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Algebra through practice
Book 5: Groups
Algebra through practice
A collection of problems in algebra with solutions
Book 5
Groups
T. S. BLYTH o E. F. ROBERTSON
University of St Andrews
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© Cambridge University Press 1985
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First published 1985
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ISBN 978-0-521-27290-2 paperback

Contents
Preface vii
Background reference material viii
1: Subgroups 1
2: Automorphisms and Sylow theory 10
3: Series 15
4: Presentations 22
Solutions to Chapter 1 29
Test paper 1 94
Test paper 2 96
Test paper 3 98
Test paper 4 100
Preface
The aim of this series of problem-solvers is to provide a selection of

worked examples in algebra designed to supplement undergraduate
algebra courses. We have attempted, mainly with the average student
in mind, to produce a varied selection of exercises while incorporating
a few of a more challenging nature. Although complete solutions are
included, it is intended that these should be consulted by readers only
after they have attempted the questions. In this way, it is hoped that
the student will gain confidence in his or her approach to the art of
problem-solving which, after all, is what mathematics is all about.
The problems, although arranged in chapters, have not been
'graded' within each chapter so that, if readers cannot do problem n
this should not discourage them from attempting problem n-hl. A
great many of the ideas involved in these problems have been used in
examination papers of one sort or another. Some test papers (without
solutions) are included at the end of each book; these contain questions
based on the topics covered.
TSB, EFR
St Andrews
Background reference material
Courses on abstract algebra can be very different in style and content.

Likewise, textbooks recommended for these courses can vary enorm-
ously, not only in notation and exposition but also in their level of
sophistication. Here is a list of some major texts that are widely used
and to which the reader may refer for background material. The
subject matter of these texts covers all six of the present volumes, and
in some cases a great deal more. For the convenience of the reader there
is given overleaf an indication of which parts of which of these texts
are most relevant to the appropriate sections of this volume.
[1] I. T. Adamson, Introduction to Field Theory, Cambridge
University Press, 1982.
[2] F. Ayres, Jr, Modern Algebra, Schaum's Outline Series,
McGraw-Hill, 1965.
[3] D. Burton, A first course in rings and ideals, Addison-Wesley,
1970.
[4] P. M. Cohn, Algebra Vol. I, Wiley, 1982.
[5] D. T. Finkbeiner II, Introduction to Matrices and Linear
Transformations, Freeman, 1978.
[6] R. Godement, Algebra, Kershaw, 1983.
[7] J. A. Green, Sets and Groups, Routledge and Kegan Paul,
1965.
[8] I. N. Herstein, Topics in Algebra, Wiley, 1977.
[9] K. Hoffman and R. Kunze, Linear Algebra, Prentice Hall,
1971.
[10] S. Lang, Introduction to Linear Algebra, Addison-Wesley, 1970.
[11] S. Lipschutz, Linear Algebra, Schaum's Outline Series,
McGraw-Hill, 1974.
vin
[12] I. D. Macdonald, The Theory of Groups, Oxford University
Press, 1968.
[13] S. MacLane and G. Birkhoff, Algebra, Macmillan, 1968.
[14] N. H. McCoy, Introduction to Modern Algebra, Allyn and
Bacon, 1975.
[15] J. J. Rotman, The Theory of Groups: An Introduction, Allyn
and Bacon, 1973.
[16] I. Stewart, Galois Theory, Chapman and Hall, 1975.
[17] I. Stewart and D. Tall, The Foundations of Mathematics,
Oxford University Press, 1977.
References useful for Book 5

1: Subgroups [4, Sections 9.1, 9.6], [6, Chapter 7],
[8, Sections 2.1, 2.11], [12, Chapters 1-6],
[13, Sections 13.1, 13.4], [15 Chapters 1-4].
2: Automorphisms and Sylow theory [4, Sections 9.4, 9.8],
[8, Section 2.12], [12, Chapter 7], [13, Section 13.5],
[15, Chapter 5].
3: Series [4, Sections 9.2, 9.5], [12, Chapters 9,10],
[13, Sections 13.6-13.8], [15, Chapter 6].
4: Presentations [4, Section 9.9], [12, Chapter 8],
[15, Chapter 11].
In [8] morphisms are written on the left but permutations are
written as mappings on the right. In [4] and [12] all mappings
(including permutations) are written as mappings on the right.
In American texts ' solvable' is used where we have used
'soluble'.
IX
1: Subgroups
The isomorphism and correspondence theorems for groups should be

familiar to the reader. The first isomorphism theorem (that if / : G —• H
is a group morphism then G/ Ker/ ~ I m / ) is a fundamental result from
which follow further isomorphisms : if A < G (i.e. A is a subgroup of
G), if TV" < G (i.e. N is a normal subgroup of G), and if K < G with
K < N, then
A/(A n N) ~ NA/N and G/N ~ {G/K)/{N/K).

The correspondence theorem relates the subgroups of G/N to the sub-
groups of G that contain N.
Elements a, 6 of G are said to be conjugate if a = g~lbg for some
g G G. Conjugacy is an equivalence relation on G and the correspond-
ing classes are called conjugacy classes. The subset of G consisting of
those elements that belong to singleton conjugacy classes forms a normal
subgroup Z(G) called the centre of G. For H < G the subset
MG{H) = {geG | {VheH) g-lhg e H)
is called the normaliser of H in G. It is the largest subgroup of G in which

H is normal. The derived group of G is the subgroup G1 generated by
all the commutators [a, 6] = a~1b~1ab in G, and is the smallest normal
subgroup of G with abelian quotient group.
Examples are most commonly constructed with groups of matrices
(subgroups of the group GL(n, F) of invertible nxn matrices with entries
in a field F), groups of permutations (subgroups of the symmetric groups
Sn)j groups given by generators and relations, and direct (cartesian)
products of given groups.
Book 5 Groups
An example of a presentation is
G={a,b | a2 = 63 = 1, a~Ha = 6 " 1 ) .
Since |{6)| = 3 and (6) < G with G/(b) ~ C^ (the cyclic group of order
2), we see that \G\ = 6 . The generators a and b can be taken to corre-
spond to the permutations (1 2) and (12 3) which generate S$, or to the
matrices
r i r
1 1
1 0
which generate SL(2,7L<2,), the group of 2 x 2 matrices of determinant 1
with entries in the field Z 2 - Thus we have that G ~ S3 ~ SL(2, Z 2 ).
1.1 Let G be a group, let H be a subgroup of G and let if be a subgroup

of H. Prove that
Deduce that the intersection of a finite number of subgroups of finite

index is a subgroup of finite index. Is the intersection of an infinite
number of subgroups of finite index necessarily also of finite index?
1.2 Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of G. Prove that the only
left coset of H in G that is a subgroup of G is H itself. Prove that the
assignment
ip:xH^ Ex~l
describes a mapping from the set of left cosets of H in G to the set of
right cosets of H. Show also that ip is a bijection. Does the prescription
ij) : xH f-> Hx
describe a mapping from the set of left cosets of H to the set of right
cosets of HI If so, is ip a bijection?
1.3 Find a group G with subgroups H and K such that HK is not a sub-
group.
1.4 Consider the subgroup H = ((1 2)) of £ 3 . Show how the left cosets of H
partition 53. Show also how the right cosets of H partition S3. Deduce
that H is not a normal subgroup of 53.
1.5 Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of G. If g £ G is such that
\(g)\ = n and gm G H where m and n are coprime, show that g E H.
1: Subgroups
1.6 Let G be a group. Prove that

(i) If H is a subgroup of G then HH = H.
(ii) If X is a finite subset of G with XX — X then X is a subgroup of
G.
Show that (ii) fails for infinite subsets X.
1.7 Let G be a group and let H and if be subgroups of G. For a given
x G G define the double coset iiTzif by
HxK = {/ixA: | h€ H,k € if}.
If t/if is a left coset of if, show that either HxK n t/if = 0 or yif C
HxK. Hence show that for all x,y e G either iYzif n HyK = 0 or
1.8 Let n be a prime power and let Gn be a cyclic group of order n. If H

and if are subgroups of C n , prove that either # is a subgroup of if or
if is a subgroup of H. Suppose, conversely, that Gn is a cyclic group of
order n with the property that, for any two subgroups H and if of Cny
either H is a subgroup of if or if is a subgroup of H. Is n necessarily
a prime power?
1.9 Let G be a group. Given a subgroup H of G, define
n n~lHn
Prove that HQ is a normal subgroup of G and that if if is a subgroup

of H that is normal in G then if is a normal subgroup of HG>
Now let G — GL(2,Q) and let H be the subgroup of non-singular
diagonal matrices. Determine HQ- In this case, to what well-known
group is HQ isomorphic?
1.10 Let H be the subset of Mat 2 x2(£) that consists of the elements
1 0 -1 0 0 1 0 -i
'}[
5
0 0 ^ ) 0 1 0
J
0 0 0 i 0
5
i —i 0 0 i 0 —i
• •
Prove that H is a non-abelian group under matrix multiplication (called

the quaternion group). Find all the elements of order 2 in H. Find also
all the subgroups of H. Which of the subgroups are normal? Does H
have a quotient group that is isomorphic to the cyclic group of order 4?
Book 5 Groups
1.11 The dihedral group D-jn is the subgroup of GL(2, C) that is generated by
the matrices
r
o i
1 0
where a = e2™/n.
Prove that \D<2n\ = 2ftand that Z>2n contains a cyclic subgroup of
index 2.
Let G be the subgroup of GL(2, H.n) given by
€ k
G =
0 1
Prove that G is isomorphic to Z^n* Show also that, for every positive
integer n, Z^n. is a quotient group of the subgroup D^ of GL(2, Z) given
by
""e k
0 1
1.12 Let Q + , IR+j <C+ denote respectively the additive groups of rational, real,
complex numbers; and let <Q#, IR#, <C* be the corresponding multiplicative
groups. If U = {z € C | |#| — 1} and Q> 0 , IR>0 a r e the multiplicative
subgroups of positive rationals and reals, prove that
(i) C+/IR+ ~ IR+;
(ii) C#/IR^0 - U;
(iii) CV£r~IR^ 0 ~IRVC 3 ;
(iv) IR#/IR>0 ~ C2 ^ QV^ô;
v / ^ / •* ^>o*
1.13 Let p be a fixed prime. Denote by Zpoo the p n th roots of unity for all
positive integers n. Then Zpoo is a subgroup of the group of non-zero
complex numbers under multiplication.
Prove that every proper subgroup of Zpoo is a finite cyclic group; and
that every non-trivial quotient group of Zpoo is isomorphic to Zpoo.
Prove that Zpoo and <Q+ satisfy the property that every finite subset
generates a cyclic group.
1.14 Show that if no element of a 2-group G has order 4 then G is abelian.
Show that the dihedral and quaternion groups of order 8 are the only
non-abelian groups of order 8. Show further that these two groups are
not isomorphic.
1: Subgroups
1.15 According to Lagrange's theorem, what are the possible orders of sub-
groups of £ 4 ? For each kind of cycle structure in £ 4 , write down an
element with that cycle structure, and determine the total number of
such elements. State the order of the elements of each type.
What are the orders of the elements of 5 4 , and how many are there
of each order? How many subgroups of order 2 does S± have, and how
many of order 3? Find all the cyclic subgroups of £4 that are of order
4. Find all the non-cyclic subgroups of order 4.
Find all the subgroups of order 6, and all of order 8. Find also a
subgroup of order 12.
Find an abelian normal subgroup V of £ 4 . Is S4/V isomorphic to
some subgroup of 5 4 ?
Does A4 have a subgroup of order 6?
1.16 Consider the subgroup of 5 8 that is generated by {a, b} where
a = (1234) (5678) and b = (1537) (2846).
Determine the order of this subgroup and show that it is isomorphic to

the quaternion group. Is it isomorphic to any of the subgroups of order
8 in 5 4 ?
1.17 Suppose that p is a permutation which, when decomposed into a product
of disjoint cycles, has all these cycles of the same length. Prove that p
is a power of some cycle #.
Prove conversely that if # = (1 2 • • • m) then &s decomposes into a
product of h.c.f.(m, 5) disjoint cycles of length m/h.c.f.(m, s).
1.18 Let SL(2, p) be the group of 2 x 2 matrices of determinant 1 with entries
in the field Z p (where p is a prime). Show that SL(2, p) contains p2(p— 1)
elements of the form
1
a b\
\
where a ^ 0. Show also that SL(2,p) contains p(p — 1) elements of the
form
lo b
Deduce that |SL(2,p)| = p(p -

If Z denotes the centre of SL(2,p) define
Book 5 Groups
Show that |PSL(2,p)| - § p ( p -
More generally, consider the group SL(n,p) of n x n matrices of de-
terminant 1 with entries in the field 2 P . Using the fact that the rows of
a non-singular matrix are linearly independent, prove that
r
t=0
1.19 Let F be a field in which 1 + 1 ^ 0 and consider the group SL(2,F)

of 2 x 2 matrices of determinant 1 with entries in F. Prove that if
A e SL(2, JF) then A2 = -I2 if and only if tr(A) = 0 (where tr(A) is
the trace of A, namely the sum of its diagonal elements).
Let PSL(2,F) be the group SL(2,F)/Z(SL(2,JF)) and denote by A
the image of A G SL(2,.F) under the natural morphism t| : SL(2,F) —>
PSL(2,F). Show that ~A is of order 2 if and only if tr(A) = 0.
1.20 Show that <72 x C2 is a non-cyclic group of order 4. Prove that if G is
a non-cyclic group of order 4 then G ~ C2 x C 2 .
1.21 If PJ q are primes show that the number of proper non-trivial subgroups
of Cp x Cq is greater than or equal to 2, and that equality holds if and
only if p ^ q.
1.22 If G, H are simple groups show that G x H has exactly two proper
non-trivial normal subgroups unless |G| = \H\ and is a prime.
1.23 Is the cartesian product of two periodic groups also periodic? Is the
cartesian product of two torsion-free groups also torsion-free?
1.24 Let G be a group and let A, B be normal subgroups of G such that
G = AB. If A n B = N prove that
G/N ~ A/N x B/N.

Show that this result fails if G = AB where the subgroup A is normal
but the subgroup B is not.
1.25 Let / : G -> H be a group morphism. Suppose that A is a normal
subgroup of G and that the restriction of / to A is an isomorphism onto
H. Prove that
G~AxKerf.
Is this result true without the condition that A be normal?
Deduce that (using the notation defined in question 1.12)
(i) C + - IR+ x IR + ;
1: Subgroups
(ii) CT ~ « £ 0 x C 2 ;
(iii) IR# - IR^0 x C 2 ;
(iv) C - IR^0 x U.
1.26 Find all the subgroups of C2 x C 2 . Draw the subgroup Hasse diagram.
Prove that if G is a group whose subgroup Hasse diagram is identical
to that of C2 x G2 then G ~ C2 x C2.
1.27 Find all the subgroups of C2 x C2 x C2 and draw the subgroup Hasse
diagram.
1.28 Consider the set of integers n with 1 < n < 21 and n coprime to 21.
Show that this set forms an abelian group under multiplication modulo
21, and that this group is isomorphic to C2 x CQ. IS this group cyclic?
Is the set
{ n G Z | 1 < n < 12, n coprime to 12}
a cyclic group under multiplication modulo 12?
1.29 Determine which of the following groups are decomposable into a carte-
sian product of two non-trivial subgroups :
#4, 55, A4, A5, IR , C6, C8, C , Zpoo.
1.30 Let G be an abelian group and let H be a subgroup of G. Suppose that,
given h £ H and n G IN, the equation xn = h has a solution in G if and
only if it has a solution in H. Show that given xH there exists y £ xH
with y of the same order in G as xH has in G/H. Deduce that if G/H
is cyclic then there is a subgroup K of G with G ~ H x K.
1.31 Let G? be an abelian group. If x, y £ G have orders m, n respectively,
show that xy has order at most mn. Show also that ii z E G has order
ran where ra and n are coprime then z — xy where x,y £ G satisfy
xm = yn = 1. Deduce that x and y have orders ra, n respectively.
Extend this result to the case where z has. order raim2 • • •ra&where
mi,..., rrik are pairwise coprime.
Hence prove that if G is a finite abelian group of order
Pi V2 Pk
where p i , . . . , p& are distinct primes then
where Hi = {x E G \ xv^x — 1} for i = 1 , . . . , /:. Show also that if r

divides \G\ then G? has a subgroup of order r.
Book 5 Groups
1.32 Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Prove that the intersection of all
the conjugates of H is a normal subgroup of G.
If x £ G is it possible that
A = {g-lxg | geG}
is a subgroup of G? Can A be a normal subgroup? Can A be a subgroup

that is not normal?
1.33 Are all subgroups of order 2 conjugate in £ 4 ? What about all subgroups
of order 3?
Are the elements (12 3) and (2 3 4) conjugate in
1.34 Show that a subgroup H of a group G is normal if and only if it is a
union of conjugacy classes.
Exhibit an element from each conjugacy class of £4 and state how
many elements there are in each class. Deduce that the only possible
orders for non-trivial proper normal subgroups of £4 are 4 and 12. Show
also that normal subgroups of orders 4 and 12 do exist in £4.
1.35 Exhibit an element from each conjugacy class of £5. How many elements
are there in each conjugacy class? What are the orders of the elements
of £5? Find all the non-trivial proper normal subgroups of S5.
Find the conjugacy classes of A$ and deduce that it has no proper
non-trivial normal subgroups.
1.36 If G is a group and a G G prove that the number of elements in the
conjugacy class of a is the index of NG{O>) in G. Deduce that in Sn the
only elements that commute with a cycle of length n are the powers of
that cycle.
Suppose that n is an odd integer, with n > 3. Prove that there are
two conjugacy classes of cycles of length n in An. Show also that each
of these classes contains ~(n — 1)! elements.
Show that if n is an even integer with n > 4 then there are two
conjugacy classes of cycles of length n — 1 m Sni and that each of these
classes contains ^n(n — 2)! elements.
1.37 If G is a group and a € G prove that the conjugacy class containing a
and that containing a~l have the same number of elements.
Suppose now that \G\ is even. Show that there is at least one a G G
with a ^ l such that a is conjugate to a~l.
1.38 Find the conjugacy classes of the dihedral group Din when n is odd.
What are the classes when n is even?
8
1: Subgroups
1.39 Let G be a group and let H and K be conjugate subgroups of G. Prove

that MG{H) and MG{K) are conjugate.
1.40 Let H be a normal subgroup of a group G with \H\ — 2. Prove that
HC Z{G).
Is it necessarily true that H C G'?
Prove that if G contains exactly one element x of order 2 then {x) C
1.41 Suppose that N is a normal subgroup of a group G with the property

that Nn'G' = 1. Prove that N C Z(G) and deduce that
= Z(G)/N.
2: Automorphisms and Sylow theory
An isomorphism / : G —> G is called an automorphism on G. The auto-

morphisms on a group G form, under composition of mappings, a group
AutG. Conjugation by a fixed element g of G, namely the mapping
<pg : G —> G described by x F-> ^ ( E ) = g~1zg, is an automorphism on
G. The inner automorphism group Inn G = {cpg | g G G} is a normal
subgroup of Aut G, and the quotient group Aut G/Inn G is called the
outer automorphism group of G. For example, the cyclic group Cn (be-
ing abelian) has trivial inner automorphism group, and & : Cn —> Cn
given by &(g) = g~l is an (outer) automorphism of order 2. A subgroup
/ / of a group G is normal if and only if $(H) C H for every # G Inn G,
and is called characteristic if $(H) C iiT for every # G Aut G.
For finite groups, the converse of Lagrange's theorem is false. How-
ever, a partial converse is provided by the important theorems of Sylow.
A group P is called a p-group if every element has order a power of p
for a fixed prime p. In this case, if P is finite, \P\ is also a power of p.
If G is a group with \G\ = pnk where k is coprime to p then a subgroup
of order pn is called a Sylow p-subgroup. In this situation we have the
following results, with which we assume the reader is familiar :
(a) G has a subgroup of order pm for every m < n;
(b) every p-subgroup of G is contained in a Sylow p-subgroup;
(c) any two Sylow ^-subgroups are conjugate in G;
(d) the number of Sylow p-subgroups of G is congruent to 1 modulo p
and divides |G|.
2.1 Let p be a prime. Use the class equation to show that every finite p-
group has a non-trivial centre. Deduce that all groups of order p2 are
abelian.
List all the groups of order 9.
2.2 Let G be a group and let $ 6 Aut G. If A and B are subgroups of G
prove that $(AnB) is a subgroup of flAntiB. Is it necessarily true that
2.3 Let G be a group and let Inn G be the group of inner automorphisms on
G. Prove that InnCr is a normal subgroup of Aut G and. that
InnG~G/Z{G).
The two non-abelian groups of order 8 are the dihedral group Ds with
presentation
D8 = (a,b 1 a2 = 1, b4 = 1, a~Ha = 6" 1 )
and the quaternion group Q8 with presentation
Qs = {xiy | x4 = l, x2^y2, y-'xy^x'1).
Show that Z{D8) = (b2) ~C2 and Z(Q8) = {x2) ~ C 2 . Deduce that
Inn Dg ~ Inn Qg •
2.4 Let <3 be a group with the property that it cannot be decomposed into
the direct product of two non-trivial subgroups. Does every subgroup
of G have this property? Does every quotient group of G have this
property?
2.5 If G is a group such that G/Z(G) is cyclic, prove that G is abelian.
Deduce that a group with a cyclic automorphism group is necessarily
abelian.
2.6 Find the automorphism group of the symmetric group 63.
2.7 Prove that C2 x C2 and £3 have isomorphic automorphism groups.
2.8 Let G be a group with Z[G) = {1}. Prove that Z(Aut G) = {1}. Is the
converse true in general?
2.9 Let Z p denote the field of integers modulo p where p is a prime, and let
Zp be an ra-dimensional vector space over Z p . Prove that the additive
group of Zp is isomorphic to the group
Gpx Cpx • • • x Cp
consisting of n copies of Cp.
Show that every element of Aut G corresponds to an invertible linear
transformation on Z£.
Deduce that
2.10 Find all groups G with Aut G = {1}.

