is the other, one cannot exist without the other. The first thing we
⃗ is 𝑐 × 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 than the magnitude of the 𝐸⃗ . Notice also they are in
can notice that magnitude of 𝐵
phase, in signals and systems when two signals are said to be in-phase they reach their maximum
⃗ is perpendicular to 𝐸⃗ since E is in x-direction
and minimum together. Furthermore, notice that 𝐵
and B is in y-direction. And both of them are perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

After deriving each and every term in Maxwell’s equations, then finding the solution of
these equations which is a wave. It is time to plot this wave to give better understanding and
visualisation of an electromagnetic wave propagating in vacuum. In order to do so, a MATLAB
simulation is used to. You can find the MATLAB code inside the zip folder. Feel free to run it and
manipulate the three-dimensional graph by rotating the cursor to inspect from different angles.
 22

MATLAB Simulation

Figure 5. 1A simulated electromagnetic wave propagating in space. Note that the amplitudes are
|𝑬|
not equal. To be specific |𝑩| = .
𝒄

To make things even more clear, you can have 𝐸⃗ in the y-direction; at this moment in time,
⃗ in the negative x-direction so that the 𝐸⃗ 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐵
it will be coupled with 𝐵 ⃗ is still in the direction
of propagation. Any linear combination of the two should also be a solution for the wave equation.
This is the simplest solution that can give a very good idea how an electromagnetic wave
propagates. However, in real life both fields have more than one direction. Therefore, lets introduce
a new topic to further visualize how actually electromagnetic waves propagate.

2.2 Polarization
Consider, 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸0 𝑥 cos(𝑤𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧) 𝑥̂ + 𝐸0 𝑦 cos(𝑤𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧 + 𝛿 ) 𝑦̂ (5.13)

𝛿 = 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

In real life nothing is ideal, the components of a sinusoidal 𝐸⃗ do not have to be in phase. This
equation clearly satisfies the wave equation.
 23

2.2.1 Linear Polarization

If 𝐸⃗ is only in one direction as it is in this Figure 5. 1 (it is only in the direction), we call
that 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. In other words, take 𝛿 = 0, by plotting the 𝐸⃗ radiation
notice:

𝐸0 𝑦 𝐸0 ⬚
𝐸0 𝑢𝑝

𝐸0 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑡1

𝐸0 𝑥
𝑎𝑡 𝑡2
𝐸0 ⬚
𝐸0 𝑦 𝐸0 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝛿=0

Figure 5. 2 Zero phase |𝐸0 𝑦 | 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 |𝐸0 𝑥 |

Looking to 𝐸⃗ with zero phase directly in the direction of propagation you will see exactly like the
third figure inside Figure 5. 2, The 𝐸⃗ will keep going up and down. It is called
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑. Not in the x-direction nor in the y-direction [26].

2.2.2 Elliptical Polarization

𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝐸0 ⬚
𝐸0 𝑦
𝑎𝑡 𝑡1 𝐸0 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑡4
𝐸0 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑡3
𝑎𝑡 𝑡2
𝐸0 ⬚
𝐸0 𝑦
𝜋
𝛿=
2

Figure 5. 3 90 degress phase

When 𝐸0 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ↔ 𝐸0 𝑦 = 0 , accord a period later 𝐸0 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ↔ 𝐸0 𝑥 = 0 and so on.

𝜋
Then the Electric radiation will be rotating in an ellipse. The phase angle 𝛿 does not have to be 2
𝜋
it can be any angle, but for simplicity of diagrams, 2 is preferred. To make the electric field rotates

anticlockwise set the phase angle to be negative. If |𝐸0 𝑦 | = |𝐸0 𝑥 | Then it is called circularly
 24

polarized radiation. Polarization is part of the solution. It is a very important thing to take into
consideration specially in the domain of wireless communication [26].

2.2.3 Generalization of the solution-3D

Consider, 𝐸⃗ (𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝐸⃗0 cos(𝑤𝑡 − 𝑘⃗. 𝑟) which is the most general way to write an
electromagnetic wave. Where 𝑟 is the position vector in space. E is a three-dimensional vector.

