Special Function, Tensor, Ring

INNOVATIVE INSTITUTE OF MATHEMATICS
(RING THEORY)
oy;] iw.kkaZdh; izkUr rFkk {ks= ¼QhYM½ Rings, integral Domains and Fields %&
oy; ¼fjax½ dh ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition of a Ring½ %&

ekuk fd R ,d vfjDr leqPp; ftlesa nks f}pj lafØ;k,¡ ¼Two binary operations½ ftudksa Øe”k% ;ksx ( + ) rFkk
xq.ku (.) ls izdV djrs gS oy; dgykrk gS] ;fn og fuEufyf[kr x`ghrksa ¼postulates½ dk ikyu djs
R1 : ;ksx dk lkgp;Z ¼Associativity of Addition½ ( a + b ) + c = a + (b + c ) a, b, c  R

R2 : rRled vo;o dk vfLrRo ¼Existence of identity½  a  R,  0  R bl izdkj gS fd a + 0 = 0 + a = a  a  R
R3 : izfrykse dk vfLrRo ¼Existence of Inverse½% izR;sd a  R ds fy, leqPp; R esa ,d ,slk vo;o b ;ksT; izfrykse fo|eku
gS fd a + b = b + a = 0
R4 : ;ksx Øefofues; ¼Commutativity of Addition½ a + b = b + a a, b  R
R5 : xa.q kkd dk lkgp;Z ¼Associativity of Multiplication½ a  (b  c ) = ( a  b )  c a, b, c  R
R6 : xq.ku dh ;ksx ij caVu”khyrk ¼Distributivity of Multiplication over addition½
a  ( b + c ) = a  b + a  c ¼nf{k.k caVu”khyrk½
(b + c )  a = b  a + c  a ¼oke caVu”khyrk½
 a, b, c  R
mijksDr oy; dh ifjHkk’kk ls Li’V gS fd vfjDr leqPp; R nks f}pj lafØ;k ds lkFk ,d oy; dgykrk gS ;fn
+ ;ksx f}pj lafØ;k ds fy,  xq.ku f}pj lafØ;k ds fy,
Øefofues; ¼vkcsyh½ xzqi gks lkgp;Z fu;e dk ikyu djrk gks
rFkk
nf{k.k rFkk oke caVu”khyrk gks
vFkkZr~ a  (b + c ) = a  b + a  c
(b + c )  a = b  a + c  a a, b, c, R
fVIi.kh ¼Remark½ %& oy;  R, +,   esa ;ksfxd rRled vo;o dks fpUg '0' ls izdV djrs gSA rFkk bls oy; dk “kwU; ¼Zero of
the ring ½ dgrs gSA lkFk gh a  R dk ;ksfxd izfrykse − a gSA rFkk bls a dk _.k ¼negative of a½
dgrs gSA
Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 1|Page

Innovative Institute of Mathematics, Ground Floor Krishna Tower, Gopalpura Mod, Near Big Bazaar, Jaipur (Raj.)
Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
fo”ks’k izdkj ds oy; ¼Special Types of Rings ½] iw.kkZadh; izkUr rFkk {ks= ¼Integral domain and Field½ %&
1. Øefofues; oy; ¼Commutative rings½ %& ;fn oy; R esa xq.ku lafØ;k Øefofues; gks vFkkZr~ a  b = b  a a, b  R rks
oy; R Øefofues; oy; dgykrk gSA
2. rRledh oy; ;k bdkbZ lfgr oy; ¼Ring with unity½ %& ;fn oy;  R, +.  esa xq.ku lafØ;k ds fy, rRled vo;o fo|eku
gks] rks R rRledh oy; ;k bdkbZ lfgr oy; dgykrk gSA R dh xq.ku rRled vo;o R dh bdkbZ ¼unit½ dgykrh gSA R dh
bdkbZ dks 1 ls izdV djrs gSA ;gk¡ /;ku jgs fd R dh bdkbZ rFkk iw.kkZd dh bdkbZ 1 lnSo leku ugha gS rFkk bldksa Li’Vr;k /;ku
esa j[kuk pkfg,A
3. “kwU; Hkktd lfgr oy; ¼Ring with zero divisor½ %& ,d oy; R “kwU; Hkktd lfgr oy; dgykrk gS ;fn R ds ,sls nks
vo;o a , b fo|eku gksa fd a  0, b  0 rFkk a.b = 0 bl fLFkfr esa a, R dk ,d oke “kwU; Hkktd ¼left zero divisor½
dgykrk gS rFkk b, R dk ,d nf{k.k “kwU; Hkktd ¼Right zero divisor½ dgykrk gSA
4. “kwU; Hkktd jfgr oy; ¼Ring without zero divisor½ %& ,d oy; R “kwU; Hkktd jfgr gksxk ;fn a  b = 0  ;k rks a = 0
;k b = 0 vFkkZr~ ,d oy; R “kwU; Hkktd jfgr oy; dgykrk gS ;fn R esa ,sls nks vo;o fo|eku gksuk lEHko ugha gks fd
a  0, b  0 rFkk a  b = 0
5. iw.kkZadh; izkUr ¼Mkseus ½¼Integral Domain½ %& ,d oy; tks fd bdkbZ lfgr gks rFkk “kwU; Hkktd jfgr rFkk Øefofues; gks rks ml
oy; dks iw.kkZadh; izkUr dgrs gSA
6. {ks= ;k QhYM ¼Field½ %& de ls de nks vo;o okys ,d oy; R dks {ks= dgrs gS ;fn R ds “kwU;sÙkj vo;o xq.ku lafØ;k ds fy,
Øefofues; xzqi gksa rFkk mlesa izR;sd “kwU;srj vo;o dk xq.kukRed izfrykse fo|eku gks] vFkkZr~ ,d oy; R {ks= dgykrk gS ;fn blesa
de ls de nks vo;o gS rFkk xq.ku lafØ; ds fy,
¼i½Øefofues; gSA
¼ii½blesa bdkbZ vo;o gSA
¼iii½blds izR;sd “kwU;srj ¼non-zero½ vo;o dk xq.kukRed izfrykse R esa fo|eku gSA
vFkok
¼i½  R, +  ,d Øefofues; xzqi gSA
¼ii½  R − 0,   ,d Øefofues; xqzi gSA
¼iii½  a, b, c  R, a  ( b + a ) = a  b + a  c rFkk ( b + c )  a = b  a + c  a
7. foHkktu oy; ;k fo’ke {ks= ¼Division ring or Skew field½ %& de ls de nks vo;o okyk oy; R ,d foHkktu oy; ;k
fo’ke {ks= dgykrk gSA ;fn
¼i½ R bdkbZ lfgr oy; gSA
¼ii½ izR;sd “kwU;srj ¼v”kwU;½ vo;o dk R xq.kukRed izfrykse fo|eku gSA
8. cwfy;u oy; ¼Boolean ring½ %& ,d oy; cwfy;u oy; dgykrk gS ;fn bldk izR;sd vo;o l{ke ¼idempotent½ gS] vFkkZr~
R ,d cwfy;u oy;  a 2 = aa  R.
9. p oy; ( p − ring ) %& ,d oy; R, p − oy; dgykrk gSA ;fn a p = a rFkk pa = 0a  R

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
oy; lEcU/kh ifjHkk’kk,¡ ¼Some definitions Related to a Ring½ %&