11
Book 5 Groups
2.11 A subgroup H of a group G is called fully invariant if &(H) C H for
every group morphism # : G —> G. Which of the following statements
are true?
(a) The derived group of a group is fully invariant.
(b) The centre of a group is fully invariant.
(c) A4 contains a normal subgroup that is not fully invariant.
(d) Gn — (gn I g G G) is a fully invariant subgroup of G.
(e) Gn = (g G G \ gn = 1) is a fully invariant subgroup of G.
2.12 Let G be a group and C a conjugacy class in (7. If a G Aut G prove that
a(<7) is also a conjugacy class of G.
Let if be the set of conjugacy classes of G and define
N = {a G Aut G I (VC G jfif) a(C) = C).
Prove that N is a normal subgroup of Aut G.
2.13 Let G be a group and N a normal subgroup of G. Let A = Aut JV and
/ = Inn TV. If C is the centraliser of iV in G prove that NC is a normal
subgroup of G and that GjNC is isomorphic to a subgroup of the outer
automorphism group A/1 of N. Show also that NC/C ~ I.
Prove that if the outer automorphism group of N is trivial and Z(N) —
{1} then G = JV x C. Deduce that a group G contains £3 as a normal
subgroup if and only if G — 5 3 x C for some normal subgroup C of G.
2.14 Prove that if G is a group then
(a) a subgroup H is characteristic in G if and only if $(H) = H for
every # G Aut G;
(b) the intersection of a family of characteristic subgroups of G is a
characteristic subgroup of (3;
(c) if H, K are characteristic subgroups of G then so is HK\
(d) if 71, iif are characteristic subgroups of G then so is [£T, JRT];
(e) if if is a normal subgroup of G, and K is a characteristic subgroup
of H, then K is a normal subgroup of G.
2.15 Suppose that G is a finite group and that H is a normal subgroup of G
such that I If I is coprime to \G : H\. Prove that iT is characteristic in G.
2.16 Let G be a group and let F be the subset consisting of those elements
x of G that have only finitely many conjugates in G. Prove that F is a
subgroup of G. Is F a normal subgroup? Is F characteristic in (3?
2.17 If t e <Q\{0} prove that &t : Q + -> <Q+ given by # t (r) = tr is an automor-
phism of the (additive) group Q + . Deduce that the only characteristic
subgroups of Q + are {1} and <R+.
12
2.18 Suppose that G is a finite group and that H is a subgroup of G. Show
that every Sylow p-subgroup of H is contained in a Sylow p-subgroup
of G. Prove also that no pair of distinct p-subgroups of H can lie in the
same Sylow p-subgroup of G.
Now suppose that that H is normal in G and that P is a Sylow p -
subgroup of G. Prove that H n P is a Sylow p-subgroup of H and that
HP IH is a Sylow p-subgroup of G/H. Is HnP a Sylow p-subgroup of
H if we drop the condition that H be normal in G?
2.19 Prove that a normal p-subgroup of a finite group G is contained in every
Sylow p-subgroup of G.
Suppose that, for every prime p dividing \G\, G has a normal Sylow p -
subgroup. Prove that G is the direct product of its Sylow p-subgroups.
2.20 Determine the structure of the Sylow p-subgroups of A& and find the
number of Sylow p-subgroups for each prime p.
2.21 Let G be a finite group and let K be a normal subgroup of G. Suppose
that P is a Sylow p-subgroup of K. Show that, for all g G G, g~lPg
is also a Sylow p-subgroup of K. Use the fact that these Sylow p -
subgroups are conjugate in K to deduce that G = M(P) K. Deduce
further that if P is a Sylow p-subgroup of G and M(P) < H < G then
JY(JT) = H.
2.22 Let G be a finite group with the property that all its Sylow subgroups
are cyclic. Show that every subgroup of G has this property.
Prove that any two p-subgroups of G of the same order are conjugate.
Let H and N be subgroups of G with N normal in G. Show that
\HN\=hc.m.(\N\,\H\).
Deduce that every normal subgroup of G is characteristic.

2.23 Use the Sylow theorems to prove that
(a) every group of order 200 has a normal Sylow 5-subgroup;
(b) there is no simple group of order 40;
(c) there is no simple group of order 56;
(d) every group of order 35 is cyclic.
2.24 Use the Sylow theorems to prove that
(a) every group of order 85 is cyclic;
(b) if p, q are distinct primes then a group of order p2q cannot be simple.
13
Book 5 Groups
2.25 Let G be a group of order pq where p,g are distinct primes such that
q ^ 1 modulo p. Prove that G has a normal Sylow p-subgroup. Show
that this result fails if q = 1 modulo p. Show that if |G| = pq where
p, q are distinct primes then G is not simple. Deduce further that if p, q
are distinct primes with p ^ 1 modulo g and q ^ 1 modulo p then every
group of order pq is cyclic.
2.26 Suppose that a group G has the property that if n divides |G| then G has
a subgroup of order n. Does every subgroup of G have this property?
2.27 Let G b e a finite group and P a Sylow p-subgroup of G. Suppose that
z, y G Z(P) and are conjugate in G. Show that re, y are conjugate in
2.28 Let G be a group with a subgroup if of index n in G. Show that there

is a largest nonnal subgroup K of G that is contained in H and that
G/K is isomorphic to a subgroup of Sn.
Deduce that if G is a simple group with \G\ = 60 (there is exactly
one such group, namely A5, but this fact is not required) then G has no
subgroups of order 15, 20 or 30.
2.29 Let G b e a simple group with \G\ = 168. Prove that G has eight Sylow
7-subgroups. Show also that if P is a Sylow 7-subgroup of G then
\MG{P)\ — 21. Deduce that G contains no subgroup of order 14.
14
3: Series
Given subgroups A, B of a group G we obtain the subgroup

[A,B] = {[a,b] | aeA.be B).
In particular, [G, G] is the derived group of G. We define the derived se-
ries of G to be the most rapidly descending series with abelian quotients
(factors), namely
G<0) = G, (Vi > 1) G<l) = [Gt*"1', G^" 1 )].
We say that G is soluble of derived length n if n is the least integer with
GW = {1}.
Similarly, the most rapidly descending central series and the most
rapidly ascending central series of G are the lower central series and the
upper central series, defined by
Zo = {l}, (V»>1) Zi/Zi_1=Z(G/Zi-1)

respectively. The lower central series reaches {1} in a finite number of
steps if and only if the upper central series reaches G in a finite number
of steps. In this case G is said to be nilpotent, and the number of factors
in either series is the class of G.
Every subgroup H of a nilpotent group G is subnormal, in the sense
that there is a series
H = Ho < Hi < • • • < Hr = G.
The final type of series with which we assume the reader is familiar
is called a composition series^ This is a subnormal series from {1} into
which no further terms can be properly inserted.
Book 5 Groups
3.1 Let G be a group. Establish each of the following results concerning

commutators.
(a) If S < G and T < G then [5, T] = [T, S].
(b) If H < G and K < G then [H, K] < H n K. What does this imply
when HC\K = {1}1
(c) If x, y, z e G then
Deduce that if H, K, L are normal subgroups of G then
(d) Define [a,6,c,] = [[a,6],c]. Prove that
[a, 6c] = [a,c][a,6][a,6,c]
and that
\ab,c] = [a,c}[a,c,b}[b,c}.
3.2 Find the upper and lower central series of G = Qs x (?2 and show that
they do not coincide. Show, however, that the upper and lower central
series of Qs do coincide.
3.3 Prove that if G is generated by its subnormal abelian subgroups then any
quotient group of G is generated by its subnormal abelian subgroups.
Show that every subgroup of a nilpotent group is subnormal. Deduce
that a nilpotent group is generated by its subnormal abelian subgroups.
3.4 Let A, B, C be subgroups of a group G with B < A. Prove that
AnG ^ B{ApC)
Br\C'
If, in addition, C<G prove that
AC
BC "~ B{AnC)'
Use the above results to show that if H is a soluble group then every
subgroup and every quotient group of H is soluble.
Prove that if K is a group with H < K and both H and K/H are
soluble then K is soluble.
Let G be a group with normal subgroups A and B such that G/A and
G/B are soluble. Show that A/(A n B) is soluble and deduce that so
also is G/{AnB).
16
S: Series
3.5 Which of the following statements are true? Give a proof for those that
are true and a counter-example to those that are false.
(a) Let G be a group and let H, K be normal soluble subgroups of G.
Then HK is a normal soluble subgroup of G.
(b) Let G be a group and H) K normal abelian subgroups of G. Then
HK is a normal abelian subgroup of G.
(c) Let G be a g'roup and H, K normal p-subgroups of G. Then HK
is a normal p-subgroup of G.
3.6 Let G be a non-trivial finite nilpotent group. Use induction on \G\
to prove that every proper subgroup of G is properly contained in its
normaliser. Deduce that every Sylow subgroup of G is normal.
[Hint, Use question 2.21.]
3.7 Suppose that G is a group with the properties
(a) G is nilpotent of class 3;
(b) \G\ = 16.
Prove that G contains a unique cyclic subgroup of order 8.
Give an example of such a group.
3.8 A group G is said to be residually nilpotent if it has a series of subgroups
G == Hx > H2 > • • • > H%> • • •
with [HUG] < Hi+} and f)Z} ft = {!}•

Show that a finite group is residually nilpotent if and only if it is
nilpotent. Give an example of a residually nilpotent group that is not
nilpotent.
Prove that every subgroup of a residually nilpotent group is also resid-
ually nilpotent. Show that a quotient group of a residually nilpotent
group need not be residually nilpotent.
3.9 Establish the identity
Hence show that if A is a subgroup of a group G then [G, A] is normal

in G.
Prove that if G is a group with a non-trivial subgroup A such that
A — [A, G] then G cannot he nilpotent.
A minimal normal subgroup of a group is a non-trivial normal sub-
group which properly contains no non-trivial normal subgroup of the
group. Deduce from the above that every minimal normal subgroup of
a nilpotent group is contained in the centre of the group.
17
Book 5 Groups
3.10 Let p be a prime. Prove that every finite p-group is nilpotent.

Let G = H x K where \H\ = p 2 and |ff| = = p;3 Prove that if G is
non-abelian then G is nilpotent of class 2 and = p3.
3.11 Let G be the multiplicative group
1 a b
0 1 c
0 0 1
Find the centre of G and the derived group of G. Prove that G is
nilpotent and that the upper and lower central series for G coincide.
Let ti2,ti3jt23 denote the matrices
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 5 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
respectively. Prove that
G= ).
Find a subnormal series for each of the subgroups
3.12 Let X, Y, Z be subgroups of a group G and let

A={X,Y,Z], B = [Y,Z,X], C=[Z,X,Y}.
Prove that if N is a normal subgroup of G that contains two of A, B, C
then N contains the third.
[Hint Use the identity [x, y~1iz]y[yiz~1 ,x]z[z, x~l, y\x = L]
Deduce that if G has subgroups H and K such that
H= H0>H1>H2>"'
ls a series of normal subgroups of H with [JET», JRT] < H{+% for all i > 0
then [Hi,Tn(K)} < Hi+n for every n E IN where Tn(K) is the nth. term
of the lower central series for K.
Suppose that G has lower central series G = Fi > F2 > • • •, upper
central series {1} = ZQ < Z\ < and derived series G =
GW > .... Prove that
(a) [r m ,r n ]<r m + n ;
(b) [Zm,Tn] < Zm-n\
(c) [z m ,r m ] = {i} ;
(d) G' r )<r 3 r;
(e) if G = G^ thenZi = Z2.
18
8: Series
3.13 Let G be a group with \G/Z{G)\ = pn. Let x G Z2{G) and JV = {[z, ?] |
£€<?). Prove that |JV| < pn.
Use induction to prove that G' is a p-group of order at most p2 n ( n ~ 1 ).
3.14 Let G b e a finite group and let $ be the intersection of all the maximal
subgroups of G. Prove that if H is a subgroup of G such that G = $if
then # = G.
Let T be a Sylow p-subgroup of <!> and let g € G. By considering T
and T g , prove that # G MG{T)$. Deduce that every Sylow p-subgroup
of $ is normal.
3.15 A group G is said to satisfy the maximum condition for subgroups if for
every chain of subgroups
Hi < H2 < • • • < Hn < • • •
there is an integer N such that (Vm > N) Hm = H^.
Prove that G satisfies the maximum condition for subgroups if and
only if every subgroup of G is finitely generated.
A group G is called poly cyclic if G has a series
G = ffo> ffi > •••> J5Tr = {l}
with Hi < Hi-i and Hî/Hi cyclic for i = 1 , . . . , r.
Prove that a group G is poly cyclic if and only if G is soluble and
satisfies the maximum condition for subgroups.
3.16 Suppose that A and B are abelian subgroups of a group G such that
G = AJ9. Use the relation
[xy,z] = jrMs
to prove that [A, B] is normal in (2 and hence show that Gf = [J4,
Prove further that if a,\, ag G -4 and 6i, 62 G JB then
and deduce that [A, B] is abelian.

Conclude that G is soluble of derived length at most 2.
3.17 Let G be a finite nilpotent group. Prove that every maximal subgroup
of G is normal.
Let S be a Sylow p-subgroup of G and suppose that MG{S) is properly
contained in G. Let M be a maximal subgroup of G containing SIQ{S).
Show that if g G G then 5 and g~xSg are Sylow p-subgroups of M and
derive the contradiction that g G M. Hence deduce that MG{S) — G
and that G has just one Sylow p-subgroup for each prime p that divides
the order of G,
Prove also that G is the direct product of its Sylow subgroups.
19
Book 5 Groups
3.18 Let M be a maximal subgroup of a finite soluble group G. Let K be the

intersection of all the subgroups of G that are conjugate to M. Prove
that K is the largest normal subgroup of G contained in M.
Let H/K be a minimal normal subgroup of G/K. Prove that G =
HM and that HnM = K.
Deduce that the index of M in G is equal to the order of H/K.
3.19 A group G is called metacyclic if it has a normal subgroup N such that
N and G/N are cyclic.
Prove that every subgroup and every quotient group of a metacyclic
group is also metacyclic.
Show that the group described by
<<z,6 | a2 = 1, b8 = 1, aba = b7)
is metacyclic.
3.20 Let F be a field. If a e F and 1 < i < j < n let ti3-(a) be the matrix
in GL(n,jP) that differs from the identity in having a in the (t,/)-th
position. Let
Tn{F) = (ti:f{a) | 1 < i < j < n, a G F).
Prove that Tn(F) is the subgroup of GL(n,F) consisting of all upper

triangular n x n matrices over F of the form
1 * *
0 1 ... *
0 0 1 ... *
0 0 0 ... 1
For 1 < k < n - 1 let Hk = {ti3{a) | j - i > k, a e F ) . P r o v e t h a t
Tn{F) = Ht > H2 > • • • > # n _x > {1}
is a central series for Tn(F).

If F = Z p for some prime p, show that Tn(F) is a Sylow p-subgroup
ofSL(n9F).
3.21 Show that the groups £3,64 and 65 have unique composition series.
Find the composition series for each of these groups.
What can you say about a composition series of Sn when n > 5?
20
8: Series
3.22 Let G be a group of order prq8 where p and q are distinct primes. Sup-
pose that G has composition series
G = Ai > A2 > > A r + S + 1 = {1},

G = B1>B2> ••> J5r+*+i = {1}
such that |-Ar+i| = qs and |JB«+I| = pr. Show that Ar+i and J95+i are
normal subgroups of G and deduce that G is the direct product of these
subgroups.
21
4: Presentations
Given an abelian group G with a presentation

( xi,..., xn | ri = 1, r 2 = 1, . . . , r m = 1)
the relation matrix of the presentation is the m x n matrix A — [a,y]
where a,-y is the exponent sum of Xj in the relation ry = 1. Now A can
be reduced by elementary row and column operations, in which only
integer multiples are used, to a diagonal matrix D = diag{di,... ,dt}
where t = min{n, m}. This is equivalent to finding invertible integer
matrices P,Q such that PAQ~l = D. We can assume that di,...,ck
are non-zero and ck+i,..., dt are zero. Then if C is the direct product
of n — k copies of C^ we have
G~CdlxCd2x --xCdkx C.
If G is a group then G/G1 is abelian, and G is called perfect if GjG1 is

the trivial group. If G is given by the presentation (X \ R) then G/G'
is given by the presentation (X | R, C) where
C={[xi,xj] | Xi.XjGX}.
This is a special case of von Dyck's theorem which shows that adding
relations to a group presentation leads to a quotient group. In fact,
von Dyck's theorem lies behind the method of showing that a given
presentation defines a particular group.
4.1 Let G be the abelian group

(a,6,c | a 37 6 27 c 47 = a52fc37c67 = a59fe44c74 - 1,
ab = 6a, be — c6, ca = ac).
4: Presentations
Express G as a direct product of cyclic groups.
By adding the relation a 3 6 2 c 4 = 1 to those of G show that a 3 6 2 c 4 is
not the identity of G. Deduce that a3b2c4 is an element of order 5 in G.
Find an element of order 7 and an element of order 35 in G.
4.2 Express each of the following as a direct product of cyclic groups :
(a) (a,6,c | a 2 6 3 c 6 = a 4 6 9 c 4 = 1, ab — 6a, be = cb, ca = ac);
(b) (a,6,c | a 2 6 3 c 6 = a 4 fcV = a3b3c2 = 1, at = 6a, 6c = c6, ac =
ca).
4.3 Let G be the group with presentation
G= (a, 6 | a6a62 = 1).
Show that G is abelian. Describe the structure of G.

4.4 Let G be an abelian group. Show that the elements of finite order form
a subgroup T. Let Q consist of the elements of infinite order together
with the identity element. Find a necessary and sufficient condition for
Q to be a subgroup of G.
Let IT be the set of primes and define a group G as follows. Let
X — Upen ^-P a n d kt G be the set of mappings / : II —> X such that
f(p) G Z p for every p G II. Given /, g G G define / -f g : II —• X to be
the mapping given by
Show that G is an abelian group containing elements of prime order for

every prime, and elements of infinite order.
Prove that the subgroup T in this case consists of those mappings
/ G G with the property that there are only finitely many p G II with
f(p) * o.
G = ( a , 6 , c | anbmcm = ambncm = ambmcn = 1).
Prove that G/G' is infinite if and only if m = n or 2m = — ft.
Show further that (3 is perfect if and only if G is the trivial group.
4.6 If n is an integer that is coprime to 6 show that there is an integer k
such that the group
(x,y | x2 = {xyf, (sy'syi^

is perfect.
23
Book 5 Groups
4.7 Find G/G' when G is given by
(a,6 | an = 1, b2 = (a&)3, (o*( n+1 )6a 4 6) a = 1),
where n is an odd integer.

4.8 Let G be the group generated by R, 5, T, U, V, W, X subject to the rela-
tions
Rx = saThUc,
y
SVR = 1,
T~lWV* = 1,
W~zUa = 1,
ux-lwl = i,
Find a presentation for G on the generators R,S}T)U.