𝑟 = 𝑥𝑥̂ + 𝑦𝑦̂ + 𝑧𝑧̂ (5.14)

𝑘⃗ = 𝑘𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝑘𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝑘𝑧 𝑧̂ (5.15)

Where K is the magnitude of propagation

2𝜋
|𝑘 | = = √𝑘𝑥2 + 𝑘𝑦2 + 𝑘𝑧2 (5.16)
𝜆

3rd line
𝑘⃗. 𝑟 = 2𝜋 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑘⃗. 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑐
𝑟
𝜆

𝑘⃗
𝑘⃗𝑦 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃 )

𝑥 𝑘⃗. 𝑟 = 4𝜋
𝑘⃗𝑥

𝑘⃗. 𝑟 = 0

Figure 5. 4 Generalizing the Solution

Assume that a red line (3rd line) is perpendicular to the 𝑘⃗ and on that line
𝑘⃗. 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. And 𝑟 which is the position vector in space, then 𝑘⃗ . 𝑟 = |𝑘||𝑟|cos(𝜃). And
 25

𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)is the green thick green arrow. Therefore, any vector 𝑟 that ends on the 3rd red line will
have the same value for 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃). Thus, on the entire red line the value of 𝑘⃗. 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑛𝑠𝑡.

At 𝑡 = 0 , an electromagnetic wave is travelling in the direction of 𝑘⃗, and suppose at the red lines,
the electric field is at maximum and pointing in you direction (towards you directly). Thus, at the
first line, since angle is 90° ↔ 𝑘⃗ . 𝑟 = 0 and at the second line its 2𝜋 and at the third is 4𝜋, and the
whole thing is moving in space with speed 𝑐.

The lines perpendicular to 𝑘⃗ represent the maxima of 𝐸⃗ at a moment of time. Moving it to third
dimension, then 𝑘⃗. 𝑟 is a plane perpendicular to the vector 𝑘⃗ and on this plane at every moment, 𝐸⃗
is the same, disregarding its polarization (it does not matter, it should be exactly the same).

In the first attempt to find a solution, we made it simpler by assuming 𝑘𝑥 = 0, 𝑘𝑦 = 0 Thus

⃗ . 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑧. This is in the first attempt [9].
𝐾

3.0 MATLAB GUI Simulation

In order to give a better definition, visualization, and explanation. A MATLAB GUI is

used to give the following simulation:

Figure 5. 5 Circular plot of an electromagnetic wave.

LHCP stands for Left-Hand Circularly Polarized

 26

Figure 5. 6 Linearly polarized electromagnetic wave

Attenuation of electromagnetic waves

Figure 5. 7 Propagation of an electromagnetic wave in water

 27

Figure 5. 8 Propagation of electromagnetic wave in oil

As a result, When an electromagnetic wave propagates in a non conducting medium, the
attenuation is nearly zero, and the amplitude remians unchanged. However when an
electromagentic wave propagates through a conducting medium (water), the attenuation is not
zero, thus the amplitude decays [27].

4.0 Applications of Maxwell’s equations

Discovering and manipulating laws of nature truly requires brilliant and ambitious
scientists. Faraday’s discovery of induction is the basis of generators and motors. Imagine how life
would be without his discovery. This is how level of importance is given to discoveries regardless
by how much was the math sophisticated.

Maxwell’s equations define the characteristics of electromagnetic waves. One cannot exist
without the other, one is the other. Radio waves, Radars, X-rays, Wi-Fi, GPS, lasers, mobile
phones, TV, communication systems, and countless other more are based on electromagnetic
 28

waves. Thus, understanding the behaviour of these waves is a must to understand and develop this
device.

4.1 Wireless Communication

Many universities offer wireless communication course including Phoenicia university,
basically students study the losses and the propagation of the electromagnetic waves sent by a
transmitter to determine the transmission power and the ideal location needed to minimize the
losses. In any Wireless communication system, including Wi-Fi, 3g, 4g, 5g, and Massive MIMO
which is an emerging topic and has been tested in Qatar world cup to give very high internet speed
connection on both links [20], engineers study the reflections, scattering, and diffraction of the
wave using Maxwell’s equations to estimate strength and determine polarization of transmitted
signals. Transmitters are often placed at high ground to benefit from the line-of-sight propagation
(minimum losses) [21].

Figure 6. 1 Propagation module for Wi-Fi

to detrmine the ideal location for
transmission. [22]

In homes, residents often find that the right side of their bed has a better connection than
the left side or at the middle. There is no relation between the bed and the connection strength.
Electromagnetic waves can have destructive addition as transmitters keep transmitting the signal,
one signal can be the line-of-sight whereas the second exact same wave is delayed due to reflection
(not necessary) where the positive peak is exactly at the negative peak of the second signal. Thus,
destructive addition.

Maxwell’s equations are highly important in the field of wireless communication.