1. oy; dk O;qRØe.kh; ¼,dkad½ vo;o ¼Unit of ring½ %&
ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½ %& ,d oy; R tks fd Øefofues; rRled oy; gSA dk vo;o a  R, R esa O;qRØe.kh; vo;o gS ;fn R esa
,d ,slk vo;o b fo|eku gS fd ab = 1 tgk¡ 1, R dk xq.ku lafØ;k dk rRled vo;o gSA mnkgj.kkFkZ%
¼i½ oy; ( Z5 , +5, 5) izR;sd v”kwU; vo;o ,d O;qRØe.kh; gSA
¼ii½ oy; Z esa 1, −1 O;qRØe.kh; gSA
¼iii½ {ks= esa “kwU; vo;o ds vfrfjDr izR;sd vo;o ,dkad ¼O;qRØe.kh;½ vo;o gSA
2. oy; esa fujlu fu;e ¼Cancellation laws in a ring½ %&
ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½ %& ,d oy; ( R, +, ) esa ;ksx dh lafØ;k ds fy, fujlu fu;e lnSo ykxw gksrs gS] D;ksfa d ( R, + ) ,d
a s ;fn fdlh a, b, c  R ds
vcsfy;u xzqi gSA ijUrq xq.ku dh lafØ;k ds fy, ge dgrs gS fd fujlu ykxw gksx
fy,
a  0, ab = ac  b = c ¼oke fujlu fu;e½
a  0, ba = ca  b = c ¼nf{k.k fujlu fu;e½
3. oy; dk dsUnz ¼Centre of a ring½ %&

ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½ %& ,d oy; R ds lHkh Lo;a;qXeh vo;oksa ds leqPp; C dks oy; R dk dsUnz dgrs gSA izrhdkRed :i esa
C = r  R ra = ara  R
4. oy; ds ,d vo;o dk izlkekU;d ¼Normalizer of an element of a ring½ %&

ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½%& ;fn a fdlh oy; R dk ,d vo;o gS rc a  R dk izlkekU; oy; R esa mu lHkh vo;oksa dk leqPp;
gS tks a ls Øefofues; gSA bldksa N ( a ) ls O;Dr djrs gS tgk¡ N ( a ) = r  R ar = ra
oy; ds mnkgj.k ¼Examples of Rings½ %&

1. la[;kvksa dk oy; ¼Rings of numbers½ %& ( z, +, ) , ( Q, +, ) , ( R, +,) rFkk ( C, +, ) lHkh oy; ds mnkgj.k gSA ;gk¡
a ] okLrfod la[;k,¡ rFkk lfEeJ la[;kvksa dks izdV djrs gS rFkk +,  Øe”k% lkekU; ;ksx
Z , Q, R rFkk C Øe”k% iw.kkZd] ifjes;
rFkk xq.ku dks izdV djrs gSA
izR;sd fudk; dks oy; fl) djus gsrq ge ;g ns[krs gS fd
¼i½ ( z, + ) , ( Q, + ) , ( R, + ) , ( C, + ) izR;sd fudk; ,d vkcsyh xzqi gSA
¼ii½ izR;sd fudk;  lafØ;k ds fy, lkgp;Z gSA

¼iii½izR;sd fudk; esa caVu xq.k/keZ lR; gSA
lkFk gh izR;sd la[;kvksa ds fudk; esa xq.kk Øefofues; gS ftlesa mijksDr izR;sd la[;kvkaas dk fudk; Øefofues; oy;
¼Commutative ring½ gSA

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
2. eSfVªDl dk oy; ¼Ring of matrices ½ %& iw.kkZadks ij ;k ifjes; la[;kvkaas ij okLrfod la[;kvksa ij ;k lfEeJ la[;kvksa ij lHkh
oxZ eSfVªDl dk leqPp; R, eSfVªDl ;ksx rFkk eSfVªDl xq.ku ds fy, ,d oy; gSA ;g vØefofues; rFkk rRledh oy; gSA
3. ( z6 , +6 ,6 ) ,d Øefofues; rRledh oy; gSA pw¡fd 3 6 2 = 0 blfy, Z 6 “kwU; Hkktd lfgr gSA
4. Qlyksa dk oy; ¼Ring of functions½ %& 0,1 ij ifjHkkf’kr lHkh okLrfod Qyuksa dk leqPp; S , ;ksx rFkk xq.ku ds fy, ,d
Øefofues; rRledh oy; gS tgk¡ ;ksx rFkk xq.ku fuEu izdkj ifjHkkf’kr gS%
( f + g )( g ) = f ( x ) + g ( x )
( fx )( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x )
5. “kwU; Hkktd ds lfgr oy; dk mnkgj.k ¼Examples of ring with proper zero divisor½
¼i½ oy; 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 , +8 , 8  esa 2, 4 rFkk 6 “kwU; ds Hkktd gS D;ksfa d 2 8 4 = 0, 4 8 2 = 0, 4 8 6 = 0,6 8 4 = 0
¼ii½iw.kkZadksa ij 2  2 dksfV ds oxZ eSfVªDlksa ds leqPp;] eSfVªDl ;ksx rFkk xq.ku ds fy, “kwU; Hkktd lfgr oy; gS D;ksfa d ge ,slh
nks v”kwU; eSfVªDl irk yxk ldrs gS ftudk xq.ku “kwU; eSfVªDl gS tSlsa
 x 0 0 0 
A=  ,B =   x  z
0 0  0 x 
 x 0 0 0  0 0
AB =   0 x  = 0 0 tcfd A  0, B  0
 0 0    
6. “kwU; Hkktd ls jfgr oy; dk mnkgj.k ¼Examples of ring without zero divisor½ %& ( Z , +, ) , ( Q, +, ) , ( R+, ) ,slh rhu
oy; gS tks fd “kwU; Hkktd ds jfgr gS D;ksfd nks v”kwU; la[;kvksa dk xq.kuQy dHkh Hkh “kwU; ugha gksrk gSA
7. iw.kkZdh; izkUr ds mnkgj.k ¼Examples of Integral domain½ %&
¼i½ oy; ( z, +, ) , ( Q, +, ) rFkk ( c, +, ) lc iw.kkZadh; izkUr gSA
¼ii½oy; z3 = (0,1,2, +3 , 3 ) ,d iw.kkZadh; izkUr gSA
8. {ks= ds mnkgj.k ¼Example of field½ %&
¼i½oy; ( z, +, ) , ( Q, +, ) rFkk ( c, +, ) ,sls gS tks fd Øefofues; rRledh oy; gS rFkk izR;sd “kwU;sÙkj vo;o x dk xq.kkRed
izfrykse 1/ x fo|eku gSA vr% mijksDRk lHkh {ks= gSA
¼ii½oy; Z3 = 0,1,2 , +3 , 3  ,d {ks= gSA