Show that whether G/G 1 is finite depends only on re, y, z, t, a. Give
precise conditions for G/Gf to be finite. Find values of a, b, c, d, x, y> 2, t
so that
(a) G is perfect;
(b) G / G ' ~ C 1 6 ;
(c) G/G' - C 2 x C 4 x G8.
(ai,...,-a 2 m I a* = a,-+ 2 a t - +m+ i, a z+2 = aj+ia,, (t = l , . . . , 2 m ) )
where the subscripts are reduced modulo 2m to lie between 1 and 2m.
Prove that G = (a\, a2 ).
Define the Fibonacci sequence by
h = 1, h = 1, (Vfl > 1) /n+2 = fn+1 + /„.
Prove that
(Vn>2) / n - i / » + i - / ? = (-l)n.
If 0n = /»-i + /n+i show that
IG/G'I = I 2 + ^m if m is eV6n;
' ' ' \ g m if m is odd.
24
4: Presentations
4.10 Let G be defined by
G=(a,b\ a 2n " x = l, bab~l = a" 1 , 62 = a2""2
and let .ff be defined by
H = {a,b | a2""2 = 6 2 =
Prove that G ~ H by showing that the relations of G imply those of H

and conversely.
4,11 Show that the groups
G = ( a , 6 | o 4 = l, a2 = 62, ab = 6a 3 )
H = (a,b | a = 6a6, 6 = a&a)
JFf = { a, 6 | ab = c, be = a, ca = 6)
are isomorphic.
Show that
0 ll , [o »1 fi 0
a = b= c
-i o} [i o} [
satisfy the above presentations, and that the multiplicative group gen-
erated by a and b is the quaternion group. Deduce that all of the above
presentations are presentations of the quaternion group.
4.12 Let G be a group and suppose that
G = (ai,...,an>).
If an G G' D Z(G), prove that
G= ( a i , . . . , ^ - ! ) .
Deduce that if H/A ~ Q 8 with A < Z{H) n # ' then H ~ Qz.
G=(z,y | * 2 y = yax> x 8 = l ) .
Prove that (zt/)4 = 1 and ys = 1.

25
Book 5 Groups

G = ( a , 6 | a r = (a 2 6) 3 = (a 3 6) 2 = (a6 5 ) 2 = l ) .
Prove that G may also be presented as
(x,y\x'i = y* = (xy)7 = {{y-ixyxfy-^x? = 1).
(a, 6, c,dye \ ab = c, 6c = d, cd = e, de = a, ea = b).
By eliminating c, d, 6 show that
(1) a = babab2abj
(2) b = ab2aba.
Replacing the final a in (2) by the expression given by (1), show that
65 = a" 2 . Deduce, by multiplying (1) on the right by a and using (2),
that a = b~8.
Conclude that G~Cn.
4.16 Show that the group
G=(a,b | ab = b2a, ba = a2b)
is the trivial group.
More generally, consider the group
Gn = (a,6 | abn = 6 n + 1 a, 6an = a n + 1 6 ) .
Prove by induction on i that
Using the relations obtained by taking i = n and i = n + 1, deduce that

6r,i is the trivial group.
4.17 Let SL(2,7) denote the group of 2 x 2 matrices of determinant 1 with
entries in Z7, and let
PSL(2,7) = SL(2,7)/Z(SL(2,7)).
Let \\ : SL(2,7) -> PSL(2, 7) be the natural map and let
6
0} = ^ 6 6J-
Show that (a, b) is the dihedral group of order 8.
26
4: Presentations
4.18 Let GL(2,3) be the group of 2 x 2 non-singular matrices with entries in
Z 3 . Show that |GL(2,3)| = 48.
Prove that SL(2,3) is the derived group of GL(2,3).
The quaternion group Qs may be presented by
Q8 — ( a, 6, c | ab = c, 6c = a, ca = 6).
From this presentation it is clear that Qs has an automorphism # of
order 3 which permutes a, 6, c cyclically. Let H be Q8 extended by this
automorphism # of order 3. Show that H is isomorphic to SL(2,3).
Hence show that GL(2,3) has derived length 4.
4.19 Let H be the group with presentation
(a, b | a2 - 6 3 = 1, (a6) n = (a6- 1 a6) fc ).
Show that H is generated by ab and ab~lab. Deduce that {(ab)n) is
contained in the centre of H. Prove also that {(ab)n) is contained in
the derived group of H.
4.20 Let G be the group with two generators a, 6 subject to the relations
x3 = 1 for all x G G. Show that [a, b] belongs to the centre of G.
Deduce that G is finite.
4.21 For any integers a,6,c define a group G by
G = { x , y | x 2 = l, x y a x y b x y c = l ) .
Prove that ya{xyb~cx)y~b = xya~cx and find two similar relations with
a, 6, c permuted cyclically.
Deduce that y2ia+b+c) commutes with xya~cx. Prove also that if
h.c.f.(a — c,b — c) = 1 then y2(a+b+c) commutes with xyx.
Finally, show that if h.c.f.(a — c, b — c) = 1 then
4.22 Let G be the group

( s , t | ** m+1 =*2*2> xt2xtx2t=l).
Prove that
(a)
(b) [t2,
(c) ^
(d) xi
Deduce that i 2 m G Z(G) and t4m = 1.
27
Book 5 Groups
4.23 Let SL(2, Z) be the group of 2 x 2 matrices of determinant 1 with entries
in Z. Let
1 1 0 -1
s =
0 1 1 0
a b
Prove that if <ESL(2,Z) then \e{8,t).
c 0 c 0
a' b'
Suppose, by way of an inductive hypothesis, that GSL(2,Z)
c' d'
a' b'
with \d'\ < \d\ implies
c> d>
a b
m = ESL(2,Z)
c d
prove, by considering tsnm where |6H-mJ| < \d\, that m E (s,t). Deduce
that SL(2,Z) = (a,*).
Now let u = st and denote by w, t the images of u, t under the nat-
ural map t) : SL(2, Z) --> PSL(2,Z). Use the above results to show
that PSL(2,Z) = (%t). Show also that u3 = t = 7, the identity of
PSL(2,Z).
Suppose, if possible, that some word of the form
is equal to / in PSL(2, Z). Show that there is a word of the form
that is equal to ±1 in SL(2, Z) and, by considering the trace of w, obtain

a contradiction.
Finally, show that
P S L ( 2 , Z ) - (a,6 | a 2 = 63 = l ) .
28
Solutions to Chapter 1
1.1 Let G be partitioned by the set {Hxa \ a G A} of cosets of H, and let

H be partitioned by the set {Kyp \ f$ G B} of cosets of K. Suppose
that g G G. Then we have g G jETaja for some a £ A and so # = hxa
for some (unique) h G if. But & / G if ^3 for some /? G JB and so we
have that # = kypxa for some A; G if. Thus we see that every element
of G belongs to a coset Kypxa for some ft £ B and some a G A. The
result now follows from the fact that if Ky@xa = Ky^xa> then, since
the left hand side is contained in the coset Hxa and the right hand side
is contained in the coset Hxa/, we have necessarily xa = xa', which
gives Kyp = Ky^ and hence yp = y$>.
Now observe that (HnK)x = HxnKx for all subgroups H and K of
G. Then, if H and K have finite index, the fact that there are finitely
many cosets Hx and Kx implies that there are only finitely many cosets
of Hf] K, so Hn K is also of finite index. The result for the intersection
of a finite number of subgroups now follows by induction.
The result is not true for an infinite number of subgroups each of finite
index. To see this, consider the additive group Z. The subgroup nZ has
index n; but Hn>i n ^- = i®} w n i ° n 1S n °t °f finite index in Z.
1.2 If xH is a subgroup of G then we have 1 G xH which gives x~x G
x~lxH = H and hence x G H, so that xH = if.
That (p is a mapping (or, as some say, is well-defined) follows from
the observation that
Book 5 Groups
It is clear that <p is a bijection.

ip on the other hand is not a mapping. To see this, take for example
G = GL(2, Q) and
[a b
ac
0 c
We have that
1 0
which is immediate from the observation that if

1 0 D 1 1
A=
1 1 1 2
then
-1 D _ 1 1
A~lB eH.
0 1
However,
i oi, ri
" i lj7 ii
since equality here would give the contradiction
0 1
-1 2
eH.
1.8 Consider the subgroups H and K of the group G = GL(2, Q) given by
0
It is readily seen that
ab b
HK =
But ^TJFC is not a subgroup of G since, for example, the matrices
1 lj 1 [o 1
are each in HK but the product
[2 l ] [ l l ] = [ 2 3
[l l j [ o l j [ l 2
is not.
30
1.4 The right cosets are
#(13) = {(13), (132)}

#(23) = {(23), (123)}.
The left cosets are
(13)1/= {(13), (123)}
It is clear from this that H is not normal in G.

1.5 Since m and n are coprime there exist integers a and b with am + bn = 1.
Then, using the fact that gn = 1, we have
g = g1 = 0a™+fc" = 0 o m / w = (0 m )°(0*) 6 = ($ m ) a .
Since it is given that #m G # we have that (# m ) a € if and hence g £ H.

1.6 (i) If H is a subgroup of G then clearly i T ^ C H\ and, since every
subgroup contains the identity element, we have H — 1H C HH.
(ii) Given x E l w e have zX C XX = X. Since y H-> a;y is injective
(by the cancellation law) we deduce that \xX\ = |X| and hence, since
X is finite, that xX = X. Consequently, x = see for some e G X. The
cancellation law gives e = 1, and so we have that 1 G X. We now observe
from 1 G xX that 1 = xy for some y G X, which gives x" 1 = y G X. It
now follows from the fact that XX C X that X is a subgroup of G.
That (ii) no longer holds when X is infinite may be seen, for example,
by taking G to be the additive group of integers and X to be the set of
non-negative integers.
1.1 Suppose that t G HxK n yK / 0. Then (with a notation that is self-
explanatory) we have t = /izA; and £ = yk\. If now 5 G yif then
5 = yk2 = tk~[lk2 = hxkk^xk2 G iiTziif,
and hence yif C HxK.

Suppose now that t G # z i f D HyK ^ 0. Then we have t = /ixxî
and i = h2yk2. Ii now s G # £ # then
a = hxk = h{h~[ltk^l)k = hh
Thus Fxiir C jyyiT, and similarly ^yiif C HxK.
31
Book 5 Groups
1.8 Let Cn = (a) with n = pm where p is prime. If H and K are subgroups

of Cn then we have H — {a8) and K = (a*). Now we can assume that
s — pu and t — pv where 0 < u < m and 0 < v < m. For, if s = kpu
where h.c.f.(&,p) = 1 then there are integers x,y with xk + ypm = 1.
Then (ak**)x G H and [a?™^ e H since oPm = 1. Thus
and so H = (apM). It now follows that if w < v then we have K C iT,

while if v < w then iT C if.
The converse is also true. Suppose that n = pq where h.c.f.(p, q) = 1.
Then if Cn = (a) we have that \(ap)\ = g and \(aq)\ = p. Since p and g
are coprime, we have {ap) D (aq) = {1}. But this is not possible under
the assumption that, for any two subgroups H and if, either H C K or
i.0 Since g~1Hg is a subgroup of G for every g G Cr we have that #& =

D^GG 0~~1-^r# ^s a subgroup of G. Let x G ^ G « Then a; G g~xHg for
every g £ G and so, for every t/ G O, we have
G y-xg~xEgy = {gy)-xHgy
which shows that y~lxy G Thus we see that is a normal

subgroup of G.
Suppose now that if is a subgroup of H that is normal in G. Then if
k G K we have gkg~l G if for every g £ G and so
which shows that A; G f\eG g~lHg = HG-

In the case where Cr = GL(2, <Q) and £T is the subgroup of non-singular
diagonal matrices, i.e.
a 0
H = a, b G C, a& ^ 0 > ,
0 b
consider the subset if of H described by
a 0
rr a G Q\{0} .
0 a
32
Clearly, K is a normal subgroup of G and so, by the above, we have
K C HG. But if x = \" °t \eHG then from
0 b \
1 1 a a—b
EHGCH
0 o b 0 1 0 b
we deduce that a — b = 0 whence £ G K and so i?G = K-

K is isomorphic to the group of non-zero rationals under multiplica-
tion.
1,10 That H is a group is routine. The only element of order 2 is - 1

0 -1
~c 4
~c 4
-1
~ C2 and is a subgroup of all the three cyclic subgroups
0 -1
of order 4 given above.
The only other subgroups are H and {1}. For, if K is a subgroup
of H then |JJT| divides \H\ = 8, so \K\ is 1, 2, 4, or 8. The subgroups
of orders 1,8 are {1},# respectively. There is only one subgroup of
order 2 since there is only one element of order 2. If \K\ = 4 then
either K is cyclic (and so is given above) or K has all its non-trivial
elements of order 2 (since the order of an element divides the order of
the group). This is impossible since there is only one element of order
2. All these subgroups are normal (although the group is not abelian).
H cannot have a quotient group isomorphic to C 4 . For, if H/K ~ C4
then K ^ C 2 so K — | ) . But every non-trivial element has

0 -1
-1 0
square equal to , so every non-trivial coset xK has order 2.
Consequently H/K 9* C 4 .
33
Book 5 Groups
1.11 Let a = ° M and b = " ^\ where a = e2™/". Then clearly a is

L1 °J L° a
J
of order 2 and b is of order n. Moreover,
0 1 a 0 10 1
a" 1 6a =
1 0 0 a" 1 1 1 0
0
0 a
Thus (b) is a normal subgroup of D2n- Now
= W, a(b)}
and so |i?2»/(&)| = 2 and |i^2»| = 2ra. The subgroup (6) is cyclic and of
index 2.
We observe that \G\ = 2ra; for e takes two possible values and k takes
n possible values. Now it is readily seen that the assignment
-1 0 1 1
0 1 ' 0 1
sets up an isomorphism between D2n and the subgroup of G that is

generated by
o
Since this subgroup has order 2n, which is the order of G, it must coin-
cide with G and so G is isomorphic to D2n'
Consider now the mapping from DQO —> D2n described by the assign-
ment
[ o ij~[o
e k\
i r
e k (mod n)
i
It is readily seen that this is a group morphism. Since it is clearly
surjective, it follows by the first isomorphism theorem that D2n is a
quotient group of D ^ .
34
1.12 (i) Define / : <C+ —> IR+ by f(a + ib) = a. Then / is a group morphism
which is surjective. Since
Ker/ - {a + ib G C + | a = 0} - IR+,
the result follows by the first isomorphism theorem,

(ii) Define / : <T -> U by
ya2 + b2 \[a? -+- b2
Then / is a surjective group morphism with
Ker/ = {a + ib G V | 6 = 0, ~ = 1} ~ I
The result now follows by the first isomorphism theorem.

(iii) Define / : C* —» IR^Q by a + ib H+ \/a 2 + b2, and define gf : IR* —>
IR>o by a H-» |a|. Then / and # are surjective group morphisms and the
result follows from the observation that
Ker/ = {a + *6 G V \ \/a2 + 62 = 1} - [7;
(iv) Define / : IR* -> C2 by
â^~l-l ifa<0.
Then / is a surjective group morphism with Ker/ = IR>0.
Also, define g : <Q* —> C 2 by
/ x= f 1 if a > 0;
g
^°^~l-l ifa<0.
Then g is a surjective group morphism with Ker <jr = Q > 0 .

(v) Define / : © * - > Q> 0 by a ^ |a|.
i.i^ We have the chain of subgroups
{1} £ Cp C Cp2 C (7p3 C • • • C Cpn C • • • C Zpoo
with Zpoo = U n > i ^ P " • Here the cyclic subgroup Cpn is generated by
a primitive ;p n tn~root of unity. To see that every proper subgroup of
35
Book 5 Groups
ZpOO is cyclic note that, given any subset X of Zpoo, there is a smallest
member of the chain that contains X (this, of course, might be Zpoo
itself). Now if X is finite then it is clear that this smallest member is
Cpn for some n; but if X is infinite then it must contain pnth roots of
unity for arbitrarily large n and so must generate Zp<x>.
To see that Zp<x> /Cpn ~ Zpoc, consider the mapping / : ZpOO —> Zpoo
described by
z H-» zv .
It is readily seen that / is a surjective group morphism with Ker / = Cpn,
so the result follows by the first isomorphism theorem.
For <Q+, suppose that
Y- I El. El EJL
Then clearly we have that
q1q2 - q
which is a cyclic group. Hence {X) is a subgroup of a cyclic group and
therefore is itself a cyclic group.
1.14 If no element of G has order 4 then clearly every element has order 1 or
2 and so x2 = 1 for every x G G. But then (xy)2 = 1 gives
xy = {xy)'1 = y~lx~l = y2y~lx~lx2 = yx
and so the group is abelian.
It follows from this that if G is non-abelian of order 8 then G contains
an element of order 4. Let this element be a. Clearly, {I,a,a 2 ,a 3 } has
index 2 in G and so is normal. Suppose that b ^ a2 is of order 2 in G.
Then b~lab^ a (otherwise G would be abelian) and so b~lab is of order
4 in (a) and so must be a 3 . Thus G is the group
(a, 6 I a4 = 62 = l, 6"1a6 = a" 1 )
which has order 8.
If G does not contain any other element of order 2 we can choose
b 0 (a) of order 4. Then b2 has order 2 and so b2 = a2. As in the above,
b~lab ^ a and so b^xab = a 3 and (7 is the quaternion group
(a,6 I a4 = 64 = 1, a2 = 62, &-1a6 = a" 1 ).
These groups are not isomorphic since the number of elements of order
2 in each is different.
36
1.15 The possible orders are the positive divisors of 24, namely 1, 2, 3, 4, 6,
8, 12, and 24.
(1) 1 element order 1
(12) 6 elements order 2
(12)(34) 3 elements order 2
There is one element of order 1; nine elements of order 2; eight elements
of order 3; six elements of order 4. There are nine subgroups of order 2,
and four subgroups of order 3 (each of which contains two elements of
order 3).
The cyclic subgroups of order 4 are
{(1), (1234), (13)(24), (1432)}
{(1), (1324), (12)(34), (1423)}
{(1), (1243), (14)(23), (1342)}.
The non-cyclic subgroups of order 4 (~ C2 x C^) are
The subgroups of order 6 are those that fix one of 1, 2, 3, or 4. Hence

there are four such subgroups; for example, 4 is fixed by
{(1), (12), (13), (23), (123), (132)}.
There are three subgroups of order 8, namely
{(1), (13), (24), (13)(24), (12)(34), (14)(23), (1234), (1432)}
{(1), (12), (34), (12)(34), (13)(24), (14)(23), (1324), (1423)}
{(1), (14), (23), (14)(23), (12)(34), (13)(24), (1243), (1342)}.
A4 is a subgroup of £ 4 of order 12.
An abelian normal subgroup of £4 is
V = {(1), (12)(34)f (13)(24),(14)(23)}.
64/V has order 6 and is isomorphic to £3 (which is a subgroup of £4).
A subgroup of A4 is necessarily a subgroup of £4. Hence, if A4 had a
subgroup H with \H\ — 6 then H must be one of the subgroups of £4 of
order 6. But none of these consist only of even permutations. Hence A±
has no subgroup of order 6. This, incidentally, shows that the converse
of Lagrange's theorem is false.
37
Book 5 Groups
1.16 We have that

a = (1234)(5678)
2
a = (13)(24)(57)(68)
3
a = (1432)(5876)
4
a = (1)
b = (1537)(2846)
6 2 = (13)(57)(24)(86) = a 2
6 3 = (1735)(2648)
6 4 = (1) = a 4
ab = (1836)(2745)
ba = (1638)(2547)
(a6) 2 -(13)(86)(24)(75) = a2
(a6)3 = (1638)(2547) = ba.
The assignment
0 1
•* (1234)(5678)
-1 0
0 i
(1537) (2846)
extends to give the following isomorphism :
1 0
0 1 (1)
—1 0
1
K-> (13)(24)(57)(68)
0
0 1
-+ (1234)(5678)
-1 0
0 -1
-> (1432)(5876)
1 0
(1537)(2846)
i 0
38
o -l
(1735)(2648)
-l o
-i 0
(1638)(2547)
0 i
i 0
(1836)(2745).
0 -i
It is easy to see that the quaternion group is not isomorphic to any of the
subgroups of order 8 in £4. For, in the quaternion group, there is only
one element of order 2 whereas the subgroups of order 8 in £4 have five
elements of order 2. The subgroups of order 8 in £4 are all isomorphic
to the dihedral group Ds. These are, in fact, the only two non-abelian
groups of order 8 (see question 1.14).
1.17 Suppose that
V = (#11 * * * # l m ) ( # 2 1 * * * 0,2m) ' ' ' {&r\ ' ' ' 0>rm)-
Then we have that p = $r where
# = (an a 2 i • • • arX a i 2 a22 • • • a r2 • • •).
Conversely, suppose that $ — (1 2 • • • m). Then
= (1 5+1 2s+ 1 (k-1)8 + 1)

o(2 S+
,m m m
r o _i_
K J 7
where k is the least positive integer such that ks is divisible by m. Hence

k = m/h.c.f.(m, s) and the cycles have length m/h.c.f.(m, s). Also, there
are m/k = h.c.f.(m, s) cycles in the decomposition as required.
1.18 We can choose amp—I ways since Z p contains p— 1 non-zero elements.
The elements b and c are arbitrary while d is uniquely determined by
the condition that ad — be = 1 (i.e. d = a~l(l + 6c)). Thus there are
p2(p — 1) elements of this form.
Consider now . As d is arbitrary it can be chosen in p ways.