 29

4.2 Wireless Power Transmission [23]

Electromagnetic generators dominate among other generators to produce power; however,

it needs fossil fuels to keep running. Today, due to energy shortage, Scientists are desperately
looking for a new energy sources as alternatives. A triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) has
attracted attention due its low cost and environmentally friendly.

Maxwell’s equations are the starting point of the fundamental theory of TENG. TENG is
based on Maxwell’s displacement current.

Figure 6. 2 Schematic of Different Types of Nanogenerators (A) Triboelectric nanogenerator

(TENG) working modes. (B) Electromagnetic generator (EMG) working modes [24].

4.3 Analysis of Eddy current in NMRs [25]

The Maxwell’s equations’ solutions are used to study the eddy currents in nuclear magnetic
resonance imaging, and their effects are investigated under a variety of experimental settings,
including whole-body diagnostic imaging and recently developed NMR microscopy.

The word "eddy current," which refers to some unidentified time-variant phenomenon, is
arguably one of the most often used in NMR imaging. Despite being often discussed, its effects
in NMR imaging are not well understood because of the intricate time- and space-variant
properties.

The diffusion equation, which is derived from Maxwell's equations and gives an
explanation of eddy current behaviour, given by
 30

𝝏𝑨
𝛁 𝟐 𝑨 = 𝝁𝝈 𝝏𝒕 (6.3)

Since numerous segments of current loops may easily be used to simulate the gradient coil
in NMR imaging, the analysis begins with a single current loop with radius 𝑅1 that is positioned
coaxially inside of a hollow conducting cylinder with radius 𝑅2 . Hence equation (6.1) can be
rewritten in the cylindrical coordinates (𝜌, 𝜙, 𝑧) as

𝛁 𝟐 𝑨𝑰 = 𝟎 , 𝝆 ≤ 𝑹𝟐 (6.4)
𝜕𝐴𝐼𝐼
∇2 𝐴𝐼𝐼 = 𝜇𝜎 , 𝜌 > 𝑅2 (6.2)
𝜕𝑡

In equation (6.2), the cylinder was assumed to be infinitely long and thick. The solution of equation
(6.2) for a unit current with a time-dependent term of 𝑒 𝑗𝑤𝑡 is given by

𝜙 𝜇𝑅1 ∞ ∞
𝐴1 = ∫ cos(𝑘𝑧) 𝐼1 (𝑘𝜌< )𝐾1 (𝑘𝜌> )𝑑𝑘 + ∫ 𝛼(𝑘, 𝑤)𝐼1 (𝑘𝜌) cos(𝑘𝑧) 𝑑𝑘
𝜋 0 0

𝝓 ∞
𝑨𝑰𝑰 = ∫𝟎 𝜷(𝒌, 𝒘)𝑲𝟏 (ƞ𝟐 𝝆) 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒌𝒛) 𝒅𝒌 (6.5)
𝜙 𝜙
Where ƞ2 = 𝑘 2 + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜎; 𝐴𝐼 and 𝐴𝐼𝐼 are the ϕ components of 𝐴𝐼 and 𝐴𝐼𝐼 ,respectively;

𝜌< is the smaller of ρ and R1; and 𝜌> is the larger of p and R1. The 𝐼𝑛 (. )and 𝐾𝑛 (. ) are the nth
order modified Bessel functions.

The coefficients 𝛼( 𝑘, 𝜔)and 𝛽( 𝑘, 𝜔) in equation (6.3) can be determined from the boundary
conditions that the tangential component of H and the normal components of 𝛽 are continuous
𝜌 𝜌
over the boundary, i.e., 𝐻𝐼𝑍 = 𝐻𝐼𝐼𝑍 and 𝛽𝐼 = 𝛽𝐼𝐼 ,and are given by

𝜇𝑅1 𝐼1 (𝑘𝑅1 ) [𝑘𝐾0 (𝑘𝑅2 )𝐾1 ( 𝑅2 ) − 𝐾1 (𝑘𝑅2 )𝐾0 ( 𝑅2 )]

𝛼 (𝑘, 𝑤) = (6.4.1)
𝜋 [ 𝐾0 ( 𝑅2 ) 𝐼1 (𝑘𝑅2 ) + 𝑘𝐼0 (𝑘𝑅2 )𝐾1 ( 𝑅2 )]

