CONVERSATION

ANALYSIS (CA)
Lecture 5
Discourse Analysis
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 Introduction:
Focus and Methodology and Goals
• Focus on Conversation in Discourse Analysis:
• A conversation is the prototypical form of language usage, foundational in language acquisition.
• Sociological Approach:
• Interest in how language is used in social interaction, rather than in developing linguistic theory.
• Emphasis on empirical data from recordings of naturally occurring talk, transcribed in detail.
• Methodology and Goals:
• Inductive, data-driven approach. Inductive Approach: involves deriving general principles or theories
from specific observations or data points
• Aim to describe social interaction from a user's perspective, focusing on actions performed through
language.

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 Conceptualization, Areas and
Contribution of CA:
• Conceptualization of Conversation:
• Viewed as a series of speech actions forming coherent social interaction.
• It does not use an established theoretical framework for categorizing language in analysis.
• Utilizes categories employed by participants in the interaction.
• Areas of Interest in CA:
• Actions such as asking, answering, disagreeing, offering, requesting, teasing, complying, noticing,
promising, etc.
• Reveals systematic rules and architecture underlying conversation.
• Contributions of CA:
• Uncovered a rich body of facts about conversation.
• Demonstrated that conversation follows systematic rules, creating an elaborate architecture of
interaction.
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1- Methodology and transcription system
◦ The methodology of Conversation Analysis (CA) involves meticulous
transcription of naturally occurring audio- or video-recorded talk.
◦ Analysts become increasingly familiar with the data through
repeated playing of the recording during detailed transcription.
◦ The analysis proceeds through stages including identification of
conversational phenomena, assembly of preliminary collections,
subset breakdown, and analysis of clear and less clear examples.
◦ A special transcription system includes symbols to represent time
gaps, pauses, and other features of talk-in-interaction.
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2- Transcribing Conversational Speech: Symbol Key

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2- Transcribing Conversational Speech: Symbol Key

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3- Turn Taking:
◦ Turn-taking is the starting point for Conversation Analysis (CA), as it observes
that conversation takes place with speakers taking turns at talk.
◦ Turn boundaries are marked when one speaker stops talking and another
takes over, with minimal gaps or overlap during the exchange of turns.
◦ Turns are made up of turn construction units (TCUs), consisting of various
linguistic and non-verbal elements such as silence, laughter, and bodily
movements.
◦ The diversity of TCUs includes sentential, phrasal, lexical, and non-verbal
elements, contributing to the complexity of conversation and turn-taking.
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 Turn construction units (TCUs) in a conversation.
◦ In the previous example the exchange illustrates the principles of turn-taking and the use of turn construction
units (TCUs) in conversation.
◦ Ther initiates the conversation by asking "What kind of work do you do?" (T1).
◦ Mother responds with "Food service" (T2).
◦ Ther seeks further clarification with "At?" (T3).
◦ Mother provides additional information about the location, "post office cafeteria downtown main post office on
Redwood" (T4).
◦ Ther acknowledges the response with "Okay" (T5).
◦ This conversation demonstrates the sequential organization of talk, where each participant takes turns at talk,
and the use of TCUs to construct meaningful conversational contributions.
◦ The analysis of such interactions provides insights into the intricacies of spoken language and the social actions
performed through conversation.
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 The rules for turn-taking in
Conversation Analysis (CA)
The rules are as follows:

◦ 1. At the transition-relevance place of a turn:

◦ A. Where the next speaker is selected by the current speaker: the current speaker must stop talking
and the next speaker must take over.
◦ B. Where the next speaker is not selected by the current speaker: any speaker may, but need not, self-
select, with the first speaker acquiring rights to a turn.
◦ C. Where the next speaker is not selected by the current speaker: the current speaker may, but need
not, continue if no other speaker self-selects.

◦ 2. Whichever choice has been made, then 1. A,B,C come into operation again.
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◦ These rules are not consciously applied or known by interactants but are naturally

acquired, implicitly understood, and automatically employed each time interaction

takes place.