[c d\
Since — be = 1 the element 6 must be non-zero, so can be chosen in
39
Book 5 Groups
p — l ways. Then c = —b x is uniquely determined. There are therefore
p(p - 1) elements of this form.
We thus have
2
|SL(2,p)| = P {p - 1) + p{p - 1) = p{p - 1).
The centre Z of SL(2,p) is
Hence, if p ^ 2, we have |Z| = 2 and so
Since SL(2,2) is a group of order 6 and is non-abelian, it must be the

symmetric group £3.
We count the number of n x n matrices over 1LV with linearly inde-
pendent rows. The first row can be any n-tuple except zero, so there
are pn — 1 possible first rows. Now there are p multiples of the first
row and the second row can be any except these; so there are pn — p
possible second rows. Again, there are p2 linear combinations of the first
two rows and the third row can be any but these; so there are pn — p2
possible third rows. Continuing in this way, we see that there are
n-l
2= 0
such matrices.
Finally, consider the morphism from the group of these matrices to
the multiplicative group of non-zero elements of 2 P that is described by
the determinant map. The result follows from the fact that SL(n, p) is
the kernel of this morphism.
a b
1.19 Suppose that A = and that tr(A) = 0, i.e. d — -a. Then since
40
we have that - a 2 - be = 1. Consequently,
2
2 \ a + bc 0
0 be + a2
Conversely, suppose that A G SL(2,F) is such that A2 = - J 2 . Then

if A = . w e have ad - be = 1 and
\ c d\
\a2 + bc ab + bd]
\ca + dc cb + d2\~
Suppose that a + d =£ 0. Then since (a + d)b = 0 and (a + d)c = 0 we

have b = c — 0. From ad - be = 1 we then have ad = 1. But a + d ^ 0
so a2 + ad = a(a + d) / 0. This contradicts a2 = - 1 and ad = 1. Thus
a + d = 0 as required.
Now if tr(A) = 0 then A2 = —I2 and hence A is the identity since
Conversely, if A is the identity of PSL(2, F) then we have either A2 = / 2

or A2 = - J 2 . If A2 = - J 2 then tr(A) = 0 as required. If A2 = J2 then
it is easily seen that either A = I2 or A = —I2, and in either case A is
the identity of PSL(2, F) so is not an element of order 2.
1.20 Every element of C 2 x <72 has order 2 so, since |C 2 x (72| = 4, it follows
that C2 x C 2 cannot be cyclic.
Suppose now that G is non-cyclic and of order 4. Then every element
of G has order 2 and the multiplication table is uniquely determined.
Since this is the same as that of C2 x C2 the result follows.
1.21 If p ^ q then C p x Gq ~ Cpq and, since a cyclic group has only one
subgroup of each order and the order of a subgroup divides the order of
the group, there can be only two subgroups of Gpq other than {1} and
Cpq.
However, Cp x Cp has more than two proper non-trivial subgroups;
for {1} x CP,CP x {1} and ((a, 6)) (where a, 6 are non-trivial) are all
isomorphic to Cp.
41
Book 5 Groups
1.22 Let if be a normal subgroup of G x H with K ^ {(1,1)}. Suppose that
(x, 1) G if for some # ^ 1 in G. Then for every # G G we have, since if
is normal,
Now ((tf""1^, 1) | g G G) is a subgroup of if and {g~1xg \ g G G) is a

normal subgroup of G. Hence (g~xxg \ g G G) = G (since £ ^ 1) and
so G x {1} is a subgroup of if. Now
and if corresponds to a normal subgroup of if under the isomorphism.

Hence either K = GxH or K = Gx {1}.
Similarly, if (1, y) G if where y ^ 1 then {1} x if is a subgroup of if
so if = {1} x H or if = G x if.
The only other case to consider is when if contains only (1,1) and
elements of the form (x, y) where x, y / 1. But if g G G then there exists
h E H with (</, h) E K since the mapping described by (x, y) t-> (x, 1) is
a morphism whose image would be a proper non-trivial normal subgroup
of G if g G G did not appear in some element of if. Now either G is
abelian or there exist g,x G G with g~lxg / z. Then (g, h) E K gives
Let y' - z ~ V # 0. Then (g'" 1 , h-l){g,h) G if gives ( ^ - ^ , 1 ) G if,

which is a contradiction.
Hence G, H are abelian and so cyclic of prime order. Clearly, \G\ = \H\
by question 1.21.
1.28 Suppose that G and H are periodic. If (g,h) G G x H then g E G so
gn = 1, and & G # so /i m = 1. Consequently we have that (#, h)mn =
(1,1) and G x if is also periodic.
Suppose now that G and H are torsion-free. If {g,h)n = (1,1) then
g = 1 and /i n = 1, which is a contradiction; hence G x H is also
n
torsion-free.
Suppose that G = Ai? where A^B are normal subgroups of G with
A n B - JV. That G/iV - A/N x J5/JV follows from the following
observations :
(i) A/N and B/N are normal subgroups of G/N)
(ii) If gN G G/JV then gN = aiV.6JV where # = a6;
(iii) If x ^ G A/iNT n J5/JV then xN = aN = bN gives a" 1 6 G JV so
that b ~ an E A and hence 6 G A n 5 = N and consequently
xN = bN = N.
42
Consider S 3 and the subgroups A = ((123)} and B = {(12)). We
have S 3 — AB and A n B = {1} but S 3 is not isomorphic to C3 x C 2 .
i.£5 That G ^ A x Ker/ follows from the following observations.
(a) A and K e r / are normal subgroups of G.
(b) If £ G G then f(g) e H so there exists a G i with /(a) = /(</).
Then g = a(a~1g) where a E A and a~lg £ Ker/.
(c) If £ e A n Ker/ then /^(^) = f(g) = 1 whence, since fA:A-^H
is an isomorphism,flf= 1.
The result is not true if A is not normal in G. For example, consider
the mapping / : 5 3 —> C2 = {1, a} (where a2 = 1) given by
( 1 if x = 1;
f(x) — \ a if re has order 2;
I 1 if x has order 3.
It is readily seen that / is a morphism with K e r / = {(123)) ~ C$. The
subgroup A = {(1), (12)} of 5 3 is not normal in S3, and the restriction
of / to A is an isomorphism onto G^- However, S3 is not isomorphic to
G2 x C3.
The isomorphisms stated in (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) follow from the
morphisms of question 1.12.
1.26 Suppose that G2 x G2 is generated by x and by y. Then the subgroups
of C2 x G2 are
{1}, {x), (y), {xy),C2xC2.
The subgroup Hasse diagram is then
C2 x C 2
<*>
•
{1}
Suppose now that G is a group and that the subgroup Hasse diagram
of G is Q
•B
D
43
Book 5 Groups
Clearly, D = {1} and A, B, C must be cyclic of prime order since they
contain no proper subgroups other than 1. Let A = (a) and B = (6).
We show first that G a A x B. For this purpose, we observe that A
and B are normal in G. Suppose in fact that this were not the case.
Then {ab) would not be the whole of G (for otherwise A and B would
be normal) and so we must have {ab) = C (since {ab) = A and {ab) = B
lead to contradictions). Consider now {b~lab). This subgroup cannot be
G, B} C or D and so it must be A. Similarly, {a~lba) = B. Now G must
be generated by a and b (otherwise (a, 6) would be properly contained
in G). Hence A and B are normal in G, their intersection is {1}, and so
G = A x B.
It remains to show that A ~ B ~ C^* For this purpose, consider
{ab~l). It is easy to see that this subgroup must be C, since the other
possibilities lead to immediate contradictions. Now, since G is abelian,
we have a2 = abab~l € C. But a2 € A, so a2 G A n C = {1}. In a
similar way we have that b2 = 1. Consequently, G ^ C2 x C 2 .
1.21 C2 x C<2 x (?2 has 16 subgroups. Suppose that it is generated by a, 6, c.
Then the subgroup Hasse diagram is
(a,b)
1.28 Consider the subgroups
We have that
(i) H and K are normal subgroups of G\
(ii) G = HK (this is easily checked : for example, 5 = 2.13,10 = 4.13,
etc.);
(iii) HC\K = {1}.
44
Consequently, G ~ C2 x CQ. This group is not cyclic since 2 is not
coprime to 6.
The set of integers n with 1 < n < 12 and n coprime to 12 is
{1,5,7,11}. Since
52 = 1 (mod 12), 72 = 1 (mod 12), II 2 = 1 (mod 12),
we see that every non-trivial element has order 2. Hence the group is
C2 x C2 and is not cyclic.
1.29 The only normal subgroups of 54 (other than {1} and £4) are
and ii 4 , with V C A4 C S4.

The only normal subgroup of S5 is Ab.
The only normal subgroup of A4 is V above.
The group A$ is simple.
Consequently £4,£ 5 , A4, A5 are indecomposable.
IR* ~ IR>0 x C2 (see question 1.25), and C 6 ~ C2 x C 3 .
Cs is indecomposable. For, if H and K are subgroups of Cg then
either H C K or K C H (see question 1.8).
<C+ ^ IR+ x IR+ (see question 1.25).
Zpoo is indecomposable. For, if H and K are subgroups then either
HCKovKCH.
1.30 If zif has order n then xn = h E H so, by the hypothesis, there exists
h'eH with fcm = A. Now let y = xti"1. We have that t/n = 1. If G/H
is cyclic, take xH as a generator and let K = (y). Then we have
(i) H and If are normal in G\
(ii) t/^T generates G/H and so, given cjr 6 G, we have # G 2/mJ3" for some
m, whence g = ymh]
(iii) if t G # n K then t = ym for some m < n. But ym £ H so we must
have £ = 1.
Consequently, G ~ H x K.
1.31 Let a; have order m and y have order n. Then we have that (xy)mn = 1,
and so xy has order at most mn. Suppose now that zmn = 1 where m
and n are coprime. Then there are integers a and b such that am + bn =
13 whence z = zbnzam = zy where z = ^ n and y = zam. It follows that
xm = zbrnn = x a n d yn = âmn = L T h e o r d e r g of x a n d y a r e m a n d
n respectively, for if their orders were less, say m' and n', then z would
be of order at most m'n ; , a contradiction.
45
Book 5 Groups
A similar argument extends this result to the case where z is of order
m\ 7U2 • " rrik where mi, . . . , m^ are pairwise coprime. In this case m\
is coprime to f| z _2 mi so> by ^ n e &TS^> Par^j w e have z = xy where x has
order mi and y has order jQ?;-2 m «- ^he r e s u ^ n o w follows by induction
on k.
That G — Hi x H2 x • • • x £?& follows from the fact that
(i) each Hi is a normal subgroup of G;
(ii) G = HXH2 - Hk (by the above);
(iii) if a; £ f/,- then x^ = 1 which shows that x does not belong to the
product Hi • • • HiîHi+i • • • i^/c.
If finally r divides |G| then r is necessarily of the form
r
— V\ P2 Pk
where 0 < fa < a{ for each i. If Xt- = {re G G | xv^ = 1}, then G has a
subgroup of order r, namely the cartesian product of the subgroups K{.
1.82 Let / = f]xeG x~lHx. If t G / then * G a;- 1 ^^ for every x G G. Given

g & G we then have gf"1^ G x~~iHx for £ G (a;^~1)~1iTx^~1. Hence
g~xtg £ I and so / is a normal subgroup of G.
If A = {g~1zg | g G (2} is a subgroup of (7 then it must contain 1
and so g~lxg — 1 for some g £ G, which implies that x = 1. Thus we
see that A is a subgroup of G if and only if A = 1, in which case it must
be normal.
1.88 The subgroups {(1), (12)} and {(1), (12)(34)} of S4 are not conjugate.
All elements of order 3 in 5 4 are conjugate, so all subgroups of order 3
are conjugate.
The elements (123) and (234) are not conjugate in A 4 , for there is
no g € A4 such that g(l23)g~1 = (234). In 64 there are three such g,
namely (1234), (1324), (14).
I.84 Let {G\ I A G A} be the set of conjugacy classes of G. Suppose that H
is a subgroup which is a union of conjugacy classes, say H = UAGAI Â
where Ax C A. If h G H then h € C\ for some A E A] and so g~1hg £
C\ Q H. Thus we see that IT is a normal subgroup of G. Conversely, if
-fiT is a normal subgroup of G then clearly every conjugate of h G H is
contained in H and so H contains the conjugacy class of G containing
h. Thus H is a union of conjugacy classes.
46
In 5 4 the conjugacy class of
(1) has 1 element

(12) has 6 elements
(123) has 8 elements
(1234) has 6 elements
(12)(34) has 3 elements.
A normal subgroup is a union of conjugacy classes including the class

{1} with one element. By Lagrange's theorem, the order of a subgroup
must therefore divide 24. The only possibilities are 1 + 3 and 1 + 3 + 8,
so the only possible orders for non-trivial proper normal subgroups are
4 and 12.
The group S4 has the normal subgroup A4 with |J4 4 | = 12. Note that
A± consists of all the even permutations and is the 1 + 3 + 8 case above.
The 1 + 3 case gives the subgroup
To see that this is a normal subgroup, it suffices to check that it is a

subgroup; this follows easily from the fact that
(12)(34) • (13)(24) = (14)(23), etc.
1.85 The conjugacy classes are as follows.
(1) 1 element of order 1 even

(12) 10 elements of order 2 odd
(123) 20 elements of order 3 even
(1234) 30 elements of order 4 odd
(12345) 24 elements of order 5 even
(12)(34) 15 elements of order 2 even
(12)(345) 20 elements of order 6 odd
The only normal subgroup of £5 is A5 (use the method of the previous

question). The conjugacy classes of A5 are the classes marked 'even'
above, with the exception that the 24 elements of order 5 break into two
classes of 12 elements, one containing (12345) and the other (13524).
47
Book 5 Groups
1.86 The first statement is a consequence of the observation that two con-
jugates x~xax and y~lay are equal if and only if (xy~l)~1axy~1 = a,
which is equivalent to xy~l G MG{^)J which is the case if and only if
Now the conjugacy class of a cycle of length n in Sn consists of all

the cycles of order n. Thus it contains (n — 1)! elements. For a given
cycle a, the index of Mo(a) m Sn is therefore (n — 1)!. Since \Sn\ = n\ it
follows that |.V(3(a)| = n. Since a has n distinct powers which commute
with it, no other elements of Sn can commute with a.
Suppose now that n is odd with n > 3. Cycles of length n are even
permutations, so are in An. Suppose that a is a cycle of length n. Only
the n powers of a are in *Vsn(a) (by the above argument) and so the
conjugacy class of a contains \n\jn = | ( n — 1)! elements. Since there
are (n — 1)! cycles of length n) there must be two conjugacy classes each
containing \{n— 1)! elements.
Suppose now that n is even with n > 4.Then n - 1 is odd, so a cycle
of length 7i — 1 is even and therefore belongs to An. There are n(n — 2)!
cycles of length n — 1. Let a be such a cycle. Then in Sn the conjugacy
class of a contains n(n — 2)! elements and so |.Vsn(#)| = n — 1. But
if x G Nsn{a) then, since n — 1 is odd, x is an even permutation, so
x G An. Thus we have that Nsn{a>) = M4n(a)> so the conjugacy class
of a in An contains \n\/{n - 1) = | n ( n - 2)! elements. Thus there are
two conjugacy classes of cycles of length n — 1 in An each containing
^n(n — 2)! elements.
1.87 x G G commutes with a G G if and only if it commutes with a" 1 . Hence
— NG{a~l). The number of conjugates of a, being the index of
in G, must therefore be the same as the number of conjugates of
a" 1 .
Suppose now that |G| is even and that 1 is the only element of G that
is conjugate to its inverse. For each conjugacy class A{ let B{ be that
containing the inverses. Then we have
G = {1} U Ai U . . . U i f c U B i U ... UBk
from which we obtain
I | + ... +2\Ak\
since \B{\ = \A{\ for each i. This contradicts the fact that |G| is even.
Thus we conclude that there is at least one element a ^ l with a conju-
gate to a " 1 .
48
1.88 Consider D<2,n with generators a and b such that a2 = bn = 1 and
aba — b~l. The elements of Z) 2n are
Now since
b~\abi)b = 6- 1 a6* +1 = aft.6f"+1 = a6i<+2
we see that abl is conjugate to a6*+2 for every i. Also, since ab%a = b~%
we see that bl is conjugate to b~l.
Suppose that n is odd. Then the conjugacy classes are
{1}, { a l a 6 , . . . l a 6 » - 1 } , {6',6-'}
where 1 < t < £ ( n - 1 ) .
If n is even, the conjugacy classes are
{1}, {a,a6 2 , ... , a 6 ^ 2 } , {a6,a63, . . . fa6—*>, {6*»}, {6*,ft-"}
where 1 < i < | ( n - 2 ) .

Suppose that if = x~lHx. We show that Afc^) = x'1 MG{H)x. For
this purpose, let a G MG{K)- TO show that a G x~l MG(H)x we must
show that seas"""1 G NG{H). SO let /i G # and consider
l l
= xa ~ x~ hxax~l.
Now x~lhx = k £ K since x~xHx — K, and d~lka = k* € K since

aG Jifc(X'). Hence
() " 1 = hf e H
since xKx"1 = iT. Thus xax~l G MG{H) as required.

Let # = {1, /&}. For every g e G we have g - 1 % G .ff, so Sf"1^ = 1 or
g~1hg = h. The former gives the contradiction /i = 1. Hence g~lhg — h
and # C Z{G).
That iT is not necessarily a subgroup of the derived group of G can
be seen by taking G = C2. Here we have that C2 is a normal subgroup
of G^ but the derived group of C2 is {1}.
Suppose that x is the only element of order 2 in G. Let g € G and
consider g~lxg = y say. We have y2 = g~1x2g = 1 and certainly
g~xxg / 1 (since otherwise x = 1). Thus y is an element of order 2
and so, by the hypothesis, we have y = x. Consequently g~xxg = x and
x G Z{G).
Book 5 Groups
141 Let n E N and g € G. Then [n}g] = n~lg-lng E Gf. Since iV is a

normal subgroup of G we have n~~l{g~lng) G iV. Consequently [n^g] G
iV fl G' = 1. It follows that [n, gf] = 1 and hence that n €
Clearly, if z e Z{G) then
zN.gN =
and so Z(G)/N C Z(G/N). To obtain the converse inclusion we observe

that
zN e Z{G/N) => {\fg e G) zN.gN = gN.zN
=> {Vg e G) z~lg~lzgN = N
50
2.1 Let \G\ = pa. The class equation gives
where g'x G Cx for \CX\ > 1. Now p divides both \G\ and \G : M{g'x)l so
p divides |Z(G)|. Hence Z(G) is non-trivial.
Now suppose that \G\ = p2. Since Z[G) is non-trivial we have
\Z{G)\ =pov \Z{G)\ = p2. Now if |Z(G)| = p then |G/Z(G)| = p so is
cyclic. Let aZ(G) be a generator of G/Z(G). Then two arbitrary ele-
ments of G are a m x and any where x,y G Z(G). But amxany = anyamx
since re, t/ £ Z(G). Hence G is abelian, and so \G\ = \Z(G)\ — p which is
a contradiction. It follows that we must have |#(G)| = p2 — \G\ whence
G is abelian.
The groups of order 9 are C3 x C 3 and C 9 .
2.2 If x € A fl B then #(&) G #(A) and ^(x) G &(B) and consequently we
see that $(A D 5 ) < ^(^) n #(-B). Now 1?"1 is an automorphism and so
we also have that ^(XnY) < &-l{X) n ^ " ^ F ) . Now put X =
and Y = &{B) to get tf"1 [^(A) n ^(B)] < ^1 n B, whence
n 5 ) . Hence we have the equality #(A n B) = &{A) n
2.8 Let ^>x G InnG be the automorphism <px : g 1-* rc"" 1 ^. Let 1^ G AutG;
we have to show that tf-"1^^ G InnG. Now
But if ^~ x (x) = t/ then ^(z"1) = y"1 and we have

Book 5 Groups
so ^(pxti G InnG. To show that G/Z{G) ~ Inn<3 define ip : G

Inn (7 by tp(x) = <px-i : g *-+ xgx~l. Then
xygy~lx~l
Clearly, ip is surjective, and
a: G KerV> = • (Vgr 6 G) xgx~x = g = > z G
Thus Ker^ = Z(G) and InnG = Imip - G/Kerip = G/Z{G).