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
oy; ds izkjfEHkd xq.k/keZ ¼Elementary Properties of a Ring½ %&

s ¼Theorem½ 1 %& ;fn  R, +,   ,d oy; gS ftlesa a, b, c  R gS rks fl) dhft,%
ize;
¼i½ a  0 = 0  a = 0
¼ii½ a  ( −b ) = − ( a  b ) = ( −a )  b
¼iii½ ( −a )  ( −b ) = a  b
¼iv½ a  ( b − c ) = a  b − a  c
¼v½ ( b − c )  a = b  a − c  a
ize;
s ¼Theorem½ 2 %& fl) dhft, fd oy; R “kwU; Hkktd jfgr gksxh ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn R esa fujlu fu;e ykxw gksrs gSA
vFkok ¼or½
fl) dhft, fd bdkbZ lfgr Øefofues; oy; R iw.kkZdh; izkUr gS] ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn
a  0, ab = ac  b = ca, b, c  R.
miifr ¼Proof½ %& izfrcU/kkas dh vko”;drk ¼Necessary conditions½ ekuk fd R “kwU; Hkktd jfgr gSA ekuk fd a, b, c  R bl
izdkj ds vo;o gS fd
a  b = a  c, a  0
vc a  b = a  c  a  b + − ( a  c ) = ( a  c ) + − ( a  c )
 a  b + a  ( −c ) = 0  a  (b − c ) = 0
pw¡fd R “kwU; Hkktd jfgr gS rFkk a  0 blfy, b − c = 0 vFkkZr~ b = c
vr% R eas oke fulu fu;e lR; gSA
blh izdkj nf{k.k ¼nkfgu½ fujlu fu;e lR; gSA
izfrcU/kksa dh i;kZIrrk ¼Sufficient conditions½%& ekuk fd oy; R esa fujlu fu;e lR; gS rks
;fn lEHko gks rks ekuk a, b  R; a  0, b  0 rFkk a  b = 0 ........(i )

vc a0 = 0 .....(ii )
(i ) rFkk ( ii ) ls a  b = a  0  b = 0
tks fd fojks/kkRed ¼Contradiciton½ gSA
vr% R “kwU; Hkktd jfgr gSA
s ¼Theorem½ 3 %& oy;  Z p = 0,1,2,...., p − 1 , + p ,  p  ,d iw.kkZdh; izkUr gS ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn P vHkkT; gSA
ize;
ize;
s ¼Theorem½ 4 %& fdlh rRledh oy; ds ,dkadksa dk leqPp; ,d xq.kukRed xzqi gksrk gSA
s ¼Theorem½ 5 %& ;fn oy; R esa nks ls vf/kd voo gSa vkSj ;g ,d rRledh oy; gS rks fl) dhft, fd 1  0
ize;
ize;
s ¼Theorem½ 6 %& “kwU; ds Hkktdksa ls jfgr ifjfer Øefofues; oy; ,d {ks= gksrk gSA
ize;
s ¼Theorem½ 7 %& izR;sd ifjfer iw.kkZdh; izkUr ,d {ks= gSA

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
mnkgj.k %& ;fn ge ,d leqPPk; z9 = 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 ysa rks Z 9 ;kSfxd eksM;qyks 9 rFkk xq.ku eksM;qyksa 9 ds fy, oy; gSA
;gk¡ + 9 ds fy, 0 rRled vo;o gSA ;gk¡ ;g Li’V gS fd /kukRed U;wure iw.kkZd 9 ,slk gS fd
9 9 a = 0 a  Z 9 rFkk ,slk dksbZ r  Z 9 , r  9 fo|eku ugha gS ftlds fy, r 9 a = 0 a  Z 9 vr% oy;
( z6 +9 ,9 )
dk vfHky{k.k 9 gSa
mnkgj.k %& ;fn ge lHkh iw.kkZdksa ds oy;  z, +,   dks ysa rks ge ;g ns[krs gSA fd ge ,slk dksbZ iw.kkZd
a n dk irk ugha yxk ldrs
ftlds fy, na = 0  a  z vr% yo;  z, +,   dk vfHky{k.k “kwU; ;k vuUr gSA
iw.kkZadh; izkUr rFkk {ks= dk vfHky{k.k ¼Characterisitc of an Integral Domain and Field½ %&
fdlh iw.kkZadh; izkUr I ;k {ks= F dk vfHky{k.k og U;wure /kukRed iw.kkZad n gS ftlds fy, n1 = 0
tgk¡ 1, I ;k F dk xq.ku lafØ;k ds fy, rRled vo;o gSA
;fn ,slk iw.kkaaZd n dk vfLrRo ugha gks] rks ge dgrs gS fd I ;k F dk vfHky{k.k “kwU; ;k vuUr gSA
,d {ks= ftldk vfHky{k.k v”kwU; gS] mls ekWM;qyj {kas= ¼Modular fienld½ dgrs gSA
mnkgj.k %& iw.kkZadh; izkUr ( z7 , +7 , 7 ) dk vfHky{k.k 7 gS D;ksfa d ( z7 , +7 ) ds fy, 7 U;wure /kukRed iw.kkZad gS ftlds fy, 7 (1)
;k 0 (1) 7 = 7
mnkgj.k %& ( Q, +, ) rFkk ( R, +, ) nksuksa oy; gaSA iw.kkaZdh; izkUr gS rFkk {ks= gS rFkk buds fy, dksbZ ,slk /kUkkRed iw.kkZd n dk
vfLrRo ugha gS ftlds fy, n.1 = 0 vr% oy; iw.kkZdh; izkUr rFkk {ks= ( Q, +, ) rFkk ( R, +, ) ds vfHky{k.k “kwU; ;k
vuUr gSA
ize;
s ¼Theorem½ 9 %& fdlh iw.kkZadh; izkUr dk y{k.k 0 ;k n gksxk tSlk fd mlds ;ksx lewg ds “kwU;sRrj vo;o dh dksfV 0 ;k
n gSA
ize;
s ¼Theorem½10 %& iw.kkZadh; izkUr dk vfHky{k.k ;k rks “kwU; gS ;k v[k.Muh; la[;k gSA
mnkgj.k %& fl) dhft, fd xkÅlh; iw.kkZadksa dk leqPp; J = m + in m, n  Z  lfEeJ la[;kvksa ds ;ksfxd vkSj xq.ku fØ;kvksa ds
lkis{k ,d oy; gSA D;k iw.kkZadh; izkUr gS\ D;k ;g ,d {ks= gS\
gy %& xkÅlh; iw.kkZad ¼Gaussian Integer½ %& ,d lfEeJ la[;k m + in gS tgk¡ m, n iw.kkZd gSA
vc J = m + in m, n  Z 
ekuk fd m1 + in1  J , m2 + in2  J , tgk¡ m1 , m2 , n1 , n2  Z
vc ( m1 + in1 ) + ( m2 + in2 ) = ( m1 + m2 ) + i ( n1 + n2 )
m1 , m2  Z  m1 + m2  Z , n1 , n2  Z  n1 + n2  Z
 ( m1 + in1 ) + ( m2 + in2 )  J
rFkk ( m1 + in1 ) ( m2 + in2 ) = ( m1m2 − n1n2 ) + i ( m1n2 + n1m2 )  J
 ( m1m2 − n1n2 )  Z , m1n2 + n1m2  Z 
 lfEeJ la[;kvksa ds ;ksx rFkk xq.ku lafØ;k J esa f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k ¼Binary Composition½ gSA
lkFk gh lfEeJ la[;kvksa esa ;ksax rFkk xq.ku lafØ;k,¡ lkgp;Z gS rFkk Øefofues; gS rFkk caVu fu;e Hkh lR; gSA
xkÅlh; iw.kkZd 0 + i0 ;ksx dk rRled vo;o gS ;k 0 + i0 “kwU; vo;o gSA
a + ib  J dk ;ksx ds lkis{k −a − ib  J izfrykse gSA xkÅlh; iw.kkZad (1 + i0) xq.ku lafØ;k dk rRled vo;o gSA