◦ The rules are general enough to apply to different settings, numbers of participants, sets

of relationships, topics, and contexts. However, some institutionalized contexts may have

their own turn-taking rules, and there is a possibility that the rules may differ across cultures.

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 Example:
◦
A: "Did you watch the game last night?"
◦ B: "Yes, I did.“
◦ A: "What did you think of the final score?"
◦ B: "It was unexpected."
◦ A: "Do you think they'll win the championship?“
◦ B: "Possibly.“
◦ In this example, after A asks a question, B responds, and then A asks another question. This
demonstrates the natural flow of turn-taking in conversation, where speakers take turns to
contribute to the ongoing interaction. The rules for turn-taking come into play as each
speaker selects the next speaker or continues based on the implicit understanding of
transition relevance, allowing for the smooth progression of the conversation.
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4- Adjacency pairs
◦ Adjacency pairs are closely related pairs of conversational turns that are expected to occur
together.
◦ They exhibit the following features:
◦ 1. They consist of two-utterance length.
◦ 2. The component utterances are positioned adjacent to each other.
◦ 3. Different speakers produce each utterance.
◦ 4. The first pair parts (FPPs) precede the second pair parts (SPPs).
◦ 5. The pair type of an FPP is relevant to the selection among SPPs.

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Examples of adjacency pairs:
◦ Greeting – Greeting: "Hello" – "Hi“
◦ Question – Answer: "How are you?" – "I'm fine"
◦ Request – Acceptance/Rejection: "Can you help me?" – "Yes, of course" / "No, I'm busy“
◦ Invitation – Acceptance/Rejection: "Would you like to come to the party?" – "Yes, I'd love to" / "No, I
have other plans" –
◦ Complaint – Apology/Denial: "This food is cold" – "I'm sorry, let me heat it up" / "I'm sorry, there's
nothing I can do"

These pairs demonstrate the sequential and interdependent nature of conversational turns, where
the first part of the pair sets up an expectation for the second part, and the second part is relevantly
selected based on the first part.

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In the provided examples, the First Pair Parts (FPPs)
and Second Pair Parts (SPPs) can be identified as
follows:
◦
1. Greeting – Greeting: - FPP: "Hello" - SPP: "Hi"
◦ 2. Question – Answer: - FPP: "How are you?" - SPP: "I'm fine"
◦ 3. Request – Acceptance/Rejection: - FPP: "Can you help me?" - SPP (Acceptance): "Yes, of
course" - SPP (Rejection): "No, I'm busy"
◦ 4. Invitation – Acceptance/Rejection: - FPP: "Would you like to come to the party?" - SPP
(Acceptance): "Yes, I'd love to" - SPP (Rejection): "No, I have other plans"
◦ 5. Complaint – Apology/Denial: - FPP: "This food is cold" - SPP (Apology): "I'm sorry, let me
heat it up" - SPP (Denial): "I'm sorry, there's nothing I can do"

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5- Conditional relevance:

◦ Conditional relevance in conversation analysis refers to the principle that one

utterance sets up an expectation for a relevant following utterance.

◦ If the expected type of utterance does not occur, it is considered an "event" and is

notably absent. This concept highlights the interdependence and sequential nature

of conversational turns, where the occurrence or non-occurrence of specific

responses is significant.

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Examples of conditional relevance in
conversation:
◦ Greeting – Greeting: When someone says "Hello," the conditional relevance is for
the other person to respond with a greeting such as "Hi" or "Hello" in return.
◦ Question – Answer: If someone asks "What's your favorite color?" the
conditional relevance is for the other person to provide an answer such as "Blue"
or "Green."
◦ Request – Acceptance/Rejection: When someone asks "Can you pass me the
salt?" the conditional relevance is for the other person to respond with either
"Sure, here you go" or "Sorry, it's too far for me to reach."