𝝁𝑹𝟏 𝑰𝟏 (𝒌𝑹𝟏 )
𝜷(𝒌, 𝒘) = (6.6)
𝝅𝑹𝟐 [ 𝑲𝟎 ( 𝑹𝟐 )𝑰𝟏 (𝒌𝑹𝟐 )+𝒌𝑰𝟎 (𝒌𝑹𝟐 )𝑲𝟏( 𝑹𝟐 )]

The magnet wall's relative permeability was taken to be 1 in equation (6.4). The precession
frequency of the spin in the sample is proportional to the local magnetic field intensity where the
spin is situated, hence the effects of eddy currents on NMR imaging are mainly focused on the
distortion of the magnetic field by the eddy currents. With cylindrical symmetry, the magnetic
 31

induction 𝛽𝐼𝑧 in the imaging region (𝜌 ≤ 𝑅1 ) is calculated from equation (6.3) and equation (6.4)
as

1 𝜕
𝐵𝐼𝑧 = 𝜌 (𝜌𝐴𝜙
1) (6.5)
𝜕𝜌

𝜇𝑅1 ∞ ∞
= 𝜋
∫0 𝑘𝐼0 (𝑘𝜌)𝐾1 (𝑘𝑅1 ) cos(𝑘𝑧) 𝑑𝑘 + ∫0 𝛼(𝑘, 𝑤)𝑘𝐼0 (𝑘𝜌) cos(𝑘𝑧) 𝑑𝑘 (6.6)

∞ ∞
= ∫0 𝑄(𝜌, 𝑘) cos(𝑘𝑧) 𝑑𝑘 + ∫0 𝐸 (𝜌, 𝑘, 𝑤) cos(𝑘𝑧) 𝑑𝑘 (6.7)
= 𝑞 (𝜌, 𝑧) + 𝑒(𝜌, 𝑧, 𝑤) (6.8)

𝜇𝑅1
Where 𝑄(𝜌, 𝑘) = ( ) 𝑘𝐼0 (𝑘𝜌)𝐾1 (𝐾𝑅1 ), 𝐸(𝜌, 𝑘, 𝜔) = 𝛼(𝑘, 𝜔)𝐾𝐼0 (𝐾𝜌), and 𝑞(𝜌, 𝑧) and
𝜋

𝑒(𝜌, 𝑧, 𝜔) are the Fourier transform of 𝑄(𝜌, 𝑘) and E(𝜌, 𝑘, 𝜔) respectively.

The field component generated by the eddy currents is the second term in equation (6.8),
whereas the field component created in free space by the loop current is the first term. In this study,
these two concepts are frequently referred to as produced field and induced field, respectively.
These two fields are added together to get the final field. The field produced by the applied current
is independent of ω, but the field produced by the eddy current is a function of 𝜔, which explains
why eddy currents have time-varying properties.

5.0 Brief History: Continued

Originally, Maxwell introduced eight equations to represent any electromagnetic field

⃗
𝜕𝐷
𝐽= 𝑗+ (7.1)
𝜕𝑡

⃗ ×𝐻
∇ ⃗ =𝐽 (7.2)

⃗ =∇
𝜇𝐻 ⃗ ×𝐴 (7.3)

𝜕𝐴
𝐸⃗ = 𝑢(𝑣 × 𝐻
⃗ )− ⃗𝜙
−∇ (7.4)
𝜕𝑡

⃗ = 𝜖𝐸⃗
𝐷 (7.5)

𝑗 = 𝜎𝐸⃗ (7.6)

⃗ .𝐷
∇ ⃗ = −𝜌𝑒 (7.7)
 32

𝜕𝜌𝑒
⃗ .𝑗 = −
∇ (7.8)
𝜕𝑡

Plus, twelve quaternion equations by employing scalar and vector operators:

𝑆. 𝑄 = 𝑆. (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑗𝑐 + 𝑘𝑑 ) = 𝑎 (7.9)

𝑉. 𝑄 = 𝑉. (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑗𝑐 + 𝑘𝑑 ) = 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑗𝑐 + 𝑘𝑑 (7.10)

The most famous one

⃗ = 𝜇𝐻
𝐵 ⃗ (7.11)

and eleven more (follow the reference for more info).

Maxwell's formulation was composed of 20 equations in 20 variables which Heaviside showed

could be reduced to just 4 equations in 4 variables. These are the ones taught today [19].
 33

References

[1] Kerker, M. (2016). The scattering of light and other electromagnetic radiation. Elsevier.