Clearly, 62 <G Z(i? 8 ) since a'lb2a = ( a ' ^ a ) 2 = (6" 1 ) 2 = 62. Now
we have D8 = {I,bib21b~"11a,ab, ab2}ab~1} and a, 6 ^ #(I?8) since oth-
erwise Dg would be abelian. Hence b~x £ Z(D 8 ). Since 62 G Z(DS)
and a ^ Z(Dg) we have a62 ^ Z{Dg). Also ab,ab~1 commute with
a if and only if 6 commutes with a, so ab,ab~x £ Z(DS). Hence
Z(D8) = {b2) ~ C 3 .
= (a, 6
Similarly, Z(<?8) = <z2) a C2 and Q8/Z{Q8) z± C2 x C 2 .

^ o t n questions have a negative answer. The same group, namely the
dihedral group of order 8, serves to provide counter-examples.
Let D8 = (a,6 | a2 = 1, 64 = 1, {ab)2 = 1). If D8 were the direct
product of two non-trivial subgroups, one must be of order 4 and the
other of order 2. But a normal subgroup of order 2 is central, so Dg =
A x B where \A\ = 4 and 5 = Z(DS) = (&2). Now b £ A since
A fl B = {1}, so Ab G A J / A ~ C 2 . Hence (46) 2 = A62 = A, showing
that 62 G A. Thus 5 C A, which contradicts i n 5 = {1}. Thus D8 is
indecomposable.
However, there is a subgroup and a quotient group of Dg each of which
is isomorphic to C2 x C 2 ; for the subgroup, take (a, b2) (or (a6,62)), and
note that D8/Z(DS) ~ C2 x C 2 since Z(D 8 ) = (^2)-
Since G/Z(G) is cyclic, every element is a power of a single element, say
aZ(G). Thus, given g G G, we can write # = a n 2 for some z G
and n G Z. If gi,g2 € G then, with an obvious notation, we have
52
since z2 is central; and
g29l = an*z2aniz1 =a
since z\, z2 are central. Thus G is abelian.

Suppose that Aut G is cyclic. Then Inn G is cyclic. But G/Z(G) ~
InnCr, so G/Z(G) is cyclic and hence G is abelian.
£.# If a G Aut £3 then a must map an element of order 2 in 53 to an
element of order 2. Hence a permutes the set A = {(12), (23), (13)}. If
a leaves all three of these elements fixed then, since the elements of order
2 generate £3, a must be the identity map. Hence if a,/? G Aut £3 give
the same permutation of A then ap~l leaves the elements of A fixed,
whence a/?" 1 = id and a = /?. Hence |Aut ft | < 6.
Now since Z(ft) = {1} and S3/Z(SZ) ~ Inn ft it follows that ft has
six inner automorphisms. Then
6 = I Inn £31 < I Aut ft I < 6
gives Inn ft = Aut 53, so that Aut ft ~ ft/Z(ft) = ft as required.

2.1 Let C 2 x C2 = (a,6 | a2 = 62 = a^ft-^fe = 1). Then we have
C2 x G2 = {1, a, 6, a&} and each element in the set {a, 6, ab} is of order
2. If a G Aut(C2 x C2) then a fixes 1 and permutes a,b,ab. Thus a is
completely determined by its action on {a, 6, ab}. Hence Aut(<?2 x C2) <
S3. To show that Aut(C 2 x C2) = 53, it remains to show that every
permutation on {a, 6, ab} gives an automorphism of C2xC2. This follows
easily on noting that the product of any two distinct elements of {a, 6, ab}
yields the third element, and this property is preserved under a bijection.
Now, as shown in question 2.6, Aut 53 = ft. Hence we have that
C2 x G2 and ft have isomorphic automorphism groups.
2.8 If # G Z(AutG) and <pg is the inner automorphism given by (pg(x) =
g~lxg then we must have &<pg = (pgfi. Hence, for every x G <2, we have
and so g${g~1)'&{x) = '&{x)g'&{g~1). Since # is surjective, we see that

9H9"1) e Z{G) = {1} and therefore ${g) = g. Since this holds for all
g G G we have that # — id as required.
To see that the converse is false, note that ft = Aut(C2 x C2) (by
question 2.7) and Z(S3) = {1}, yet Z(C2 x C2) = C2 x C2 ^ {1}.
53
Book 5 Groups
2.9 It is clear that the additive group of the vector space Z™ is isomorphic to
CpxCpX • • • xCp (with n terms). Suppose that # is an automorphism
of the additive group of Z£. To see that & is a linear mapping on Z£ it
suffices to observe that
gives
0 [ m ( a i , . . . , an)\ = ^{max,..., man)
Thus # is an invertible linear map. This shows that Aut G is isomorphic

to the group of invertible linear maps on the vector space Z™. Now fix
a basis B of Z™. Then the mapping that associates with each invertible
linear map on Z™ its nx n matrix relative to B is clearly an isomorphism
onto GL(n,p).
2.10 If Aut<7 = {1} then G must be abelian. For, given g E G, the inner
automorphism of conjugation by g is trivial if and only if g G Z{G).
Hence G = Z(G) and so is abelian.
Suppose now that G contains an element g of order greater than 2.
Since G is abelian, the mapping described by & : x i-> x~l is a group
morphism. Since #(#) = g~l ^ g we see that $ is a non-trivial element
of Aut G, a contradiction. Thus every element of G must have order 2.
It now follows that G is a vector space over Z2. If the dimension of
this vector space is greater than 1 then every non-trivial permutation of
the basis elements induces a non-trivial automorphism on G. Hence the
dimension is at most 1. Consequently we have that either G ~ C2 or G
is trivial.
2.11 (a) True. Let $ : G —» G be a group morphism. Then for a,b € G we
have
l l 1 1
Hence &{Gf) C G'.

(b) False. Consider C2 x 5 3 where C2 = (a). #(C 2 x S3) is the
subgroup ((a, 1)}. Consider the mapping # : C2 x £3 -* C2 x 53 given
by setting
f K * ) = (1,(12)),
0(l l7 r) = (1,1).
Then # is a group morphism but ^(^(Ca x S3)) g Z(C 2 x 5 3 ).
54
(c) False. A4 contains only one non-trivial proper normal subgroup
V ~ G2 x G2. Suppose that # : A4 —> A4 is a group morphism. Then
Kertf must be {1},^ or A4 and it follows from this that V is fully
invariant.
(d) True. If & : G -> G is a group morphism then from $(gn) =
we obtain #(G n ) C G n .
(e) True. If # : G —+ G is a group morphism then
</» = 1 = > <%») = 1 = > [#(g)]» = 1
gives tf(GB) C G n .
2.12 It suffices to show that x is conjugate to y if and only if a(x) is conjugate
to a(y). But
{x)=-a{g~lyg) ^[a{g)]-lot{y)ot{g)
so the result follows.
To show that N is normal in Aut G we must show that if a G iV, p £
Aut G then (/?~1a/?)(C) = G. But /?(G) is a conjugacy class by the first
part of the question, so a[/?(C)] = P(C) by the definition of a. Hence
(^" 1 a/?)(C) = p-l\J3{C)] = C as required.
2.1S To show that NC < G it suffices to show that C <G since N is given to
be normal. So let g G G and c E C. Given n G iV there exists nr E N
such that gn = ra'g and so, since G centralises iV,
g~1cgn = g~1cnfg = g~1nfcg = ng~1cg.
For cjr G G we have ipg € A where ipg : n \-+ gng~l G iV. Define
^ : G -> A by ip(G) = ^ . Note that Ker^ = G. We show that
ip(NC) C / , whence ^ induces a morphism from G/NC to A/I. Now
tp(C) C I since G = Ker^; and if n G iV then ^(n) = ^ G / so
</;(JV) C I whence V(JVC) C I.
To show that the mapping from G/NC to A/1 induced by ip is injec-
tive, we must show that {g G G | ip(g) e 1} = NC. But this is clear
from the fact that i/>(N) = I and Ker^ = C.
Also, since N/Z(N) ~ I and Z(JY) = N n G we have
i ~ ; \ r / ( j \ r n G ) ~ ATG/G.
If Z(JV) = {1} then JVnG = {1}. Also, since A/1 is trivial so is G/NC.
Hence G = NC and we have shown that G = N x C.
Since Z(£ 3 ) = {1} we have Inn£ 3 ~ S3/Z(S3) ~ 5 3 . But Aut S3 =
53 (see question 2.6), so every automorphism of S3 is inner. Thus £3
satisfies the conditions required of the subgroup N and the result follows.
55
Book 5 Groups
2.14 (a) If #(H) < H and ^{H) < H then from the latter we have
H < ${H) whence equality follows.
(b) If x G ("I &x where each H\ is characteristic then for every # G
Aut G we have $(x) G H\ for all A, whence &(x) €f)Hx-
(c) lixeHK then x = hk gives &{x) = &{h)#(k) G HK.
(d) Let c G C = [ # , # ] . Then c = ht2'-tn where tf- G [A«,*i]6<
with e,- = ±1 . Then tf(c) = #(*i) • •-0(*n) with #(*,•) =tf[A,-,Jfc/]c* =
(e) # is normal in G, so if 99 is an inner automorphism of G then

£>(#) < # • But if <PH is the restriction oi <p to H we have (pn(K) < K,
for certainly £># is an automorphism (not necessarily inner) and K is
characteristic in H. But <p(K) = <PH{K) SO <p(K) < K gives K <G.
2.15 Let # G AutG and let jff = # ( # ) . We have to show that K C H.
Suppose that |fT| = n and \G/H\ = m. Since F i f / F < G/H we
have that \HK/H\ divides m. But we know that HK/H ~ K/(H n
if), so \HK/H\ divides n.. But h.c.f.(n, m) = 1 by hypothesis. Hence
\HK/H\ = 1, so iTiiC = H and if < H as required.
^J6 i f a G F then a~l G JP since {g~lag)-x = g~larlq. But if a, 6 G F
we have a& G F, for g~labg = g~1agg~1bg. Hence F < G. Now F
is characteristic in <7. To see this, let a G F and # G Aut G. Writing
g = #(0') we have fif~1^(a)^ = &(g'~ agf) and so there are only finitely
many conjugates of #(a). Thus #(a) G F.
2.17 $t is clearly an additive group morphism which, since t / 0, is injective.
Since ^ ( i " 1 ^ ) = x we see that #* is also surjective. Hence &t is an
automorphism.
Let H be & non-trivial characteristic subgroup of Q + . For every t G
© \ {0} we have #*(#) = iT. We show as follows that iT = Q + . Since
iT is non-trivial, choose x G £T with x ^ O and let t/ G Q \ {0}. Then for
t = I/a?-"1 / O w e have
from which £T = Q + follows.

A Sylow p-subgroup of if is a p-subgroup of G that is contained in
a Sylow p-subgroup. Let Pi and P^ be Sylow p-subgroups of H. Let
Pi <P and P2 <P where P is a Sylow p-subgroup of G. Then HnP is
a p-subgroup of # and Pi < HnP, P 2 < F n P implies P x = F n P = P 2 .
Now suppose that H<G and that P is a Sylow p-subgroup of G. Then
HnP is a p-subgroup of H so is contained in a Sylow p-subgroup P\ of
56
H. Now Pi < P where P is a Sylow p-subgroup of G. Then T =g~lPg
for some g G G since Sylow p-subgroups of G are conjugate. Now since
H <G we have
Pl=PnH = g~lPgnH = g-1{Pn H)g.
Hence |PnfT| = |Pi| and, since PC\H < Pu it follows that PnH = Pit
Let |G| = p»A. Then |P| = p". Let \H\ = pmt. Then \H n P | - p m .
Now |G/J5T| = p n ~ m s where si = A and
Hence HP/H is a Sylow p-subgroup of G/H.

Suppose now that we drop the condition that H be normal in G.
Consider G = S3 and H = ((12)). We have that P = {(13)) is a Sylow
2-subgroup of 5 3 , but | # | = 2 and H n P = {1}.
^J9 Let F b e a normal p-subgroup of G. Then H < P where P is a Sylow
p-subgroup of G. But every Sylow p-subgroup of G is of the form g~lPg
for some g e G , and H < P implies JH" = g~1Hg < g~lPg since H <G.
Let # i , . . . , //„ be distinct normal Sylow p-subgroups of G. Since a
normal Sylow p-subgroup is unique, every element of p-power order is
contained in this Sylow p-subgroup. Now observe that
(a) Hi,..., Hn < G by hypothesis.
(b) G= Hi"-Hn. This follows from the fact that Hi n Hj = {1} for
i + j and \HX • • • ITn| = |JT!| • • • |fr n | = |G|.
(c) HiDHi- Hi-iHi+i "Hn = {I}. This follows from the fact that
if a G #*• and 6 € #y with i ^ ; then [a, 6] G #?- n jfiTy = {1}.
Thus we see that G is the direct product of its Sylow p-subgroups.
2.20 We have that \Ab\ = 60 = S-3-22. Hence the Sylow 5-subgroups are C 5 ,
the Sylow 3-subgroups are G3, and the Sylow 2-subgroups are G^ X G^
since A5 has no element of order 4.
There are 1 + 5A; Sylow 5-subgroups where 1 + 5A; divides 60; thus
there are six Sylow 5-subgroups. There are 1 + 3k Sylow 3-subgroups
where 1 + 3k divides 60; thus there are four or ten Sylow 3-subgroups.
There are in fact ten Sylow 3-subgroups as a little computation will
show. There are 1 + 2k Sylow 2-subgroups where 1 + 2k divides 60; thus
there are three, five or fifteen Sylow 2-subgroups. There are in fact five
Sylow 2-subgroups as a little computation will show.
57
Book 5 Groups
2.21 Let g e G. Then g~lPg < g~lKg = K since K < G. Thus, since
\g~lPg\ = |P|, we have that g~lPg is also a Sylow p-subgroup of K.
Hence, by Sylow's theorem, P and g~lPg are conjugate in K. It follows
that g~lPg = k~xPk for some k G K. Then [gk'^Pgk-1 = P and
so gk"1 G M{P) whence g G M(P)K. Since this holds for all g G G, we
have that ^ = M{P)K. _ _
Let .V(P) < H < G. Since P < H < G, we have that P i s a
Sylow p-subgroup of H. Let L = M(H). By the first part of the
question, L — ML{P)H where ML(P) is the normaliser of P in L. But
( < M(P) < H, so L = H as required.
Let S < G and suppose that P is a Sylow p-subgroup of 5 . We have to
show that P is cyclic. Now P is a p-subgroup of G so P < P for some
Sylow p-subgroup P of G. Since P is cyclic, so then is P.
Suppose that Pi and P 2 are p-subgroups of G with |Pi| = |P 2 |. We
have Pi < Pi and P 2 < P 2 where Pi, P 2 are Sylow p-subgroups of G.
But Pi is conjugate to P 2 , so there exists g G G with g~lP\g = P 2 . But
now g~lP\g < P 2 and | ^ - 1 P i ^ | = |Pi| = |P 2 |, so g~lP\g and P 2 are
subgroups of the same order in the cyclic group P 2 . Hence g~lP\g — P 2
as required.
Certainly \NC\H\ divides \N\ and | ^ | and so divides h.c.f.(|iV|, \H\).
Let p be a prime divisor of h.c.f.(|JV|, \H\) and suppose that pn is the
highest power of p that divides it. Then pn divides | JV| and \H\ and so
there exist P i , P 2 with P x < N,P2 < H and |Pi| = pn = |P 2 |. Now
Pi is conjugate to P 2 , and since N < G we must have P 2 < N. Hence
P 2 < H n N and \H n JV| is divisible by pn. Thus
\HnN\=h.c.f.(\H\,\N\)
and from the isomorphism HN/N ^ Hj{H n N) we obtain
Finally, suppose that N < G and •& G AutG. Then |^(iV)| = | ^ | so

\#{N)C\N\ =h.c.f.(|^(iVr)|,|iV|) = |JV| and hence &{N) = N as required.
2.28 (a) 200 = 5 2 • 2 3 . Hence G contains k Sylow 5-subgroups of order
25 where k = 1 + 5x and A: divides 200. Since (fc,5) = 1 we have that
k divides 8 and hence x = 0. Thus G has a unique Sylow 5-subgroup
which is therefore normal.
(b) 40 = 5 • 2 3 . Hence G contains k Sylow 5-subgroups where k =
1 + 5x and k divides 40. Here again we have x = 0 and so G contains
58
a unique Sylow 5-subgroup which is therefore normal. Hence G is not
simple.
(c) 56 = 7 • 2 3 . There are 1 + 7 k Sylow 7-subgroups where 1 + 7k
divides 56. If the group is simple then there must be eight Sylow 7-
subgroups with 49 distinct elements. Also there must be seven Sylow
2-subgroups and the group now has more than 56 elements.
(d) 35 = 7 • 5. The number of Sylow 5-subgroups is congruent to 1
mod 5 and divides 35. Hence there is only one Sylow 5-subgroup which
is therefore normal. By the same argument, there is only one Sylow
7-subgroup which is therefore normal. Let the Sylow 5-subgroup be H
and the Sylow 7-subgroup be K. We show as follows that G ~ H x K.
(i) H,K <\G has already been seen.
(iii) H n K = {1} since h.c.f.(|#|, \K\) = 1.

It follows that G~HxK~C5xC?~ C35 as required.
2.24 (a) If \G\ = 85 = 5 • 17 then the number of Sylow 5-subgroups is
congruent to 1 modulo 5 and so is one of
1, 6, 11, 16, 21, 26, etc.
But the number of Sylow 5-subgroups divides 85. Hence G has only one
Sylow 5-subgroup, H say, which is then normal. Similarly, there is a
unique Sylow 17-subgroup, K say, which is also normal. Now
(i)
(iii) H n K = {1} since h.c.f.(|#|, \K\) = 1.