◦ In each of these examples, the first part of the adjacency pair sets up an expectation
for a specific type of response, demonstrating the conditional relevance of
conversational turns.
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6- Preference organization
◦ Preference organization in conversation analysis refers to the idea that
some responses are preferred over others in certain adjacency pairs.
◦ This means that there is a structural preference for certain types of
responses, which can be seen in the way that speakers produce and
respond to turns in conversation.
◦ Preferred responses are typically simpler, while dispreferred responses
tend to be marked by various kinds of complexity, including delays,
prefaces, and accounts.
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Analysis of the preference organization
in the previous example:
◦ The first is an invitation and straightforward (preferred) acceptance,
while the second is another invitation, but this time followed by a
(dispreferred) decline.

◦ In the second of these examples, with the dispreferred SPP decline, we

can see a number of delaying tactics and, in fact, there is no direct
rejection at all. Dispreferred declines can be seen as rude or hostile,
so extra conversational work is required in their performance.

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7- Expansion Sequences:
◦ Expansion sequences in conversation analysis refer to the ways in
which adjacency pairs can be expanded through pre-sequences,
post-sequences, and insert expansions.
◦ These expansions are additional sequences that prepare the
ground for, extend, or clarify the base adjacency pairs. They
contribute to the complexity and richness of conversational
interactions.

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◦ 1. Pre-expansions: Pre-sequences prepare the ground for what is to follow. They may be specific to
particular actions, such as pre-invitations, pre-requests, and pre-announcements. For example, a pre-
invitation might be "I've got two tickets for the rugby match," which sets the stage for the invitation to
follow.
◦ 2. Post-expansions: Post-sequences extend the base adjacency pairs. They occur after the completion of
the base pair and serve to elaborate or provide additional information. For instance, after a request for
help, a post-expansion might be "I really need assistance with this project, it's quite urgent."
◦ 3. Insert expansions: Insert expansions, also known as insertion sequences, are sequences that are
nested inside base adjacency pairs. They function to clarify something on the part of the addressee before
responding to the first pair part. For example, in response to a question about appearance, an insert
expansion might seek clarification before providing a detailed response.
◦ Expansion sequences contribute to the nuanced and layered nature of conversational interactions,
allowing for the expression of additional information, clarification, and elaboration within the structure
of adjacency pairs.

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8- Topic Management
◦ Topic management in conversation analysis involves the initiation, pursuit,
and shift of topics within conversational interactions.
◦ It encompasses the ways in which participants introduce, develop, transition
between, and conclude topics during their exchanges.
◦ Effective topic management is essential for maintaining coherence and
relevance in conversations.

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 8- Topic Management
◦ 1. Topic initiation: Participants use various devices to introduce new topics, such as topic initial elicitors (e.g.,
"What's new?" or "How are you doing?"), specific news inquiries, news announcements, pre-topical sequences, and
setting talk. These devices serve to introduce new subjects for discussion and engage other participants in the
conversation.
◦ 2. Topic pursuit: When a topic is introduced, participants may further insist on pursuing the topic if it is not
immediately taken up. This can involve using follow-up questions, specific news inquiries, or other strategies to
encourage continued discussion on the introduced topic.
◦ 3. Topic shift: Topic shift occurs when a participant proposes moving to a new topic within a conversation. This can
happen abruptly or gradually. Disjunctive markers, such as "Anyway," "Speaking of X," or "That reminds me of,"
may be used to signal a shift to a new topic. Effective topic management allows participants to navigate through
different subjects, maintain coherence, and ensure that the conversation remains relevant and engaging. It involves
the skillful introduction, development, transition, and conclusion of topics within conversational interactions.

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9- Stories:
◦ In conversation analysis, stories are a type of longer turn that individuals tell to
convey information, entertain, or engage others in conversation.
◦ Stories are not isolated events, but rather occur within the context of ongoing
conversation.
◦ Speakers need to create a space within the ongoing action to insert the story and
establish that they are going to take a longer turn.
◦ Recipients need to indicate their understanding of the ongoing talk as they listen, by
using continuers, which indicate that they are forgoing the opportunity to take a
complete turn.
◦ They also need to do this at the end of a story, to indicate their understanding that the
story has been completed, show their appreciation of its meaning, and its potential to
generate further talk.