[2] Kerr, J. (1877). XLIII. On rotation of the plane of polarization by reflection from the pole of
a magnet. The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of
Science, 3(19), 321-343.

[3] Sengupta, D. L., & Sarkar, T. K. (2003). Maxwell, Hertz, the Maxwellians, and the early
history of electromagnetic waves. IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, 45(2), 13-19.

[4] Bonanno, A., Sapia, P., Camarca, M., & Oliva, A. (2008, May). Virtually exploring a pillar
of experimental physics: the Hertz experiment. In AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol. 1018, No.
1, pp. 244-247). American Institute of Physics.

[5] Nyambuya, G. G. (2015). Fundamental physical basis for Maxwell-Heaviside

gravitomagnetism. Journal of Modern Physics, 6(09), 1207.

[6] Aigner, F. (2011, April 5). Physicists rotate beams of light. Phys.org. Retrieved from
https://phys.org/news/2011-04-physicists-rotate.html

[7] What are magnetic fields? (n.d.). Khan Academy.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/magnetic-forces-and-magnetic-fields/magnetic-
field-current-carrying-wire/a/what-are-magnetic-fields

[8] Tai, C. T. (1986). Unified definition of divergence, curl, and gradient. Applied Mathematics
and Mechanics, 7(1), 1-6.

[9] Walter Lewin. (2015, February 11). 8.03 - Lect 13 - Electromagnetic Waves, Solutions to
Maxwell’s Equations, Polarization [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nFtNCPUMoYA

[10] Singh, C. (2006). Student understanding of symmetry and Gauss’s law of electricity.
American journal of physics, 74(10), 923-936.

[11] Russell, M., & Murff, D. (2012). The Electric Field.

[12] Divergence and Curl of the Magnetic Field. (2018, February 12). studylib.net.
https://studylib.net/doc/18255556/divergence-and-curl-of-the-magnetic-field
 34

[13] DrPhysicsA. (2012, September 7). Maxwell’s Equations - Basic derivation [Video].
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AWI70HXrbG0

[14] Guru, Bhag Singh, and Hüseyin R. Hiziroglu. Electromagnetic field theory fundamentals.
Cambridge university press, 2009.

[15] Qi, X. L., Li, R., Zang, J., & Zhang, S. C. (2009). Inducing a magnetic monopole with
topological surface states. science, 323(5918), 1184-1187.

[16] Hill, S. E. (2011). Reanalyzing the ampere-maxwell law. The Physics Teacher, 49(6), 343-
345.

[17] Displacement current and Maxwell’s correction to Ampere’s circuital law. (n.d.-b). [Video].
BrainKart. https://www.brainkart.com/article/Displacement-current-and-Maxwell-s-correction-
to-Ampere-s-circuital-law_38540/

[18] Sarkar, D., & Halas, N. J. (1997). General vector basis function solution of Maxwell’s
equations. Physical Review E, 56(1), 1102.

[19] Huray, P. G. (2011). Maxwell's equations. John Wiley & Sons.

[20] Journey to 5G Singtel to deploy Massive MIMO technology at special events - Singtel.
(n.d.). https://www.singtel.com/about-us/media-centre/news-releases/journey-to-5g-singtel-to-
deploy-masive-mimo-technology-at-special-events-

[21] Tse, D., & Viswanath, P. (2005). Fundamentals of wireless communication. Cambridge
university press.

[22] Ray Tracing for Wireless Communications - MATLAB & Simulink - MathWorks España.
(n.d.). https://es.mathworks.com/help/comm/ug/ray-tracing-for-wireless-communications.html

[23] Chen, Y., Jie, Y., Wang, N., Wang, Z. L., & Cao, X. (2020). Novel wireless power
transmission based on Maxwell displacement current. Nano Energy, 76, 105051.

[24] Recent Progress in Hybridized Nanogenerators for Energy Scavenging - Scientific Figure on
ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-of-Different-
Types-of-Nanogenerators-A-Triboelectric-nanogenerator-TENG_fig1_347772848 [accessed 28
Dec, 2022]
 35

[25] Ahn, C. B., & Cho, Z. H. (1991). Analysis of eddy currents in nuclear magnetic resonance
imaging. Magnetic resonance in medicine, 17(1), 149-163.

[26] Kang, M., Chen, J., Cui, H. X., Li, Y., & Wang, H. T. (2011). Asymmetric transmission for
linearly polarized electromagnetic radiation. Optics express, 19(9), 8347-8356.

[27] Jiahe Shi et al 2019 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 688 033011