Thus G ~ H x K ~ C5 x C17 ~ C85.
(b) Let G b e a group of order p2q. Suppose that G is simple. Let G
have rip Sylow p-subgroups and nq Sylow ^-subgroups. Then np > 1
and nq > 1. Since np divides q we must have np = q. Also np = 1 mod p
so q > p. Again nq divides p2 so nq is either p or p2.
There must be nq(q— 1) distinct elements of order q. Hence if nq = p2
there are p2q — p2{q— 1) = p2 elements that are not of order q. But since
the Sylow p-subgroup of G has order p2 we have np = 1, a contradiction.
Thus we must have nq = p. But nq = 1 mod q and so p > q which is
also a contradiction. We conclude therefore that G cannot be simple.
59
Book 5 Groups
2.25 By Sylow's theorem, the number n of distinct Sylow p-subgroups of G

is a divisor of <?, and n = 1 mod p. Since q is prime, we have n = 1 or
n = q. Since g ^ 1 mod p it follows that n x l . Thus Cr has a unique
Sylow p-subgroup P , say, and P <G.
Consider S 3 . We have |S 3 | = 2 • 3 and 3 = 1 mod 2. In this case the
result fails since S 3 has no normal 2-subgroup.
To show that G is not simple when |G| = pq we can assume that
p > q, so that q - 1 is not divisible by p. Then G has a normal Sylow
p-subgroup so cannot be simple.
Now suppose that \G\ = pq where p ^ 1 mod q and q ^ 1 mod p. Then
(7 has a normal Sylow p-subgroup P and a normal Sylow g-subgroup
Q. Since P and Q have prime orders they are cyclic. Let P = (x) and
Q = (t/). Now P n Q = {1} so xy = yx. Hence xy has order pq and
G = (xy) is cyclic.
2.26 The answer is no, and the symmetric group £4 provides an illustration.
First we must show that £ 4 contains a subgroup of order n for every
divisor n of 24. The cases n = 1 and n = 24 are obvious. As for
subgroups of order 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 we have
(1) |<(12))| = 2;
(2) |((123))| = 3;
(3) |((1234))|=4;
(4) S 3 C # 4 and | 5 3 | = 6 ;
(5) 24 = 3-8 so a Sylow 2-subgroup of £4 has order 8;
(6) A4 has order 12.
Consider now the subgroup A±. We claim that this does not have a
subgroup of order 6. To see this, suppose that H were such a subgroup.
Then H cannot be abelian (since 5 4 has no element of order 6) and so
H ~ S3. But every subgroup S3 in S 4 fixes a point and contains odd
permutations. Hence no such subgroup H can exist.
2.27 Let y = g~1xg for some g G G. Then y G P and y G g~lPg. Hence,
since y G Z(P) and y G Z(g~1Pg)1 we have that P and g~lPg both
centralise y. Thus
(P!g-1Pg)<MG(y).
But P and g~lPg are Sylow p-subgroups of G and so are Sylow p -
subgroups of MG(V)' Therefore P and g~lPg are conjugate in MG{V)-
Thus P = c~lg~lPgc for some c G >/b(y). Now gc G JV(P) and
(gc)~lxgc = c~1g~lxgc = c~lyc = y.
Hence x and y are conjugate in M(P).
60
2.28 Let Q = {aH | a G G} and for every g G G define a permutation ~g on
Oby
~g : aH *-> gaH.
Then <p : G —> SQ defined by <p(g) — ~g is readily seen to be a group
morphism. Now g G Kercp if and only if aH = gaH for all a G G,
which is the case if and only if g G aHa~l for all a G G. Thus we see
that Ker^> = f]aeG a~lHa which is easily seen to be the largest normal
subgroup of G contained in H. By the first isomorphism theorem,
G/KeT<p~Im<p< Sn.
Now suppose that G is simple with \G\ = 60. If H is a subgroup with

\H\ = 15 then H has index 4. But K = {1} since 6r is simple, and
G/K = G which (by the above) must be isomorphic to a subgroup of
5 4 . However, 60 does not divide 24, and so we have a contradiction.
In a similar way we can show that G has no subgroups of order 20 or
30.
2.29 The number n of Sylow 7-subgroups is such that n = 1 mod 7 and
n divides 168. Now n ^ 1 since otherwise G has a unique Sylow 7-
subgroup which is therefore normal. The only other divisor of 168 that
is congruent to 1 modulo 7 is 8. Hence G has eight Sylow 7-subgroups.
Since MG(P) must have index 8, we have \MG{P)\ = 21.
Suppose now that H < G with \H\ = 14. We derive a contradiction
as follows. Consider the number m of Sylow 7-subgroups of H. We have
that m = 1 mod 7 and m divides 14. Thus m = 1 and H has a normal
Sylow 7-subgroup K. However, \K\ = 7 so K must be a Sylow 7-
subgroup of G. Now since K is normal in H we must have H < SIQ[K).
This shows that \H\ = 14 divides \MG{K)\ = 2 1 which is the required
contradiction.
61
3.1 (a) Given [s,t] G [S,T] we have [s,*]" 1 = [*,«] G [F,S]. Hence
[5, T1] C [T,JS] and similarly for the reverse inclusion.
(b) We have that
h-1k-1hk = h-1h' eH since H<G
and
h~1k-lhk = k'keK since K<G.
Hence [#, K) < H n K. In the case where H n K = {1} v/e have
[if, if] = {1} and the elements of H commute with those of K.
(c) The first part follows from [xy,z] = y~1x~1z~1xyz and
y~l\x,z]y{y,z\ = y~lx~lz~lxzyy~lz~lyz.
Clearly [H,K] < [HL,K] and [L,K] < \HL,K\, so
\H,K\\LiK\<[HLiK\. '
But [hl,k] = r ^ M H M ] G [F, A"] [L, A"] since [JT, K] < G. Hence the
required equality follows.
(d) This follows immediately on expanding the commutators.
3.2 (
Let Q 8 = (a, 6 | a2 - 62 = (ab)2) and C 2 = (c | c2 = 1). Then
2
(a 2 5 c) and the upper central series is
The derived group of G is

and the lower central series is
Thus G is nilpotent of class 2 and the upper and lower central series do
not coincide.
Qs has derived group ( a 2 ) and Z(Q%) = (a2). Thus the upper and
lower central series of Qs are both equal to
8.3 Suppose that G is generated by its subnormal abelian subgroups. Then

G = {G\ | G\ subnormal abelian}.
Now since G\ is subnormal in G we have a series
G\ = RQ < R\ < • • • < Rn = G
with Ri normal in i2t-+i for 0 < i < n — 1. But if H is a quotient group
of G then H ~ G/K and so
G^fiT = GxRo GxRi, GxRn = C
K K ~ K ~ '~ K K
a+
is a series of subgroups with —r^- normal in for 0 < i < n — 1.
TVT K K
Now
K ~ GXC\K
which is abelian since G\ is abelian. Hence
—x ianinf).
subnormal abelian
K \ K K
Therefore H ~ G/K is generated by its subnormal abelian subgroups.
Suppose now that G is a nilpotent group and that H < G. Let
be a central series for G. Consider the series

=
H HGr <: HGr—\ fC • • • \ HG\ \ HGQ — G.
Now iTGi < HGi-i, since for /i, /i' G # , ^ G Gt-, &-_i G G8-_i we have
(/i gi—i) hgih gi—\ = g^_ih hg{h gi—\.
But, for any x EG, z#2_i = gi-\xg\ for some g\ G Ga- so it follows that
g~[\h!~xhgib!gi-.\ G HGi as required. Since every group is generated
by abelian subgroups (the cyclic subgroups generated by its elements),
a nilpotent group is then generated by its subnormal abelian subgroups.
63
Book 5 Groups
S.4 Apply the fundamental isomorphism

H HK
HnK " K
to the case where G = AiH = Af)C and K = B\ then since B < A we
obtain
ADC _ {AC\C)B
Bnc ~ B
Now apply the isomorphism to the case where G — AC,H = A and
K = BC to obtain
A A{BC)
AnBC~ BC '
But AnBC = B(A n C) and A(BC) = AC, and the result follows.
Suppose that G is a soluble group with a series
where each Gi/Gi-i is abelian. Let H < G and consider the series
{1} = Go n H < Gx n H < . •. < Gn n H = H.
We have
i-i n H
and so —~ rr iss abelian

a (being a subgroup of an abelian group).
Gi—i n xz
Also, if K < (7 then
jfiT _ GQK G\K GnK _ G
Now we have
GjK/K GjK
Gi-XK G,-_1(G1- n if)
which is a quotient group of * . Hence —-—/. is abelian (being

Gi GiK/K
a quotient group of an abelian group).
If H < K and both H and K/H are soluble then we have
^ ^ ^
H ~ H ~ ~ H ~H
64
and H = Ho > Hx > • • • > Hs = {1}, whence we have that
K = K0>K1> ->Kr = H = H0>H1> • > Hs = {1}
is a series for K with abelian factors.

For the last part, suppose that G/A and G/B are soluble. Then
A AB < G
AnB ~ B ~ B
and so A/(A n B) is soluble. Then G/A soluble and A/[A n 5 ) soluble
gives (7/(A n B) soluble.
8.5 (a) True. We have HK/K ~ J5T/(J5T n K) which is soluble, being a
quotient group of the soluble group H. But then HK/K is soluble and
K is soluble, so HK is soluble.
(b) False. For example, consider
G = Q$ — {a, b | a2 = b2 = (afc)2 ).
H = (a) and if = (6) are normal cyclic subgroups but if If = Q 8

which is not abelian.
(c) True, by the same argument as in (a).
8.6 Let H be a proper subgroup of G. If Z(G) g JET then Z(G)H normalises
H and the result follows. Suppose then that Z(G) C fT. Suppose, by
way of induction, that the result holds for groups of order less than |G|.
Since Z(G) ^ {1} we can apply the induction hypothesis to H/Z(G) as
a subgroup of G/Z(G). This shows that H/Z[G) is properly contained
in its normaliser, K/Z(G) say. Then H is normal in K and properly
contained in K as required.
Let P be a Sylow subgroup of G. Using the result of question 2.21, we
have that M{P) is equal to its own normaliser in G and so, by the first
part of the question, M(P) cannot be a proper subgroup of G. Hence
M(P) = G and so P is normal in G.
8.1 If \Z[G)\ > 2 then \G/Z{G)\ < 4 and so G/Z(G) is abelian. This
contradicts the class of G being 3. Hence we have that |#(G)| = 2 and
\G/Z(G)\ = 8. Now G/Z(G) must contain an element xZ(G) of order 4,
otherwise G/Z(G) would be abelian. Let H = (xiZ(G)) so that H is
an abelian subgroup of G with \H\ = 8. We show first that H is cyclic.
Suppose that H is not cyclic, so that H = (x) x Z(G). Consider the
subgroup (x2 ). There must be some g G G such that [x2yg] ^ 1, for
65
Book 5 Groups
otherwise x2 G Z{G). Now consider the non-trivial element x~2g~lx2g.

Since H is normal in G, we have that g~lxg G H and g~lx2g must be
a non-trivial square of an element of H. This gives g~lx2g — x2 and so
[z2j0] = 1, a contradiction.
Suppose now that # and if are cyclic subgroups of order 8 with
H ^ K. Then G = HK and so H n # < Z(G). However, this gives
| J£T n K\ < 2, which contradicts
\HK\\HC\K\ = \H\\K\.
Thus we conclude that H = K.

An example of such a group is the dihedral group D\Q.
8,8 If G is a finite nilpotent group then it has a lower central series which
satisfies the conditions required for G to be residually nilpotent. Con-
versely, if G is finite and residually nilpotent then Hi cannot properly
contain Hi+i except for finitely many i, so Hi = Hi+i for all i > N.
But now, since
oo JV
we have H^ =• {1} and so G is nilpotent.

The group
/?«, = ( a,6 | b2 = l,bah = a-1)
is residually nilpotent. For, taking Hi = (a 2 ' ) we have that [Hi,G] <

Hi+i and H S i -^* =: {^}- However, D^ is not nilpotent. To see this,
take K — (a 3 ) and observe that
Doo/K ~{a,b | a3 = b2 = 1, bab = a " 1 ) - S3
which is not nilpotent.

If H is a subgroup of a residually nilpotent group G then intersecting
the series of G with H shows that H is residually nilpotent (the argu-
ment generalises the usual proof that a subgroup of a nilpotent group is
nilpotent).
Consider D^ again. We have seen above that S$ is a quotient group.
But since £3 is finite and not nilpotent, it fails to be residually nilpotent
(by the first part of the question). Thus we see that a quotient group of
a residually nilpotent group need not be residually nilpotent. (In fact,
every group is a quotient group of a residually nilpotent group.)
8.9 It is readily seen by expanding the commutators that
Now [G, A] is generated by [g, a] where g G G and a £ A. It is therefore

sufficient to check that x~1[g}a]x G [G}A] for all g,x £ G and a E A.
But
x-1[gia]x=[gxia][xia]'1 e[G,A]
and so [G,A]<G.
Suppose that A = [A, G] and that G is nilpotent of class n say. Then
we have
A=[A,G,G,:..,G} = {1}.
n
Thus if A ^ {1} then G cannot be nilpotent.
Let A be a minimal normal subgroup of a nilpotent group G. Then
[G, A] < A and so, since [G, A] < G, we must have either [G, A] — A
or [G,A] = {1}. The former is impossible since G is nilpotent. Hence
[G,A] = {1} and A is in the centre of G.
8.10 Let G be a finite p-group. First we show that the centre of G is non-
trivial. Note that a conjugacy class has one element if and only if the
elements of the class are central. Now G is the union of its conjugacy
classes, and {1} is a conjugacy class. Any conjugacy class containing
more than one element has k elements where p\k. Hence G has more
than one conjugacy class containing one element and so Z(G) ^ {1}.
Let Z<2,[G)jZ{G) be the centre of G/Z(G). Continuing in this way, we
obtain a series
{1} <Z(G) <Z2{G) < ... < G
and, since G is finite, Zn(G) = G for some n. Thus G is nilpotent.
Suppose that G = H xK where \H\ = p2 and \K\ = p3. Now we have
that Z{G) = Z(H) x Z(K) and Z{H) = H since a group of order p2 is
abelian. Consequently, \Z(G)\ = p2\Z(K)\. It follows that \Z(K)\ is p,
or p2, or p 3 ; for \Z(K)\ ^ 1 since if is a p-group. But if \Z(K)\ = p2
then \K/Z(K)\ - p and so K/Z{K) is cyclic, say K/Z(K) = \aZ(K)}.
Then k G K gives k — alz for some z G Z(K). Then any two elements
of K commute, whence it follows that |^(A")| = p 3 which contradicts
the hypothesis that \Z(K)\ = p 2 . We now note that \Z{K)\ ± p 3 since
otherwise G is abelian. Thus we have that |#(iif)| must be p, whence
\Z(G)\ = p 3 and |G/Z(G)| = p 2 . Using again the fact that a group of
order p 2 is abelian, we see that
G > Z(G) >{!}
is the upper central series of G, and hence that G is nilpotent of class 2.
67
Book 5 Groups
3.11 Consider the matrices
1 a b 1 d e
x = 0 1 c , y= 0 1 f
0 0 1 0 0 i
where a, 6, c, d) e, / G Z. Then [a?, y] is given by
1 —a ac — i 1 -d df-e' 1 a b" 1 d e
0 1 -c 0 1 ~f 0 1 c 0 1 /
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
which reduces to
" 1 0 af -de
0 1 0
0 0 1
Now if x is central in G then \xyy\ = h for all y E G, which gives
af - dc = 0 for all d , / e Z , whence a = c = 0. Thus we see that the
centre of G is
1 0 b
0 1 0
0 0 1
The derived group of G is ([a;, t/] | x^y EG). From the above calculation
of [a:, y] it is easy to see that the derived group of G is Z. To see that
G is nilpotent, we show that [Z}G] = {h}. Again, this follows from the
above calculation.
The upper central series is
{/3} < Z < G.
For, we have shown that Z is the centre of (•?, and G/Z is abelian since
Z is the derived group of G. This is also the lower central series of G as
our calculations have shown. Hence the upper and lower central series
of G coincide.
For the given matrices we have
1 n 0 1 0 n 1 0 0
0 1 0 ) 13 0 1 0 j *23 = 0 1 n
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
68
Now since
1 a b 1 a 0 1 0 ol 1 0 b- ac
0 1 c = 0 1 0 0 1 c 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
it follows that we have G = (^125^13^23 )•
A subnormal series for {£12) is
A subnormal series for (£23 ) is
A subnormal series for {f 13 ) is

{h3)<G.
8.12 Suppose that N<G and A < N, B < N. Then for all x G X, y € Y} z e Z
we have
[x,y-\z]yeN and [y,z~\x]z G N.
Hence [z, x~l, y]x G N and so [z, x~1, y] G N, whence [0, x~x] commutes
with y modulo JV, whence [Z, X] commutes with Y element-wise modulo
N, and consequently C < N.
For the next part, use induction. The result is clearly true if n = 1.
Assume then that [J5T,-, r tt _i(^T)] < #,-+„_ 1. Let
Then we have
ii = [rB_!(
B = [K.Hi.Tn-iiK)] < [Hf+uTn-iiK]] < Hi+n = N
/-Y r TT -p / xt~\ IT\ S \ IT V\ s" TJ AT
L> = [ i i j , 1 n _ i ( A J, AJ S l-"*+»—lj •"•] S -"t+n = ^
and hence A < N as required.
For the last part, take G = H = K and the series to be the lower
central series. Then
(a) and (b) follow immediately;
(c) follows from (b) with m — n\
(d) is proved by induction. We have G^ = I V Suppose that
G^" 1 ) < r 2 r - i ; t h e n , by (a),
G w = [ G (»--i) jG (r-i)] < [r 2 r-i,r 2 r-i] < r 2 r .
(e) [Z2,T2] = {1} and so [Z2)G] = {1} gives Z2 < Zt whence Z2 = ZX.
69
Book 5 Groups
8.18 Since x G Z2{G) we have [x,g] G Z(G) so N < Z(G). Now in this case
we have
[ ] [ ] ~l ~l "1 g ^ 1 xg2
1
x~l g\l x g g
x.x
and hence
Now
= M{x)g2.
This gives \N\ = |G : J^(JC)|. However, Z{G) < M{x) and x £ Z{G), x G
M(x) and so #(G) is properly contained in N(x), whence \N\ < pn.
If n = 1 then (3 is abelian and G' = {1} so the result holds. Suppose,
by way of induction, that the result holds for all groups with factor
by the centre of order pk for k < n. Consider Z{G/N). Certainly
Z{G)/N < Z{G/N). But xN e Z{G/N) since [x,G\ C N so Z{G/N)
properly contains Z(G)/N. Hence
\G/N : Z(G/N)\=pk
for some k < n, and so by the inductive hypothesis
But \N\ < pn~l and so \G' < pinin~l) as required.

8.14 Suppose that H is a subgroup of G with G = ®H. Then if H ^ G
we have that IT is contained in a maximal subgroup M of G, whence
G = $H < $M and consequently G = # M . But # < M since # is the
intersection of all the maximal subgroups of G. Hence G — §M < M
which is a contradiction. Thus H = G as required.
Since T < $ we have Tg < $g. First we show that # is normal in
G. If M is a maximal subgroup of G then g~lMg is also maximal,
since otherwise g~lMg < K < G for some subgroup If and then M <
gKg~l < G, a contradiction. Suppose now that x G $. If g"~1xg £ <I>
then g~lxg £ M for some maximal subgroup M, and then z ^ gMg~~l
which is a contradiction. Therefore Tg < $9 = $ and so T and T g are
Sylow p-subgroups of <£. Thus Ta = Th for some h G #, by Sylow's
theorem. It now follows that T ^ " 1 = !F and so gh~l G Afc(r) whence
70
g G MG{T)$. Hence we see that MG{T)Q = G and, by the first part of
the question, that MG{T) = G. Thus T is normal in G and so is normal
in $.
Thus every Sylow p-subgroup of $ is normal.
8.15 Suppose that G satisfies the maximum condition for subgroups and let
H be a subgroup of G. Choose x\ G H and let Hi = (x\ ). If Hi < H
choose X2 E H \ Hi and let Hi = (x\, x2 }. Continuing in this way, we
obtain a chain of subgroups
HX<H2< . . . <Hn <Hn+i < ...
in which, by the maximum condition, Hr = H for some r. Hence
H = Hr = (xi,x2,...,xr)
is finitely generated.
Conversely, if G fails to satisfy the maximum condition then G con-
tains an infinite chain of distinct subgroups
Hi < H2 < • • • < Hn < Hn+1 <
Let H = Uz>i &i a n d suppose that H is finitely generated. If, say,

H = ( x \ , . . . , xr ) then we have
xi e HSl, x2 e jBT a a ,...,x r eHSr
and consequently each zz- G Hs where 5 = maxi<t-<r S{. It follows that

H = H8) a contradiction. Hence if cannot be finitely generated.
Let G be a soluble group that satisfies the maximum condition for
subgroups. Let
G = Ho > Hi > • • • > Hr = {1}
be a series for G with each quotient Hiî/Hi abelian. Now Hi-i, being a
subgroup of <JT, is finitely generated and so therefore is Hi-i/Hi. Thus
we may insert between Hi and Ift-_i a finite number of subgroups to
obtain a series in which quotients of consecutive members are cyclic.
Thus we have that G is poly cyclic.
Conversely, if G is polycyclic let
71
Book 5 Groups
be a series with each quotient Hi-i/Hi cyclic. Then if K < G we have,
writing K{ = H n Hi, the series
K = K0 >Ki > ->Kr = {l}
in which consecutive quotients are cyclic. Let i^-a^-i be a generator of
Ki-i/Ki. Then it follows that
K = {ao,ai,...,ar_i)
and so K is finitely generated as required.
3.16 Rewriting the given relation in the form
(1) y-x[x,z\y^[xy,z\[y,z]-1
we see that, for all x, y G A and all z G B,
and so .A normalises [A, j?]. Similarly, B normalises [A, 5] and so [A, B]

is normal in G.
Replacing z by zt in (1) gives
[*»,**] = [*,**]»[?,**].
However, [a;,^] = [^, a;]""1 and [y9zt] = [zt, y]~l so we can use (1)
again to express [xy,zt] as a product of conjugates of commutators of
the form [a, 6] where a,6 G {#, 2/,£,£}. Hence if x, z G A and y,t € B
then using the fact that [a;, 2] = 1 = [y,t] and the fact that [A,B] is
normal in <3 we see that [xy,zt] G [A,B], Thus G' C [A, B}. However,
[A, B] C [AB, AB] = G ; and so G1 = [A, B}.
Since AB = BA we have
b"* = a 3 6 3 and a j 2 = 6 4 a 4
for some az, OLA € A and 63,64 G J5. Now
= [04,63].
Similarly we can show that
[ai,6i] 6 '°' = [04,63]
a b
and so \al,bi] * * = [ai,b1]b*a> as required. It now follows that
[ai > 6i]I'- B »l=[a 1> 6 1 ]
and so [A, B) is abelian.
The derived series for G is now
G>[A,B] >{1}
and so G is soluble, of derived length at most 2.
72
Solutions to Chapter S
3.17 Let M be a maximal subgroup of G. Then M is subnormal in G (see
question 3.3) so we have
M<Ht< -<Hr<G.
But M < Hi < G is impossible, so M < G.
S is a Sylow p-subgroup and M is a maximal subgroup of G with
MG{S)<M<G.
Let g e G. Then fiT1^ < g~xMg. But sT^M^f = M since M is

normal. Therefore 5 and g~xSg are Sylow p-subgroups of M. Now,
using the Sylow theorems, we have that S and g~xSg are conjugate in
M. Hence there exists m £ M with g~lSg = m" 1 Sm. This shows that
mg-lSgm~l = S and so (firm'^'^flfm" 1 = S whence ^m" 1 G MG{S)>
It now follows that gm~l G M whence # G M since m G M. This is
clearly impossible since we now have the contradiction M = G. We
deduce, therefore, that MG{$) = G and so 5 is normal in G.
Suppose now that 5 is a Sylow p-subgroup of G. Then S = g~lSg
for some g G G, by Sylow's theorem. Hence S = g~lSg = S since S<G
and so 5 is unique.
Let S\}...fSr be Sylow subgroups, each corresponding to distinct
prime divisors of |6r|. Since S{ is the only Sylow subgroup for its asso-
ciated prime, we have Si < G. Clearly, if i ^ j then 5,- D Sj = {1} since
h.c.f.(\Si\,\Sj\) = 1. Hence
G = SxxS2x ••• x Sr.
3.18 Let k G K. Then fc G g~xMg for every # G G. If z G C we then have
and so x~lkx belongs to every conjugate of Af. Hence x~~1hx G K and

so K < (7.
If JV < G and N < M then for every g E G we have
JV = y"" 1 ^^ < fl
from which it follows that N < K.