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
 xkÅlhu iw.kkZd dk leqPp; ( J , +, ) Øefofues; rRled oy; gSA lkFk gh nks v”kwU; lfEeJ la[;kvkas dk xq.kuQy “kwU; ugha gksrk
blfy, lfEeJ la[;kvksa dk leqPp; “kwU; Hkktd ugha gSA
xkÅlh; iw.kkZad dk leqPp; J lfEeJ la[;kvksa dk leqPp; C dk mileqPp; gSA
 xkÅlh; iw.kkZadksa dk leqPp; J Hkh “kwU; Hkktd ugha gS] vr% ( J , +, ) iw.kkZadh; izkUr ¼Integral domain½ gSA
vc ekuk a + ib  0 + i0  J dk xq.kukRed izfrykse x + iy gS] rks
( x + iy )  ( a + ib) = ( a + ib )  ( x + iy ) = 1+ i0
 ax − by = 1, bx + ay = 0
a −b
x= ,y= 2
a +b
2 2
a + b2
 a   −b 
 a + ib (  0)  J dk xq.kkRed izfrykse  2 2  + i  2 2  gSA
 a +b   a +b 
vr% J ds izR;sd vo;o dk xq.kukRed izfrykse dk vfLrRo rks gS ijUrq og J esa ugha gS tSls ;fn a = 2, b = 3 ys rks
a + ib ( = 2 + 3i ) dk izfrykse
2 −3 2 −3
+i  J,  Z ,  Z.
13 13 13 13
vr% ( J , +, ) {ks= ugha gSA
mnkgj.k %& fl) dhft, fd m + n 2 tgk¡ m rFkk n iw.kkZd gks] vkdkj dh okaLrfod la[;kvkas dk leqPp; la[;kvksa ds ;ksx ,oa
xq.ku ds fy, oy; gSA D;k ;g {ks= gS
mnkgj.k %& ;fn a  b = a + b + 1 rFkk a b = a + b + ab gS ftlesa a, b  R okLrfod la[;k,¡ gS rks fl) dhft, fd
( R, , ) ,d {ks= gSA
 a b
mnkgj.k %& fl) dhft, fd   ; a, b  C lfEeJ la[;k :i dh lHkh eSfVªlst dk leqPp; eSfVªDl ;ksx ,oa xq.ku ds fy, ,d
 −b a 
foHkktu oy; gSA D;k og {ks= ¼QhYM½ gS\ ;gk¡ b , a Øe”k% b rFkk a ds la;
a qXeh ¼Conjugate½ gSA
mnkgj.k %& ml oy; ds fy, ftlesa izR;sd a  R ds fy, a 2 = a lgh gS] fl) dhft,
¼i½ a + a = 0, a  R,
¼ii½ a + b = 0  a = b
¼iii½ R ,d Øefofues; oy; gSA

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
vH;kl iz'u 1
0 a 
1 fl) dhft, fd   , a, b  R vkdkj dh lHkh vkO;wgksa dk leqPp; vkO;wg ;ksx ,ao xq.ku ds fy, ,d oy; gSaA D;k ;g “kwU; ds
0 b 
Hkktd jfgr gSA
2 okLrfod la[;kvksa a, b, c ds fy, ;fn a  b = a + b −1 rFkk a b = a + b − ab gks] rks fl) dhft, fd  R, ,  ,d {ks=
gSA
3 fl) dhft, fd leqPp; S = x + y  31/3 + z.91/3 x, y, z  Q ;ksx RkFkk xq.kk lafØ;k ds fy, oy; gSA
4 fl) dhft, fd izR;sd 2 vfHky{k.k okyh Øefofues; oy; esa ( a + b ) = a 2 + b2 .

2
5 oy;  z4 , +4 , 4  dk vfHky{k.k Kkr dhft,A

6 fl) dhft, fd izR;sd ifjfer iw.kZadh; izkUr dk vfHky{k.k ifjfer gksrk gSA
mioy; rFkk HkkxQy {ks= ¼foHkkx {ks=½

¼Subrings and Field of Quotients½
mioy; ¼Subring½
ifjHkk"kk % ;fn S , oy; R dk ,d vfjDr milqPp; gS rks S dks R dk mioy; dgrs gSa ;fn S , R dh f}pj lafØ;kvksa ds fy, lao`Ùk
gks vFkkZr~ a  S , b  S  a + b  S vkSj a  S , b  S  ab  S rFkk Lo;a S Hkh bu izsfjr lafØ;kvksa ¼Induced
compositions½ ds lkis{k oy; gksA
pw¡fd izR;sd leqPp; Lo;a dk mileqPp; gS blfy, R ds de ls de nks mioy; gksrs gSa% ¼i½ R Lo;a rFkk ¼ii½ 0 ] bUgsa
fo"ke mioy; ¼trivial or improper½ dgrs gSaA bu nksuksa ds vfrfjDr tks Hkh R dh mioy; gksrh gSa og mfpr mioy;
¼proper subring½ dgykrh gSaA
mnkgj.k % ekuk m ,d LosPN ijUrq fu;r iw.kkZad gS rc leqPp; S = mx | x  Z iw.kkZadksa ds oy; dk mioy; gSaA
mnkgj.k% 'kwU; o leiw.kkZadksa ls cuk leqPp; lk/kkj.k ;ksx rFkk xq.kk dh lafØ;kvksa ds lkis{k iw.kkZadksa ds oy; dk mioy; gSA
mnkgj.k% ekuk S = 0,2,4 rc oy; ( S6 , +6 ,*6 ) vFkkZr~ oy; 0,1,2,3,4,5 , +6 ,*6  dk mioy; gSaA
mnkgj.k% okLrfod vo;okas okys lHkh n  n dksfV dh fod.kZ eSfVªDl dk leqPp; okLrfod la[;kvksa ij n  n dksfV ds lHkh eSfVªlst ds
oy; dk ,d mioy; gSaA
s 1% eku yhft, fd R, +, ,d oy; gS vkSj R dk S ,d vfjDr mileqPp; gSaA fl) dhft, fd S ,d mioy; gksxh ;fn vkSj
ize;
dsoy ;fn
¼i½ a  S , b  S  a − b  S
¼ii½ a  S , b  S  ab  S
miifÙk ¼Proof½% izfrcU/kksa dh vko';drk% ekuk fd S oy; R dk mioy; gSaA
vc ;fn a rFkk b, S ds dksbZ Hkh nks vo;o gSa] rks
a  s, b  S  a  S , −b  S
 S oy; gS blfy, ; ksfxd xqiz gSa
 a + ( −b )  S
 a − b  S  S ; ksx ds fy, loa`Ùk gaS 

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
lkFk gh a  S , b  S  a  b  S ¼ S xq.ku lafØ;k ds fy, lao`Ùk gSA½

vr% fn, gq, izfrcU/k mioy; S ds fy, vko';d gSA
izfrcU/kksa dh i;kZIrrk% ekuk fd S vfjDr gS rFkk S  R
rFkk a  S, a  S  a − b  S
a  S,b  S  a b  S
bu izfrcU/kksa dks iz;ksx djus ij
a  S, a  S  a − a  S  0  S
rFkk 0  S , a  S  0 − a  S  −a  S
ifj.kker% a  S , b  S  a  S , −b  S
 a − ( −b )  S  a + b  S
lkFk gh tSlk fn;k gqvk gSa a  S , b  S  a b  S
pw¡fd S  R blfy, ;ksx lafØ;k ds fy, Øefofues; rFkk lkgp;Zrk rFkk ;ksx ds lkis{k caVurk dk xq.k/keZ Hkh S esa lR; gSaA
Qyr% S xq.ku rFkk ;ksx ds fy, lao`Ùk gSA S esa ;ksx lafØ;k ds fy, rRled vo;o gS rFkk S ds izR;sd vo;o dk ;kstd
izfrykse S esa gSaA blfy, S ,d mioy; gSA vr% fn, gq, izfrcU/k dks R ds mioy; ds fy, i;kZIr gSaA
ize;
s % nks mioy;ksa dk loZfu"B Hkh ,d vioy; gksrk gSaA
miize;
s % fdlh oy; ds mioy;ksa ds ifjfer leqnk; dk loZfu"B ,d mioy; gksrk gSA
mi{ks= ¼Subfield½ rFkk vHkkT; {ks= ¼Prime Field½