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 Effective storytelling
◦ Effective storytelling involves the use of various techniques, such as setting the scene,
introducing characters, and building suspense.
◦ Speakers may also use evaluative language, such as adjectives and adverbs, to convey their
feelings about the events they are describing. The use of direct speech, or reported speech,
can also be used to add authenticity and vividness to the story.

◦ Overall, stories are an important part of conversational interactions, allowing individuals to

share experiences, convey information, and engage others in conversation. Effective
storytelling involves the use of various techniques to create a compelling narrative that
captures the attention of the listener and contributes to the richness and complexity of the
conversation.
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 10- Repair
◦ In conversation analysis, repair refers to the suspension of ongoing talk in order to address some
form of trouble, which can be related to hearing, production, or understanding. It is important to
note that repair is not viewed as a negative phenomenon indicative of deficiency, but rather as a
natural self-regulating device that is prevalent in all forms of talk.

◦ Repair can take various forms, including self-initiated repair, other-initiated repair, and other-
repair.
◦ Self-initiated repair occurs when a speaker recognizes an error or problem in their own speech
and takes steps to correct it.
◦ Other-initiated repair occurs when a listener or interlocutor signals a problem or difficulty in the
speaker's talk and requests clarification or repetition.
◦ Other-repair involves a third party intervening to address a problem in the ongoing
conversation.

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◦ Example:
Self-initiated repair:
◦ Speaker A: "I need to buy some apples, I mean oranges, no wait, I meant bananas.“
◦ In this example, Speaker A recognizes their own error in speech and initiates a self-repair by correcting the mistake in real-time.

◦ Other-initiated repair:
◦ Speaker A: "I went to the, um, you know, that place, uh, the... furniture store.“
◦ Speaker B: "The furniture store?"
◦ In this example, Speaker A experiences a hesitation or difficulty in their speech, and Speaker B initiates other-repair by seeking
clarification or repetition to address the problem in the ongoing conversation.

◦ Other-repair:
◦ Speaker A: "I was at the park with Sarah, and then, um, oh, what's the name of that place... the botanical garden!“
◦ Speaker B: "You mean the botanical garden?“
◦ Speaker C: "Yes, that's it."
◦ In this example, Speaker A experiences a moment of hesitation, and Speaker B and Speaker C intervene to provide the correct term,
demonstrating other-repair by addressing the problem in the ongoing conversation.
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Repair sequences

◦ Repair sequences can involve a range of strategies, such as repetition,

rephrasing, clarification requests, and confirmation checks. These
strategies are used to resolve the trouble and ensure that
communication is successful. Repair is an integral part of
conversational interactions, allowing participants to address and
resolve issues that may arise during the course of their talk.

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 Examples:
◦ Repetition:
◦ Speaker A: "I need to go to the, uh, the, um, post office.“
◦ Speaker B: "The post office?"
◦ In this example, Speaker A uses repetition to correct the hesitation and clarify the intended term, and Speaker B
confirms the term through repetition.
◦ Rephrasing:
◦ Speaker A: "I have a meeting at, uh, 3 o'clock."
◦ Speaker B: "You mean you have a meeting at 3 o'clock?"
◦ In this example, Speaker A rephrases the incomplete utterance to provide a clearer and more coherent
statement, and Speaker B confirms understanding by rephrasing the statement as a question.

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 Examples:
◦ Clarification requests:
◦ Speaker A: "I need to pick up the, uh, the package from the, um, delivery service.“
◦ Speaker B: "Which delivery service?"
◦ In this example, Speaker A experiences hesitation, and Speaker B seeks clarification by requesting
more specific information to address the trouble in the conversation.
◦ Confirmation checks:
◦ Speaker A: "I have to meet with, uh, John, I mean, James.“
◦ Speaker B: "James?“
◦ In this example, Speaker A corrects the error in speech, and Speaker B uses a confirmation check to
confirm the corrected term and ensure mutual understanding.
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 THANK
YOU!
SELECTED
READING:

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