Since H/K is a minimal normal subgroup of G/K we have H <G
and K C If, so H j£ M. Therefore G = MJET since M is maximal and
G > MH > M.
73
Book 5 Groups
Now HnM is normal in M and so (HnM)/K is normal in M/K. But
(HC\M)/K is normal in H/K since H/K is a minimal normal subgroup
of a soluble group and is therefore abelian. Thus every subgroup of H/K
is normal.
Now (H n M)/K is normalised by M/if and is also normalised by
H/K. Hence # / # • M/K normalises {H n M)/JT. But
# / # • M/tf = HM/K = G/K.
Consequently, (Hf)M)/K is normal in G/K. It now follows that HnM

is normal in G.
Now HnM < M and HnM<G imply that # n M < # . But K < H
and K < Mt so we have H C\M — K.
Finally, |M# : M\ = \H : # n M\ gives |G : M\ = \H : # | .
8.19 Suppose that G is met acyclic and that N <G with N and G/iV" cyclic.
Let H < G. Then HnN<H and iTniV is cyclic (since it is a subgroup
of the cyclic group N). Also,
H/(H n JV) - JTJV/A' < G/JY
so H/(H fl iV) is cyclic (being isomorphic to a subgroup of the cyclic

group G/N). Hence H is met acyclic.
Suppose now that K<G. We have K<NK and NK/K - N/{NnK)
which is cyclic (being a quotient group of the cyclic group N). Also,
G/K _ G _ G/N
NK/K " NK~ NK/N
which is cyclic (being a quotient group of the cyclic group G/N). Hence
NK G _ NK _. _ G/K _. _/Br. + _.
-TT" < — with ——- cyclic and ' cyclic, so G/K is metacyclic.
K K K JNK/K
If
G = {a,b | a 2 = l, 68 = 1, aba = b7)
then we have a - 1 6 a = 6" 1 so {b) <G since then a~lb{a = &~~* for all
integers i. But
G / ( 6 ) = {a,6 | a 2 = 1 = 6)
and so G/{ b) ~ C j . Also, (6) ^ C 8 so G is metacyclic.
74
8.20 Consider the following matrices (in each of which the entries not shown
are all 0) :
d\2 ^13 ••• ^1
a
1 #23 ••• 2
-a12 —a
1
1
It is readily seen that A 0 Ai • • • An-\ — In. Also,
Expanding the other matrices in a similar way, the description of Tn (F)

follows.
75
Book 5 Groups
A similar argument shows that H is the set of all upper triangular

matrices over F of the form
1
To show that
is a central series for Tn(F), first note that if In + A e Tn(F) where
0 CI12 013 •• • 0>\n

0 0 G&23 ... Ci2n
0 0 0 ... a3n
then 4 + A2 e H2,In + A3 G # 3 , . •., 4 + An = In. Also,

{In + A)-1 =In-A + A2-A3+ ... + (-i)»- 1 i l n - 1 .
Now let In + BeHi. Then we have
[/„ + A,In + B} = {In + A)" 1 ( 4 + B)-1^ + A)(Jn + 5)
= In + AB + higher powers of A and B
Tn{7Lp) consists of all upper triangular matrices with diagonal entries

all 1 and arbitrary elements of TLV in the \n[n — 1) positions above the
main diagonal. It follows immediately that | r n ( Z p ) | = p ^ C " - 1 ) . But
we know that
t=0
(see question 1.18), and the highest power of p that divides |SL(n,p)| is
therefore pin(n~l). Hence Tn{Zp) is a Sylow p-subgroup of SL(n,p).
76
8.21 S$ can have non-trivial proper subgroups only of order 2 or 3. Only the
Sylow 3-subgroup {(123)) is normal and so the only composition series
5 3 > {(123)) > {1}.

No Sylow subgroup of £4 is normal, nor is any subgroup of order 2.
Thus the only possible orders for proper non-trivial normal subgroups
are 4, 6, and 12. But a subgroup of order 6 contains a Sylow 3-subgroup
and so, if it is normal, contains all four Sylow 3-subgroups which is
impossible since 4 does not divide 6. Any subgroup of order 12 contains
all Sylow 3-subgroups and so is A± (observe that An is generated by the
3-cycles). As A4 has index 2, it is normal. It is easy to see that the only
normal subgroup of order 4 is
and so the only composition series is
S4 > A4 > V > {1}.
S5 has only one non-trivial proper normal subgroup and so
S5> A5> {1}
is the only composition series. To see this, we again use Sylow theory.
If {1} ^ N < £ 5 and 5 divides \N\ then N contains all six Sylow 5-
subgroups of £5 so | JV| is 30, 60, or 120. But each of these possibilities
means that N contains one and so all Sylow 3-subgroups of £5 and so
contains A& as above. Thus N is either A& or £5. Now if neither 3 nor
5 divides the order of N then N contains an element of order 2. But
then, by conjugation, it contains at least 15 elements of order 2. Thus
A5 is the only possibile JV. The above argument applies to subgroups of
A& which is therefore simple, and £5 has only one composition series.
If n > 5 then the only composition series of Sn is
Sn>An> {1}.
8.22 As Ar+i is a Sylow g-subgroup of Ar and Ar+i < Ar we see that Ar
has only one Sylow g-subgroup. We show by induction on i that Ar_t-
has only one Sylow g-subgroup, namely Ar+\. Suppose that Ar-i+i
has only one Sylow g-subgroup Ar+i. Then Ar_e-+i < Ar-i implies that
if g € Ar-i then g'1 Ar+ig < g'1 Ar-i+\g = Ar-i+i and so, by the
77
Book 5 Groups
assumption, g~1Ar+ig = Ar+i. Thus Ar+i < A r _,. and so is the only
Sylow g-subgroup of Ar_«. Hence, by induction, Ar+\ < A\ = G. Thus
A r + i , and similarly Bs+i, are normal subgroups of G.
For g G -Ar+i and h G 5 5 + i we have
Thus Ar+i and 5 s + i generate their direct product and the order of this
shows that Ar+iB3+i = G.
78
4..1 The first part is achieved by a standard matrix reduction using the
elementary operations of the forms
(a) add an integer multiple of one row/column to another;
(b) interchange two rows/columns;
(c) multiply a row/column by —1.
In this case the reduction begins and ends as follows :
37 27 47" 1 0 0
52 37 67 ~ ... ~ 0 35 0
59 44 74 0 0 0
This then shows that
G~{x,y,z
If we now add the relation a3b2c4 = 1 to those of G then a corre-

sponding matrix reduction gives
37 27 47 1 0 0
52 37 67 0 7 0
59 44 74 ~ '"~ 0 0 0
3 2 4 0 0 0
Thus adding the relation a3b2c4 = 1 to the relations of G changes G to

the group CV x C^. Hence the relation a3b2c4 — 1 cannot hold in G.
However, it follows immediately from the first two relations of G that
Book 5 Groups
a i5 6 io c 2o = x a n d s o t h e o r d e r o f a 3 6 2 c 4 divides 5. As the order is not

1, it must then be 5.
From the second and third relations it is clear that (abc)7 = 1 and so
abc has order 1 or 7. Adding the relation abc = 1 to those of G gives a
matrix that reduces to
"1 0 0"
0 5 0
0 0 0
0 0 0_
which corresponds to the group C 5 x Coo- Thus we see that abc ^ 1 in
G and that consequently abc has order 7.
Now in an abelian group, if x has order m and y has order n then xy
has order l.c.m.(m, n). Thus we deduce that
a4b3c5 = a3b2c4 • abc
has order 5 • 7 = 35.

4-2 (a) The relation matrix for G reduces as follows :
2 3 6 1 0 0
4 9 4 0-2 0
Consequently, G ~ (x, t/, z \ x = y 2 = z° = 1) c^ C^ x

(b) The relation matrix for G reduces as follows :
2 3 6 1 0 0
4 9 4 ~ 0 1 0
3 3 2 0 0 -66
Consequently G ~ CQQ,
2
4*$ Froml abab = 1 we have bob = b~1a~1. Hence babab — 1 and so
x
bab~ a~ = 1, from which it follows that G is abelian.
G is the infinite cyclic group. In fact, a relation matrix for the abelian
group G is
[2 3]~[2 l ] ~ [ 0 l ] .
Alternatively, it is easy to see that G = {ab) since b = [ab)~2 and
a = {ab)3.
80
4-4 Suppose that g,h G G have orders m, n respectively. Then g l has order
m and gh has order that divides mn. Thus the non-empty subset T is
closed under multiplication and taking inverses, so it is a subgroup of
G.
If g G Q and h G T \ {1} then gh G Q. Thus, if Q is a subgroup, we
have h — g~l.gh G Q. It follows that a necessary condition for Q to be
a subgroup is that T — {1}. This condition implies that Q = G and so
is also sufficient.
Given a prime p, the element / of G defined by /(p) — 1 and f(q) = 0
for q G II \ {p} is an element of order p.
The element g of G defined by g(q) = 1 for all q G II has infinite order.
Let / G <J be such that f(p) =^ 0 for only finitely many p G II.
Suppose that {pi,...,Pn} is the finite subset of II on which / takes
non-zero values. Then if P = pip2 • • • pn it is readily seen that the order
of / divides P (and in fact is equal to P), so P has finite order.
Conversely, suppose that / G G has order n say, so that nf = 0.
We show that if /(p) ^ 0 for p G II then p must divide n. This will
complete the proof since n can have only finitely many distinct prime
divisors. Now /(p) ^ 0 and f(p) G Z p imply that /(p) has order p. But
since nf = 0 we have n/(p) = 0, and so p divides n.
^.5 The relation matrix for G is
n m m
m n m
171 m n,
follows :
n m m n ?ri — n, m -- n
m n m m n —m 0
m m n 771 0 n —m
2m+ n 0 0
m in, — m 0
m 0 n—m
The determinant is zero if and only if m = n or 2m = — n, whence the

result follows.
If G is perfect then 2m + n = 1 and n — m = l, som = 0 and n = 1.
Thus
G= {a,b,c I a = 1, 6 = 1, c = 1)
which is the trivial group.
81
Book 5 Groups
4.6 The relation matrix for G is
s
f •
For G to be perfect, we require the determinant of this matrix to be ±1 .
Now the determinant is
A = 2n + 9 - 3(4 + 2k) = 2n - 3 - 6*.
Since, by hypothesis, n is coprime to 6, there are two cases to consider.

(a) n = 6m + 1. In this case A = 12m + 2 — 3 — 6k and we can choose
k = 2m to obtain A = — 1.
(b) n — 6m — 1. In this case A = 12m — 5 — 6k and we can choose
k = 2m - 1 to obtain A = 1.
4.7 The relation matrix is
n 0" n 0" n 0"

3 1 3 1 3 0
n+9 4 n 1 0 1
Hence G/G* is cyclic, of order h.c.f.(3, n). Therefore GjG1 ~ C3 if n is

divisible by 3, and is trivial if n is coprime to 3.
4.8 We have
W = TV~Z = T{RyS)z
X = WtU = {T{RyS)z)tU
and hence
G = ( R, S, T, U I Rx = SaTbUc, {RyS)y = TaUd,

(T{RyS)z)z = ?7a, ((rfJFS)*)*!/)* = 1).
The relation matrix for G/G' is therefore
—a -b —c
y2 y —a -d
yz* z2 z —a
yzt2 zt2 t2 t
82
We can simplify this relation matrix using elementary row or column
operations over Z. Add —y times column 2 to column 1, then — z times
column 3 to column 2, then — t times column 4 to column 3, and we
obtain
~x + ay —a-\-bz —b + d —c"
0 y + az —a + dt —d
0 0 z + at -a
0 0 0 t
Now \G/G'\ = det M = [x + ay)(y + az)(z + at)t. Hence G/G' is finite
if and only if (x + ay)(y + a;z)(2r -f- at)t ^ 0.
(a) \G/G'\ = 1 requires
ay = ±1 , ±1 , 0 + at = ±1 , * = dbl
so we can take, for example, a = 0,i = x — y — z = 1.

(b) Take, for example, t = 16,x = y = z = l,a = b = c = d = 0.
(c) Take, for example, t = 2,z — 4,y = 8,x = 1,a = 6 = c = d = 0.
To see t h a t G — ( a i , a<z ) we use induction. Suppose t h a t a8- G {0,1,(12)
for all 2 < n. T h e n a n = a n _ i a n _ 2 shows t h a t an G ( 0 1 , 0 2 ) - Since
^1 > 02 G ( 0 1 , ^ 2 ) it follows t h a t az- G ( 0 1 , 0 2 ) for 1 < t < 2 m a n d so
G=(aU02).
To see that fn-ifn+i ~ fn — i~^)n w e a g a m u s e induction. The
result is readily seen to hold for n = 2. Now
/ n - l / n + l ~ fn ~ fn-l{%fn-l + /n-2) — (/n-2 + / n - l )

=
2fn—l + fn—lfn—2 ~ fn—2 ~ fn—1 ~ *fn—2Jn-l
= / n _ i ~ fn-2{fn-2 + fn-l)
— fn—1 ~ fn—2fn
the penultimate equality resulting from the inductive hypothesis.

Now in G/G1 the relation a{+2 = ai+iai allows us to write
Substituting these values of az- into a8- = a we obtain only two

relations. From i = 1 we obtain
83
Book 5 Groups
and from i = 2 we obtain
a [ + / m + 1 4 + / m + 2 = 1.
Hence we see that a relation matrix of G/G1 is
+ /m+ll [ fm 1 + fm+l
Consequently,
\G/G'\ = \fl-(l + fm+1)(l + fm-l)\
from which the result follows on using the equalities
l - / m = (-l)m and 9m = fm+l + fm-1-
4-10 Since b2 = a2" is a relation of both G and H we need only show that
the relation (ab)2 = b2 holds in (7 to see that the relations of G imply
those of H. But clearly bab"1 = a" 1 implies abab~x = 1, i.e. (ab)2 = b2.
To show that the relations of H imply those of (7, we need only show
that bab~l = a" 1 and a2"'1 = 1 hold in H. Now b2 = (ab)2 implies
bab~l — a~l immediately. Raise bab~l = a" 1 to the power 2 n ~ 2 to
obtain
But since a2 2
= b2 we see that a2 commutes with b. It follows that
n-2 Jo"- • on-1
o
a* —a , i.e. cr = 1.
It is easy to see that H and K are isomorphic. For, eliminating c from
the presentation of K by setting c = ab gives the presentation for H.
We now show that the relations of H are consequences of those of G.
In fact,
bab = b2a3 since ab = ba3
= a2 a3 since 62 = a2
= a since a 4 = 1.
Also,
aba = ba3a since a& = 6a 3
= b since a 4 = 1.
84
Next we show that the relations of G can be deduced from those of
H. In fact,
a2 = abab since a = bab
= b2 since aba = 6,
and
ab = bab2 since a — bab
= ba3 since b2 = a2.
Finally, 6 = aba = ba3a = ba4 so a4 = 1 as required.

Since the matrices
generate a group of order 8, the last part of the question is routine.

4.12 Let K = ( a i , . . . , a n _ i ) . Then setting L = {an) we have G = KL,
and since L < Z(G) we must have K normal in G. Now GjK ~ L, an
abelian group, so Gf < K. But since an G G' we have L < K. Hence
KL = K and so G = if as required.
Take as presentation for Q%
Since H/A ^ Q 8 and A < Z(]H) n if' we have, by the above result, that
H = (a,/J) and a 4 G 4 , a 2 /?" 2 G A,ap-laj3 G A. Now [a,j8] = a " 2 a
where a G A and so [a,/?] commutes with a since a G Z(H). But
2
OL2P~2 G A so [a,/3] = fi~ a' where a' G A and so [a,/?] commutes
with p. Thus if' = ([a,/?]). However, a 2 commutes with /? since
a2j3~2 € A < Z(H) and so we have
Therefore H1 ~ C 2 . But A < H1 and so, since if/A ~ Q 8) we have

if/if' ~ C2 x C2 whence |ZT| = 8 and A — {1} as required.
85
Book 5 Groups
4.13 We have x2 = y2xy~l and so
1 = x = {y2xy~1)4 = iy.yx.y~1)4 =
s
y{yx)4y~l.
Hence (yx)4 = 1 and so (xy)4 = 1.
Also, y2 = x2yx~l so
y8 = (x.xy.x-1)* = xixy^x-1 = xx~l = 1.
^.i^ Let x = a3b and y = {a?b)~'1. Then since xy = a it is clear that a; and
2/ generate G.
Writing a = xy,b = (xy)~3x = y~lx~xy~lx~~ly~l we obtain
G=(x,y\ (xy)7 = y3 = x2 = [xy(y-1 x~ly'1 x'1y-1)5)2 = 1).
Now the final relation can be written in the form
x-1y-1x-1y-1(y-Xx-1y-1x-1y-1)*)a = 1-
Taking the inverse of this we obtain
{(yxyxy)4yxy)2 = 1.
Now conjugate by y to get
(tfxyxWxr = 1.
Since y = 1 we have y = y~l and the required form follows.
z 2
4-15 Substituting
c = abj
d = be = bab,
e = cd = a62a6
into the relations of G we obtain (1) and (2).
Now
b = ab2aba
- ab2ab2abab2ab by (1)
= ab5ab by (2).
Thus we have bb = a~2. Also,
a2 = babab2aba
= bab2 by (2).
Hence 6~ = a = 6afc and so a = 6~8 as required.
5 2 2
Replacing a by ft"8 in (1) and (2) produces 611 = 1 and 622 = 1, so G

is the cyclic group Cu.
86
4-16 From ab = b2a = b.ba = b.a2b = ba.ab we obtain ba = 1. Hence a = 6" 1 ,
and substituting into a& = 62a we obtain 6 = 1. Now substitute 6 = 1
in ba = a2b to obtain a = 1. Hence (2 is the trivial group.
Consider now Gn. The relation
holds for i = l. Also, assuming this equality we have that
+
V<f'+1) = a{aibnia-i)n*~~l
= abn(n+1Y a"1
whence the result follows by induction.