ifjHkk"kk % fdlh {ks= F ds ,d vfjDr mileqPkP; K dks {ks= F dk ,d mi{ks= dgrs gSa ;fn K , F dh lafØ;kvksa ds fy, lao`Ùk gks
¼Stable for the compositions in F½ vFkkZr~
a  K,b  K  a + b  K
rFkk a  K,b  K  a b  K
lkFk gh K Lo;a Hkh bu izsfjr lafØ;kvksa ds lkis{k ,d {ks= gSA
Li"V% izR;sd {ks= F Lo;a dk mi{ks= gSA {ks= F ds vfrfjDr {ks= F dk mi{ks= {ks= F dk mfpr mi{ks= dgykrk gSaA
mnkgj.k % {ks= Q, +, {ks= R, +, dk mi{ks= gSaA
mnkgj.k % {ks= R, +, {ks= C, +, dk mi{ks= gSaA
vHkkT; {ks= ¼Prime Field½ %
ifjHkk"kk % ;fn fdlh {ks= dk dksbZ Hkh mfpr mi{ks= ugha gS rks ,sls {ks= dks vHkkT; {ks= dgrs gSaA
ifjHkk"kk ls Li"V gS fd vHkkT; {ks= F esa vUrZfo"V F Lo;a gSA
ize;
s % {ks= F ds vfjDr mileqPp; K dk mi{ks= gksus ds fy, vko';d rFkk i;kZIr izfrcU/k fuEu gSa%
¼i½ a  K , b  K  a − b  K
¼ii½ a  K ,0  b  K  ab−1  K
miifÙk% izfrcU/kksa dh vko';drk % ekuk K {ks= F dk mi{ks= gS vkSj F dh lafØ;kvksa ds fy, lao`Ùk gS rFkk Lo;a izsfjr lafØ;kvksa ds fy,
{ks= gSaA
vc a  K , b  K  a  K , −b  K  K ; kx s lfaØ; k ds fy, xzqi gS a
 a + ( −b )  K  K , F dh lafØ; kvksa ds fy, loaÙ`k gS
 a −bK
Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
iqu% ;fn b  0, b  K rc K {ks= gS blfy, b −1 dk vfLrRo gS rFkk K esa fo|eku gSA

 a  K ,0  b  K  a  K , b −1  K
 ab −1  K
 K , F dh lfaØ; kvkas ds fy, laoÙ`k gaS
izfrcU/kksa dh i;kZIrrk % ekuk K {ks= F dk vfjDr mileqPp; bl izdkj gS fd
(i ) a  K , b  K  a − b  K
( ii ) a  K ,0  b  K  ab−1  K
bu xq.k/keksZa ls
a  K , ba  K  a − a  K  0  K [ ; kx s rRled vo; o ]
a  K , a  K  0 − a  K  −a  K
[ izR; d
s vo; o dk ; kx
s kRed ifzrykse K eas gSa]
a  K , b  K  a  K , −b  K
 a − ( −b )  K
a + b K
 ; kxs lfaØ; k ds fy, K loaÙ`k gS 
rFkk a  K ,0  a  K  aa  K  1  K
−1
1  K ,0  a  K  1  a −1  K  a −1  K
a  K ,0  b  K  a  K ,0  b −1  K
 a ( b −1 ) = ab  K
−1
mijksDr ls Li"V gS fd
¼a½ K , ;ksx rFkk xq.ku lafØ;k ds fy, lao`Ùk gSaA
¼b½ K ds izR;sd vo;o dk ;ksx ds lkis{k izfrykse K esa gS rFkk xq.ku lafØ;k ds lkis{k v'kwU; vo;o dk izfrykse K esa
gSaA
¼c½ K  F , blfy, K dk izR;sd vo;o F dk Hkh vo;o gS blfy, ;ksx ds fy, Øefofues;] lkgp;Z] caVu xq.k/keZ rFkk
xq.kk ds fy, lkgp;Z fu;e Hkh K esa lR; gSA
Qyr% K izsfjr lafØ;kvksa ds fy, {ks= gSaA
vr% K , {ks= F dk mi{ks= gSaA
vH;kl iz'u
1- fl) dhft, fd leqPp; S = a + ib : a, b  Z , C ij ifjHkkf"kr lk/kkj.k ;ksx rFkk xq.kk ds lkis{k oy; C dk mioy; gSaA
 
2- ekuk s = a + b 3 | a, b  Z rFkk fl) dhft, fd S oy; ( R, +, ) dk mioy; gSA tgk¡ R okLrfod la[;kvkas dk leqPp;
gSaA
 
3- leqPp; S = a + 2 b + 4 c | a, b, c  Q , R dk ,d mi{ks= gSA
1/3 1/3
4- ;fn a fdlh oy; R dk ,d vo;o gS rks fl) dhft, fd leqPp; S = x  R | ax = 0, R dk ,d mioy; gSaA
Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 10 | P a g e

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
5- ;fn a fdlh oy; R dk ,d vo;o gS] rks fl) dhft, fd R esa a dk izlkekU;d N ( a ) = r  R | ar = ra , R dk
mioy; gSA
6- ekuk fd R ,d oy; gSA fl) dhft, fd C = x  R | xy = yx  y  R oy; R dk mioy; gSaA
 
7- fl) dhft, fd S = a + 2b | a, b  Z leLr okLrfod la[;kvksa ds oy; R dk ,d mioy; gSA
8- fl) dhft, fd fudk; 0.3,6,9 , +12 , 12 iw.kkZadksa dk oy; ekM~;wyksa 12 ds varxZr Z12 , +12 12 dk mioy; gSaA
9- ;fn R ifjes; ¼iw.kkZad½ la[;kvksa ij 2  2 dksfV ds lHkh eSfVªlst dk oy; gks] rks fl) dhft, fd leqPp; S , R dk mioy; gSaA
 a 0  
tgk¡ S =   | a, b  Z 
 0 b  
 
10- leqPp; S = a + b 2 | a, b  Z D;k okLrfod la[;kvksa ds {ks= ( R, +, ) ,d mi{ks= gksxk\ ;fn mi{ks= ugh arks D;k ;g
iw.kkZadh; izkUr gksxk\
Okke xq.ktkoyh ¼Left Ideal½ %&

ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½ %& fdlh oy; R ds ,d vfjDr mileqPp; I dh R dh oke xq.ktkoyh dgrs gS ;fn
¼i½ I , R dk ;ksx lafØ;k ds vUrxZr mixzqi gSA
¼ii½ a  I , r  R  r  a  I
nf{k.k xq.ktkoyh ¼Ringht Ideal½

ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½ %& fdlh oy; R ds vfjDr milqPPk; I dks R dh nf{k.k xq.ktkoyh dgrs gS ;fn
¼ii½ a  I , r  R  a.r  I
xq.ktkoyh ¼Ideal½ %&

ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½%& fdlh oy; R ds ,d vfjDr mileqPp; I dks R dh xq.ktkoyh dgrs gS ;fn
¼ii½ a  f , r  R  r  a  I rFkk ¼and½ a  r  I
xq.ktkoyh dks f}i{kh; xq.ktkoyh ¼Two Sided Ideal½ Hkh dgrs gSA ;fn R Øefofues; oy; gks] rks ;g lqLi’V gS fd oke xq.ktkoyh]
nf{k.k xq.ktkoyh rFkk xq.ktkoyh leku gksrh gS D;ksfa d r  a = a  r a, r  R izR;sd oy; R ds fuEu nks fujFkZd ;k fo’ke
xq.ktkoyh ¼Improper Ideals½ gksrh gSA
¼i½Lo;a R ftls ,dkad xq.ktkoyh ¼Unit Ideal½ dgrs gSA
¼ii½”kwU; xq.ktkoyh ¼Zero Ideal½ 0 ftlesa dsoy “kwU; vo;o gks gksrk gSA mijksDr nksuksa xq.ktkoyh ds vfrfjDr lHkh R dh
xq.ktkoyh mfpr xq.ktkoyh ¼Proper Ideal½ dgykrh gSA

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
ljy oy; ¼Simple Ring½ %&

ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½ %& ;fn fdlh oy; ds dsoy fujFkZd ;k fo’ke xq.ktkoyh gks]a rks mls ljy oy; dgrs gSA
vFkok
,d oy; ljy oy; dgykrh gS] ;fn oy; dh dksbZ Hkh mfpr xq.ktkoyh ugh gksA
mnkgj.k %& fl) dhft, fd leqPp; mZ = mx x  Z , tgk¡ m ,d iw.kkZad gS iw.kZ la[;kvksa dh oy; ( Z , +,.) dh xq.ktkoyh gSA
gy %& vc mZ   rFkk ;fn mx1  mZ , mx2  Z rks
mx1 − mx2 = m ( x1 − x2 )  mZ  x1  Z , x2  Z  x1 − x2  Z 
 mZ ;ksx lafØ;k ds fy, mixqzi gSA

rFkk ;fn ma, mZ dk LosfPNd vo;o gS rFkk b, z dk LosfPNd vo;o gS rks
( ma )  b = m ( a  b)  mZ  a  Z,b  Z  a  b  Z 
rFkk b  ( ma ) = m (b  a )  mZ
vr% leqPp; mZ , oy; ( Z , +, ) dh xq.ktkoyh gSA
mnkgj.k %& ;fn ( Q, +, ) oy; gS rFkk Z iw.kkZadksa dk leqPp; gS rks Li’V gS fd z xq.ktkoyh u rks oke u nf{k.k gS D;ksfd
2 2
x  Z , r  Q ds fy, x  r ;k r  x dk Q esa gksuk vko”;d ugha gS mnkgj.kFkZ& 7  Z ,  Q ijUrq 7   Z .
3 3
izeas; ¼Theorem½ 1%& fdlh oy; ds fdUgha nks xq.ktkofy;ksa dk izfrPNsnu iqu% oy; dh xq.ktkoyh gksrh gSA
miize;s ¼Corollary½ %& fdlh oy; ds dksbZ nks oke ¼nf{k.k½ xq.ktkoyh dk izfrPNsnu ¼loZfu’B½ Hkh oy; dh ,d oke ¼nf{k.k½
xq.ktkoyh gksrk gSA
izeas; ¼Theorem½ 2 %& ;fn I1 o I 2 fdlh oy; R dh nks xq.ktkofy;k¡ gks]a rks fl) dhft, fd
I1 + I 2 = a1 + a2 : a1  I1, a2  I 2 Hkh R dh ,d xq.ktkoyh gksxh ftlesa I1 rFkk I 2 nksuksa vUrfoZ’V gSA
izeas; ¼Theorem½ 3 %& fdlh Hkh {ks= es 0 rFkk Lo;a {ks= ds vfrfjDr dksbZ xq.ktkoyh ugha gSa vFkok {ks= esa mfpr xq.ktkoyh ugha
gksrh vFkok izR;sd {ks= ljy oy; gSA
miifr ¼Proof½ %& ekuk fd {ks= F dh I ,d xq.ktkoyh gS rks gesa ;g fl) djuk gS fd I = 0 ;k F , ;fn I ,d v”kwU;
xq.ktkoyh gS rFkk a  0, a  I rks gesa ;g fl) djuk gS fd I = 0 ;k F , ;fn I ,d v”kwU; xq.ktkoyh gS rFkk a  0, a  I
rks a −1  F D;ksfa d {ks= ds izR;sd v”kwU; vo;o dk xq.ku lafØ;k ds fy, izfrykse vo;o F esa gSA
vc a  I rFkk a −1  F  a  a −1  I  I x.qktkoyh gAS
 1 I

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
iqu% 1 I x  F  1 x = x = x 1 I
 FI
ijUrq I  F
I = F
vr% {ks= F ds dsoy nks xq.ktkoyh 0 rFkk Lo;a F gSA
s ¼Theorem½ 4 %& ;fn R ,d Øefofues; oy; gks rFkk a  R rks fl) dhft, fd Ra = ra r  R, R dh ,d xq.ktkoyh
ize;
gksxhA
ize;
s ¼Theorem½ 5 %& ,d Øeefofues; rRledh oy; ,d {ks= gksrk gS ;fn bldh mfpr xq.ktkoyh u gks ;k ;g ,d ljy oy;
miifr ¼Proof½ %& ekuk fd R ,d rRledh Øefofues; oy; gS Øefofues; oy; gS ftlesa dksbZ mfpr xq.ktkoyh ugha gSA
ekuk 0  a  R tc Ra =ra ; k ar | r   ,d xq.ktkoyh gSA
pw¡fd R esa dksbZ mfpr xq.ktkoyh ugha gS blfy, Ra = 0 ;k Ra = R
lkFk gh 1 R  a1 = a  Ra
 Ra  0  a  0
 Ra = R
vr% R dk izR;sd vo;o ra ds :i dk gS r  R pw¡fd 1 R blfy, R esa x ,slk fo|eku gS fd xa = 1  ax = 1
 ax = xa = 1  x = a −1  R
vr% R ds izR;sd v”kwU; vo;o dk izfrykse R esa gS vFkkZr~ R dk izR;sd v”kwU; vo;o O;qRØe.kh; gSA
Qyr% R ,d {ks= gSA
eq[; xq.ktkoyh vFkok ,dt xq.ktkoyh ¼Principal Ideal½ %&
ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½ %& fdlh oy; R dh ,d xq.ktkyh R dh eq[; xq.ktkoyh dgykrh gS ;fn ;g R ds dsoy ,d gh
vo;o ls tfur gksA
vr% ,d xq.ktkoyh I , oy; R dh eq[; xq.ktkoyh dgykrh gS ;fn R esa ,d vo;o a ,slk fo|eku gks fd I =  a  vFkkZr~ I
mu lc xq.ktkoyh esa NksVh ls NksVh xq.ktkoyh gS ftleas a gSA
izR;sd oy; R esa de ls de ,d eq[; xq.ktkoyh gksrh gS og 0 = 0 gS rFkk izR;sd rRledh oy; ls de ls de nks
eq[; xq.ktkoyh gksrh gS  0 , rFkk e ijUrq e = R D;ksfa d
re = r = er , r  R
mnkgj.k %& iw.kkZadks ds oy; Z dh izR;sd xq.ktkoyh eq[; ;k ,dt xq.ktkoyh gksrh gSA