Taking i = n we obtain from the above
It follows that
and hence that
(1)
But taking % = n + 1 gives
and so, raising (1) to the power n we obtain
from which it follows that 6( n+1 )" = 1. Substituting this into (1) now
produces 6n" = 1. Since nn is coprime to (n + l)n we then have that
6 = 1, so a = 1 also and Gn is trivial.
87
Book 5 Groups
4.17 Let H = {a, b). Then H is not abelian. To see this, let
r
i
A= Mll « [6 2l
6 1
5 6'
so that we have
Now \\{A) 7^ t|(i?) since otherwise we would have AB"1 = ±I2 which is
false.
A simple computation shows that
6 0
a2 = 64 = {abf =
0 6
6 0
where I) is the identity of PSL(2,7). Hence H is an image of
0 6
using von Dyck's theorem. However, any proper image of Dg has order
1, 2, or 4, and so is abelian. This then shows that H ~ D$.
4.18 By question 1.18, SL(2,3) has order 24. The elements of GL(2,3) have
determinant 1 or 2, and the same argument that counts the elements of
determinant 1 clearly shows that there are 24 elements with determinant
2. Hence
|GL(2,3)| = 48.
Since SL(2,3) has index 2 in GL(2,3) it must be normal and contain the
derived group. But
-1 0] 1 1
II""1 0 1 -1 1 1
and
0 0 1
JL ° •J 0 1 0 1
-1
°lf4 1 0 r1 JL
1
olf - 11 °] 1 0
0 1 1
[0 ij 1 1
It is now straightforward to check that
1 0
SL( 2 ) 3)=/[; ;
1 1
88
and so SL(2,3) is the derived group of GL(2,3).
We now have
H = = 6, # 3 = 1,
A little trial and error soon produces the correspondence
0 -1 1 1
1 0 1 -1
-1 1 1 -1
1 1 0 1
This then shows that H ~ SL(2,3) since each has order 24.
The presentation for H may be simplified by eliminating b and c using
the fifth and sixth relations, to obtain
J5T = (a, 0 | tia&a-â-1 = 1,03 = 1).
Now HjW a C3 and is generated by 0. Hence Hf ~ Q 8 and the derived

group of Qs is (a 2 } ~ C2 with quotient group C2 x C 2 .
The derived series of GL(2,3) is now seen to be
• GL(2,3)
SL(2)3) =
>c2
'{1}
Let T = < H. Then
ab~l =ab'lab{ab)-1
89
Book 5 Groups
and so b = b~2 = {abâb'1 € T and a = ab.b~l e T. Hence T = H

and so H is generated by ab and ab~1ab.
Let M = {(ab)n) < H. We show first that M is central in H.
Since H — (ab,ab~1ab) it is sufficient for this purpose to show that
[(afc)n,a6] = 1 and [(a6)n, ab~1ab] — 1. Now the first of these is clear,
and the second follows on substituting (ab~1ab)k for (ab)n. Since also
{ab)n = {ab~lab)k = (a- 1 6~ 1 a6) fc G H1

we see that M C H1 as required.
^.#0 To show tht the commutator [a, 6] is in the centre of G, it suffices to
prove that it commutes with each of the generators a and 6. Now
a~1[a,b]a = a~1(a~1b~1ab)a
= a(6~1a)6a since a3 = 1 gives a"~2 = a
= a(a~1ba~ib)ba since (6""1**)3 = 1 gives b~la = (a" x 6) 2
= ba~~ib~ia since 62 = 6" 1
= b(baba)a since a~ 1 6~ 1 = (ba)2
= b~xaba~l since 62 = 6~ 1 ,a 2 = a" 1
= a~lba~lbba~l since 6""1a = ( a " ^ ) 2
= a~1ba~1b~1a~1 since 62 = 6" 1
= a~1bbabaa~1 since a""16""1 = (6a) 2
= a~~lb~lab since 62 = 6" 1
and so we have that [a, 6] commutes with a. A similar proof shows that
[a, b] commutes with b.
Since the commutator [a, b] is thus in Z{G) we have that G/Z(G)
is abelian and Z(G) is abelian. But an abelian group must be finite
whenever it is generated by a finite number of elements and is such
that, for all x and a fixed n, xn = 1. Hence Z{G) is finite, G/Z(G) is
finite, and so (7 is finite.
4.21 We have 2/azt/6 = xy~cx and y~cxy~b = xyax, so
(1) ya{xyh-cx)y'b = £tr
Similarly,
(2) y 6 (»y c " a a;)y-

90
and
(3) yc{xya-"x)y-a = xyc-bx.
From (1) and (3) we have
y2a{xyb-ax)y-b-c = xya-cx
and using (2) we obtain
y^+\Xtf-«X)y-b-^ = Xy«-*X.
Hence
y2a+b{yb+2cxya-cxy-2a-b)y-b-2c = xya-ex
and so
[y*
Similarly
[y*
If h.c.f.(a — c, c — b) = 1 we have X(a — c) + ji{c — b) = 1 and then
and so [y2(a+5+c), xyx] = 1. But now
(xyx)a = xyax = y~cxy-b
so [y2(a+b+c),y-cxy-b] = 1, giving [y2(a+b+c\x] = 1 as required.

Call x i m + 1 = t2x2 relation (1) and xt2xtx2t = 1 relation (2). Prom (1)
we obtain
so, squaring and using (2),
This then establishes (a).

From (2) we have t~2 = (xtx)2 so [t2, xtx] = 1, which is (b).
By (1) and (b) we have
tm = t-lx-H2x2 ={
91
Book 5 Groups
Hence
= t2m{xt2m+2x~l) by (a).
This establishes both (c) and (d).
Finally,
2 2
= {xtm+1)r2m{x-2r2)
so t4m = 1 and hence, using (d), [t2m,x] = 1 which shows that t2m G
Z(G).
a b
4.S3 Since G SL(2, Z) we have be = - 1 and so b = ±1 . Suppose that
c 0
b = — 1. Then we have
a b\ \a -1 1 a 0 -1
C 1 = sa* € ( $ , * ) •
L °J L OJ 1 0 1 II 1 0
Suppose now that 6 = 1 . Then if
a 1
-1 0
we have, by the above,
,2 ."-1 0|| a 1 -a -1
0 -1 -1 0 1 0 €<«,<)•
Consequently, m G (s, t).

Now choose n such that \b 4- nc?| < \d\. Then if
a b
m = c d
we have
n||a a + nc b + ud
0 1 || c d c d
92
we have
1 n a b a + nc b + nd
snm = 0 1 c d
and hence
a + nc b + nd\ -c -d
tsnm-.
1 0 c d + nc b + nd I"
Now tsnm G ( s , t ) by i n d u c t i o n , so m E (s,t).

Writing
1 -1
u = st =
1 0
we have
-1 0 -1 0
0 -1 0 -1
To show that we can assume that w has the given form, note that
conjugation will transform words with different beginnings or endings
to this form.
That ut = -s follows by a simple matrix multiplication. Thus, putting
v = u~1t, we have
w = u±1tu±1 • • 'U±xt — ± - - • snivni+1s
where . . . ,ra^,n 8 + i , . . . are positive integers. But
1 a 1 0
0 1 ' fi 1
so any product of the above form is a matrix whose entries are all non-
negative and, provided both s and t occur, the trace exceeds 2. Hence
w ^ ±1 and so
PSL(2 ) Z) = (fl,f | u3 = P = J ) ,
since we have shown that no further non-trivial relations can hold.
93
Test paper 1
Time allowed : 3 hours

(Allocate 20 marks for each question)
Prove that the centre of a group of order pn is non-trivial. Let if be a
finite group and let H be a subgroup of if. If Pi is a Sylow p-subgroup
of H, explain why Pi < P 2 for some Sylow p-subgroup P 2 of K.
Now suppose that H satisfies the condition that if h £ H and h ^ 1
then MKW < H. By considering the centre of P2, or otherwise, show
that Pi = P 2 .
Deduce that h.c.f.(|#|, \K : H\) = 1.
Let the quaternion group Qs be given by the presentation
Qs = (a,6 I a4 = 1, a2 = 62, a6a = 6).
Show that the mappings a, /3 defined by

a(a) = ab, a(b) = a
/J(a) = 6, /?(&) = a
extend to automorphisms of Q8-

Let G = (a, /?}. Prove that G is a group of order 24 isomorphic to
£4. Show also that
G~
Suppose that A is a set of generators of a group G and that H is a
proper subgroup of G. Given an element a of A not belonging to JET, let
j? be the set obtained from A by replacing each x € A n if by ax. Show
that B is a set of generators of G. If A is finite and has n elements,
show that B has at most n elements.
Deduce that
(i) if G has n generators then it has n generators lying outside a given
proper subgroup;
(ii) if H is a proper subgroup of G then G\H generates G.
(a) Prove that every subgroup H of an (additive) cyclic group G is
cyclic and show that if a is a generator of G and H has index n then
na is a generator of H. If the order of G is ra, show that b is also a
generator of G if and only if b = ra and a = sb for some integers r, s
both coprime to m. Deduce that if, in addition, G is a p-group and d is
any generator of H then there is a generator c of G such that nc = d.
(b) Let p be a fixed prime. Suppose that G is an additive abelian
group with the property that it contains precisely one subgroup Ha of
order pa for each a, and no other subgroups. Show that Ha C Ha+i
and that Ha is cyclic. Deduce using (a) that there are generators XQ —
0, z i , . . .,£<*,... of HQ = {0}, # ! , . . . , # « , . . . such that p z a + i = z a for
every a.
Consider the additive group
of rational numbers. Show that /3/pa i—• fixa describes a group mor-
phism from Q to G and deduce that G ~ Q / 2 .
Express the abelian group
G={x,y,z | z V * 9 = re2?/4;*3 = x4y4zG, xy = yx, yz = zy, zx = xz)
as a direct product of cyclic groups.

Suppose that a is a morphism from G such that Im a is of odd order.
Show that Im a is cyclic.
Let H be a group in which g2 — 1 for every g G H. Show that H is
abelian. If the order of H is finite show that it is 2n for some positive
integer n.
95
Test paper 2

1 Let ( j b e a finite group of order pmn where p is a prime that is cop rime
to n. What do the three Sylow theorems tell you about the p-subgroups
of G?
Show, by using induction on the order or otherwise, that a maximal
subgroup of a finite p-group P is normal in P .
Supose that G has at least three Sylow p-subgroups Pi,P2,P3 where
Pi n P 2 and P2C\Pz are maximal subgroups of index p in P 2 . Show that
Pi = (hk)-lPzhk where h G MG{P2 n P 3 ) and k G MG{Pi n P 2 ).
2 Prove that every subgroup of a nilpotent group is subnormal. Deduce
that a maximal subgroup of a nilpotent group is normal.
Let G b e a group in which every finitely generated subgroup is nilpo-
tent, and let M be a maximal subgroup of G. Suppose that M is not
normal in G. Prove that there is an element x of G' with x £ M. Writ-
ing x = Iir=i \y*i zi\> P r o v e that {xj yt, Zi | % = 1,..., n) is contained in
a subgroup H of G where
H = {x) d\,..., a m | chi G Af, i = 1 , . . . , TYI ).
Let A = {a\,..., am ) and let L be maximal in H with respect to the

property that A < L and x ^ L. Show that L is a maximal subgroup of
H, that xeH', and that H' < L.
Deduce from the above that a maximal subgroup of a group in which
every finitely generated subgroup is nilpotent is normal.
3 Find permutations x, y G A5 with x2 = 1, y3 = 1, (&y)6 = 1. Show that
A& has a presentation
By considering the matrices
10 8 5 7
X = Y =
8 1 5 5
in SL(2,11), find a subgroup of PSL(2,11) that is isomorphic to A5.

An additive (resp. multiplicative) abelian group G is said to be divisible
if for every x G G and every non-zero integer n there exists y G G with
ny-x (resp. yn = x).
Prove that the additive group of rationals is divisible, and that so also
is the multiplicative group of complex numbers of modulus 1.
Show that no proper subgroup of the rationals is divisible.
Show that the group K with presentation
(a,b r c,d | ab = d, be = a, cd = 6, da = c)
is cyclic of order 5. Hence or otherwise find the order of the group with
presentation
L = (a,6,c,d | ab — d, ad — c, be = a, cd = 6, da = c).
Show that the group M with presentation
( a,6, c | abcabc = a, bcabca = 6, cabcab = c)
is cyclic and determine its order.
97
Test paper 3

(Allocate 20 marks per question)
Let G be a finite group and let p be a prime dividing the order of G.
Let P%,..., P r be the Sylow p-subgroups of G. Show that the mapping
fig from { P i , . . . , Pr} to itself defined by
is a bijection. Show also that the mapping 0 from G to the group of bi-
jections on { P i , . . . , P r } given by ®(g) = fig is a morphism whose kernel
is the largest normal subgroup of G that is contained in the normaliser
in G of a Sylow p-subgroup.
Let ( ? b e a group of order 168 which has no non-trivial proper nor-
mal subgroups. Show that G cannot be represented non-trivially as a
permutation group on fewer than seven letters. Show that G can be
represented as a permutation group on eight letters.
Let G be a nilpotent group and H a normal abelian subgroup of G with
the property that H is not properly contained in any normal abelian
subgroup of G. Prove that H={geG \ (\/h e H) [gt h] = 1}.
Deduce that H is not properly contained in any abelian subgroup of
G and that Aut G contains a subgroup isomorphic to G/H.
Show that if p is prime then t| : 2 —» 2 / p 2 induces a morphism from
G* = SL(2,2) to the group G* = SL(2,2 P ).
Given that in both G* and G* the centre is the subgroup generated
by
r
-l o
0 -1
explain why the above morphism induces a morphism
Show that conjugation by the element
0 1
-1 0
induces an automorphism r of order 2 of Ker# p . Prove also that
0 1
-1 0
and that T(X) = x implies x = 1. By considering the matrices
n „ , and
0 1 pi
show that Ker# p is not abelian.

Let G be a finite group and let r be an automorphism of G such that
r 2 = 1 and r{x) = x implies x = 1. Show that if X~1T(X) = y~lr{y)
then x = y. Deduce that r inverts every element of G. Hence prove that
G is an abelian group of odd order.
Prove that every quotient group of a nilpotent group is nilpotent, and
that every finite p-group is nilpotent.
Find the order of the group
G n = ( a , b | a2" = b 2 = (ab)2 = l ) .
Prove that Gn/Z(Gn) ^ Gn-i. Hence show that Gn is nilpotent of class

n.
(a,b,c | a14b3cn = a8b~3cn = a3b3 - 1, ab = ba, be = c&, ca = ac)
as a direct product of cyclic groups. Show that the subgroup of elements

of finite order is cyclic and find a generator for it.
99
Test paper 4

If G is a finite group and £T, K are subgroups of G prove that
\H\\K\
=
jSTTp
If G is a group of order 48 with more than one Sylow 2-subgroup,
find the possible number of Sylow 2-subgroups. If Pi, P 2 are distinct
Sylow 2-subgroups, prove that |Pi n P 2 | = 8. Show also that P1P2 C
NG{P\ nP 2 ). By considering \NG{PI ^ 2 ) ! show that Pi n P 2 is a normal
subgroup of G.
Hence show that any group of order 48 has a proper non-trivial normal
subgroup.
Show that the number of elements in a conjugacy class in a finite p-
group is a power of p. Deduce that a non-trivial finite p-group has a
non-trivial centre.
Show that if P is a non-trivial finite p-group then P contains sub-
groups P i , . . . , Pfc such that
P = Pi DP2D • • O f t = {l},
each Pi is a normal subgroup of P, and |P,- : P,-+i | = p for % = 1 , . . . , A—1.

Let G be a group with G* < Z{G). Prove that, for all x,yeG and all
integers n > 1,
Suppose now that G = (x,y). Prove that if g € G then g = xayb[x, y]c
for some integers a, 6, c.
Deduce that if H is the subgroup of SL(3, Z) given by
1 6 c
0 1 a a,6,c
0 0 1
then # : H —> G described by
1 6 c
0 1 a = xayb[x,yY
0 0 1
is a surjective group morphism. Deduce that G is a quotient group of

H.
If H and if are nilpotent groups prove that so also is H x K. What is
the class of H x K in terms of the classes of H and Kl
Let M, JV be normal subgroups of a group G. Prove that the mapping
G —> G/N x G/M given by # i->- (gfiV, $fM) is a morphism. Hence show
that if G/N and G/M are nilpotent then so also is G/(N n M). What
can you say about the class of G/{NC\M) in terms of the classes of G/N
and G/Ml
G = (a, 6, c | a2b2cQ = a 4 6 6 c 4 = a 6 6 4 c 4 = 1, a& = 6a, ac = ca, 6c = cb)

as a direct product of cyclic groups.
Find the number of elements of order 11 in G. Show that every element
of order 11 in G is of the form a2ab2^c21 for some integers a,/?, 7. Find
an element of order 11 in G and express it in terms of the generators
a,6,c.
101

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Algebra through practice

The right of the

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

First published 1985

Re-issued in this digitally printed version 2008

Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 83—24013

ISBN 978-0-521-27290-2 paperback

The aim of this series of problem-solvers is to provide a selection of

Courses on abstract algebra can be very different in style and content.

References useful for Book 5

The isomorphism and correspondence theorems for groups should be

A/(A n N) ~ NA/N and G/N ~ {G/K)/{N/K).

MG{H) = {geG | {VheH) g-lhg e H)

is called the normaliser of H in G. It is the largest subgroup of G in which

G={a,b | a2 = 63 = 1, a~Ha = 6 " 1 ) .

1.1 Let G be a group, let H be a subgroup of G and let if be a subgroup

Deduce that the intersection of a finite number of subgroups of finite

1.6 Let G be a group. Prove that

1.8 Let n be a prime power and let Gn be a cyclic group of order n. If H

Prove that HQ is a normal subgroup of G and that if if is a subgroup

Prove that H is a non-abelian group under matrix multiplication (called

a = (1234) (5678) and b = (1537) (2846).

Determine the order of this subgroup and show that it is isomorphic to

Deduce that |SL(2,p)| = p(p -

1.19 Let F be a field in which 1 + 1 ^ 0 and consider the group SL(2,F)

G/N ~ A/N x B/N.

where p i , . . . , p& are distinct primes then

where Hi = {x E G \ xv^x — 1} for i = 1 , . . . , /:. Show also that if r

is a subgroup of G? Can A be a normal subgroup? Can A be a subgroup

1.39 Let G be a group and let H and K be conjugate subgroups of G. Prove

1.41 Suppose that N is a normal subgroup of a group G with the property

An isomorphism / : G —> G is called an automorphism on G. The auto-

2.10 Find all groups G with Aut G = {1}.

Deduce that every normal subgroup of G is characteristic.

2.28 Let G be a group with a subgroup if of index n in G. Show that there

Given subgroups A, B of a group G we obtain the subgroup

Zo = {l}, (V»>1) Zi/Zi_1=Z(G/Zi-1)

3.1 Let G be a group. Establish each of the following results concerning

Deduce that if H, K, L are normal subgroups of G then

(d) Define [a,6,c,] = [[a,6],c]. Prove that

[a, 6c] = [a,c][a,6][a,6,c]

with [HUG] < Hi+} and f)Z} ft = {!}•

Hence show that if A is a subgroup of a group G then [G, A] is normal

3.10 Let p be a prime. Prove that every finite p-group is nilpotent.

3.12 Let X, Y, Z be subgroups of a group G and let

and deduce that [A, B] is abelian.

3.18 Let M be a maximal subgroup of a finite soluble group G. Let K be the

<<z,6 | a2 = 1, b8 = 1, aba = b7)

Tn{F) = (ti:f{a) | 1 < i < j < n, a G F).

Prove that Tn(F) is the subgroup of GL(n,F) consisting of all upper

For 1 < k < n - 1 let Hk = {ti3{a) | j - i > k, a e F ) . P r o v e t h a t

Tn{F) = Ht > H2 > • • • > # n _x > {1}

is a central series for Tn(F).

G = Ai > A2 > > A r + S + 1 = {1},

Given an abelian group G with a presentation

If G is a group then G/G1 is abelian, and G is called perfect if GjG1 is

4.1 Let G be the abelian group

Show that G is abelian. Describe the structure of G.

Show that G is an abelian group containing elements of prime order for

(x,y | x2 = {xyf, (sy'syi^

(a,6 | an = 1, b2 = (a&)3, (o*( n+1 )6a 4 6) a = 1),