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
s ¼Theorem½ 6 %& ;fn R ,d rRledh Øefofues; oy; R gS rFkk a  R rc leqPp; I = ra r  R ,d eq[;
ize;
xq.ktkoyh gS ftldk tud a gSA
miifr ¼Proof½ %& pw¡fd R ,d rRledh Øefofues; oy; gS vr% e  R
 a = ea = ae  I
lkFk gh I , oy; R esa xq.ktkoyh gS rFkk bldk ,d vo;o a gSA
ekuk fd R esa ,d vkSj xq.ktkoyh K gS ftlesa ,d vo;o a gS rc

 r  R, a  K  ra  K  I  K
vr% oy; R esa I og NksVh ls NksVh xq.ktkoyh gS ftlesa a fo|eku gS vr% I , oy; R esa eq[; xq.ktkoyh gS ftldk tud a
gSA
eq[; xq.ktkoyh oy; ¼Principal Ideal Ring½ %&
ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½ %& ;fn fdlh oy; R dh izR;sd xq.ktkoyh eq[; xq.ktkoh gks] rks oy; R dks eq[; xq.ktkoyh oy;
dgrs gSA
eq[; xq.ktkoyh izkUr ¼Principal Ideal Domain½ %&
ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½ %& ;fn fdlh iw.kkZadh; izkUr R esa izR;sd xq.ktkoyh eq[; xq.ktkoyh gks] rks R iw.kkZdh; izkUr dks eq[;
xq.ktkoyh izkUr dgrs gSA
s ¼Theorem½ 7 %& iw.kkZadks dk oy; ( Z , +,.) ,d eq[; xq.ktkoyh oy; rFkk eq[; xq.ktkoyh izkUr gSA
ize;
ize;
s ¼Theorem½ 8 %& izR;sd {ks= eq[; xq.ktkoyh oy; gSA bldk foykse lR; ugha gSA
 a 0  a 0 
mngkj.k 1 %& fl) dhft, fd leqPPk; U =    a  Z , b  Z  oy; R =    a, b, c  Z  dh xq.ktkoyh gSA eSfVªDl
 b 0    b c  
ds fy, ifjHkkf’kr ;ksx o xq.ku lafØ;k oy; R ds fy, lafØ;k,¡ gSA
gy %& Li’Vr% U  R,
 a1 0  a2 0
vc ekuk A1 =   , A2 =   ,U ds dksbZ nks vo;o gS rc
b1 0  b2 0 
 a1 0  a2 0  a1 −a2 0
A1 − A2 =  − =  tks fd U dk vo;o gSA
b1 0  b2 0  b1 −b2 0 
vr% A1  U , A2  U  A1 − A2  U
a 0
iqu% A =   oy; R dk dksbZ vo;o gS rc
b c 

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
a 0   a1 0   aa1 0
AA1 =  = U
b c  b1 0   a1b + b1c 0
a 0   a 0   a1a 0
A1 A =  1 = U
b1 0  b c  b1a 0 
 a  Z , a1  Z  aa1  Z , a1b, b1c  Z  a1b + b1c  Z 
 A1  U , A  R  A1 A U , AA1 U
vr% U , R esa ,d xq.ktkoyh gSA
mnkgj.k 2 %& ;fn ,d rRledh oy; R esa S ,d ,slh xq.ktkoyh gSa fd 1 S rks fl) dhft, fd
S = R (1, R esa x.qkkRed rRled vo; o gAS)
gy %& p¡wfd R esa S xq.ktkoyh gS blfy, S  R

iqu% ekuk fd R dk LosPN vo;o a gS rc
1 S , a 1a = a  S
blfy, a  R  a  S  R  S
 S  R, R  S  S = R.
vH;kl iz'u 3
1. ;fn a fdlh oy; R dk LosPN vo;o gS rks fl) dhft, fd leqPp;
S = x  R : ax = 0, R esa ,d nf{k.k xq.ktkoyh gSA
S ' = x  R : xa = 0, R esa ,d oke xq.ktkoyh gSA
2. Oky; 0,1,2,3,4,5 , +6 , 6  dh lHkh eq[; xq.ktkoyh Kkr dhft,
3. D;k fuEu oy; esa dksbZ mfpr xq.ktkoyh gS\ ;fn ugha rks dkj.k nhft,
0,1,2,3,4 , +5 , 5  .
4. ;fn S oy; R dh xq.ktkoyh gS rFkk T , R dh ,d mioy; gS rks fl) dhft, S + T dh S ,d xq.ktkoyh gSA
5. ;fn a , b fdlh Øefofues; rRledh oy; ds vo;o gksa rks fl) dhft, fd I = xa + yb x  R, y  R, a rFkk b dks
vUrfoZ’V djus okyh lcls NksVh xq.ktkoyh gSA
6. ,d mnkjg.k nsdj ;g iznf”kZr dhft, fd nks xq.ktkoyh dk la?k ,d xq.ktkoyh gksuk vko”;d ughaA
[ Hint : 2Z rFkk 3Z , Z dh xq.ktkoyh gS ijUrq 2Z  3Z , Z dh xq.ktkoyh ugha gSA ]
7. iw.kkZadksa dh fjax ( Z , +, ) ,d eq[; xq.ktkoyh fjax gSA
8. foHkkx oy; R / I Kkr dhft, tcfd
¼i½ R = Z , I = 3Z
¼ii½ R = Z , I = 5Z

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
¼iii½ R = a + ib a, b  Z , I = 2Z
 
¼iv½ R = a + 2b a, b  Z , I = 2Z
 1 
9. R ,d 0,1 lao`r vUrjky esa ifjHkkf’kr lHkh okLrfod lrr~ Qyuksa dk oy; gSA ekuk M =  f  R : f   = 0 rks fl)
 3 
dhft, fd M ,d mfPp’B xq.ktkoyh gSA
10. iw.kkZadksa ds oy; Z ij fuEu cgqinksa dk ;ksxQy ,oa xq.kuQy Kkr dhft,
f ( x ) = 2 + 5x + 3x2 − 4x3 , g ( x ) = 3 + 4x − x3 + 5x4
11. f ( x ) = 2x2 + 4x2 + 3x + 2 ,oa g ( x ) = 3x4 + 2 x + 4 ds ;ksx rFkk xq.kuQy Kkr dhft, tcfd f ( x ) , g ( x )  Z5  x
12. f ( x ) = 2 + 5x + 3x2 , g ( x ) = 1 + 4x + 2x3 ds ;ksx rFkk xq.kuQy Kkr dhft, tcfd f ( x ) , g ( x )  Z6  x
13. fl) dhft,
¼i½ x 2 + x + 4 QhYM ( Z11, +11 11 ) ij v[k.Muh; gSA
¼ii½ x 2 + 1 oy; ( Z7 , +7 , 7 ) ij v[k.Muh; gSA
14. fl) dhft,
¼i½ x3 − 9 oy; ( Z31, +31, 31 ) ij v[k.Muh; gSA
¼ii½ x3 − 9 oy; ( Z11, +11, 11 ) ij [k.Muh; gSA
15. ;fn f ( x ) o g ( x )  0 {ks= F ij dksbZ nks cgqin gS] rks fl) dhft, fd {ks= F esa nks cgqin q ( x ) o r ( x ) bl izdkj gS]
fd
f ( x) = q ( x) g ( x) + r ( x)
tgk¡ ;k rks r ( x ) = 0 ;k deg r ( x )  deg g ( x )
vHkkT; xq.ktkoyh ¼Prime Ideal½ %&

ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½ %& ekuk R ,d Øefofues; oy; gS] R dh dksbZ xq.ktkoyh P vHkkT; xq.ktkoyh ¼Principal ideal½ dgykrh
gS ;fn ab  P, a, b  R  a  P ;k b  P
mnkjg.k %&  Z , +,  oy; esa xq.ktkyh

7Z = 0, 7, 14,..... = 7
;g ,d vHkkT; xq.ktkoyh gS D;ksfd
ab  7 Z  7 ab
 7 a or 7 b ( 7 vHkkT; gaS )
 a  7 Z or b  7 Z
 7 Z , d vHkkT; xq.ktkoyh gAS
fVIi.kh %  Z , +,  oy; esa 6Z = 0, 6, 12,..... vHkkT; xq.ktkoyh ugha gSA
D;ksfa d 24 = 8.3  6Z tcfd 8  6 z,3  6Z .
Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
mfPp’B xq.ktkoyh ¼Maximal Ideal½ %&

ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½ %& ,d oy; R esa ,d xq.ktkoyh M  R ,d mfPp’B xq.ktkoyh dgykrh gS ;fn U , oy; R
dh xq.ktkoyh gks] rks lnSo M  U  R rc ;k rks
R = U ;k M = U .
vFkkZr~ R dh ,d xq.ktkoyh M mfPp’B xq.ktkoyh gksrh gS ;fn R esa ,slh dksbZ mfpr xq.ktkoyh ugha gks ftldk M ,d
mfpr mileqPp; gSA
mnkjg.k %& ekuk R iw.kkZadks dk oy; gS vFkkZr~ R =  Z , +, 
S = 6 = ..., −18, −12, −6,0,6,12,18,....
ijUrq U = 3 = ....., −18, −15, −12, −9, −6, −3,0,3,6,9,12,15,18,...
rc S ,d mfPp’B xq.ktkoyh ugha gS D;ksfd U xq.ktkoyh ,slh fo|eku gS fd

S U  R
ijUrq ;fn S = 5 = 0, 5, 10,...... ,d mfPp’B xq.ktkoyh gS D;ksfd R dh dksbZ xq.ktkoyh ftlesa S vUrfoZ’V gks
dsoy R Lo;a gh gSSA
foHkkx oy; ¼Quotient Ring or Ring of residue classes½ %&
ekuk fd ( R, +, ) ,d oy; gS rFkk R dh ,d xq.ktkoyh I gS vr% R ;ksx lafØ;k ds fy, vkcsyh xzqi gS I bl xzqi dk
;ksftr mixzqi gS ijUrq vkcsyh xzqi dk izR;sd mixzqi fof”k’V mixzqi gksrk gS blfy, I , R dk fof”k’V ¼izlkekU;½ mixzqi gS blfy, leqPp;
R / I = I + a a  R fd ifjHkk’kk lEHko gS rFkk blds vo;o I ds lgleqPp; ¼lgdqyd½ R esa gSA fuEu ize;s esas ge fl) djsx
a s
fd R / I ,d oy; gS ftls foHkkx ¼[k.M½ oy; ¼Quotient ring½ dgrs gSA
foHkkx ¼[k.M½ oy; ¼Quotient Ring½ %&
ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½ %& ekuk fd R ,d oy; gS rFkk R dh ,d xq.ktkoyh I gS rks leqPp; R / I ,d oy; gSa ftlds fy, nks
f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k,¡  rFkk fuEu izdkj ifjHkkf’kr gSA
( I + a )  ( I + b) = I + ( a + b)
( I + a ) ( I + b) = I + ( a  b) I + a, I + b  R / I
R / I oy; dks I ds lkis{k R dk *[k.M oy;* ;k *foHkkx oy;* ;k vo”ks’k oxZ ekM;wyks I oy; ¼Quotient ring or ring of
residue classes modulo I½ dgrs gSA
fVIi.kh %& R / I ds vo;o I + a dks a , I + 0 = 0 ls O;Dr djrs gSA ;g ljyrk ls lR;kfir fd;k tk ldrk gS fd
( )
a , b  R / I  a + b = a + b , ab = a.b ( )
ize;
s ¼Theorem½ 9 %& ,d iw.kkZdh; izkUr Z dh xq.ktkoyh S , Z dh ,d vfPp’B xq.ktkoyh gksrh gS ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn ;g ,d
vHkkT; la[;k }kjk tfur ,d eq[; xq.ktkoyh gksA
Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
s ¼Theorem½ 10 %& ;fn  R, +,   ,d oy; gS vkSj I bldh ,d xq.ktkoyh gS rks fl) dhft, fd leqPp; gSa
ize;
R / I = I + a a  R ,d oy; gS ftlds fy, nks f}vk/kkjh lafØ;k,¡  vkSj fuEu izdkj ifjHkkf’kr dh xbZ gSA
( I + a)  ( I + b) = I + (a + b)
( I + a) ( I + b) = I + (a b)
tgk¡ a, b  R gSA
ize;
s ¼Theorem½ 11 %& R / I jsftM;w Dykl R esa ,d oy; gS rks fl) dhft,
¼i½ R Øefofues; gS  R / I Hkh Øefofues; gksxkA
¼ii½ R rRledh ¼esa bdkbZ½ gS  R / I esa rRledh ¼esa Hkh bdkbZ½ gSA
ize;
s ¼Theorem½ 12 %& fdlh Øefofues; rRledh oy; R dk dksbZ xq.ktkoyh I vHkkT; xq.ktkoyh gksrh gS ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn
R / I ,d iw.kkZadh; izkUr gSA
ize;
s ¼Theorem½ 13 %& rRledh Øefofues; oy; R dh dksbZ xq.ktkoyh I ,d vfPp’B xq.ktkoyh gS ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn foHkkx
oy; R / I ,d {ks= gSA
ize;
s ¼Theorem½ 14 %& rRledh Øefofues; oy; R dh izR;sd mfPp’B xq.ktkoyh vHkkT; xq.ktkoyh gksrh gSA
cgqin oy; ¼Polynomial ring ½
ek/;fed Lrj ds chtxf.kr ds v/;;u esa izk;% cgqin dk ifjp; fuEufyf[kr ,d ifjes; chth; Qyu ds :i esa fn;k tkrk gS
a0 + a1x + a2 x2 + .... + an−1xn−1 + an xn vFkok vuqØe ( a0 , a1,...., an )
tks ,d pj oky n ?kkr dk cgqin gS rFkk a0 , a1 ,.....an inksa ds xq.kkad dgykrs gS lkFk gh ;g dgrs gS fd x vKkr gS
blls ;g vfHkizk; gS fd x ml leqPp; dk vo;o gS ftl leqPp; ds a0,a1,...., an vo;o gSaA ge ;gk¡ cgqinksa dk v/;;u O;kid
:i rFkk vewZr :i esa djsaxsA
oy; ij cgqin ¼Polynomial Over a Ring½ %&
ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½ %& ekuk fd ( R, +, ) ,d oy; gSA R ds vo;oksa dh ,d vuUr vuqØe ( a0 , a1,...., an , an+1,....) esa ,d
lhfer la[;k n ds vfrfjDr lHkh vU; vo;o “kwU; gks]a rks og vuqØe oy; R ij cgqin dgykrh gSA ge ,sls cgqin dks fuEu ladsr
ls O;Dr djrs gSA
f ( x ) = a0 x 0 + a1 x1 + a2 x n + .... + an x n + 0 x n+1 + ....


=  ai xi
i =0
;g iw.kZr;k le> ysuk pkfg, fd x dsoy ladsr ;k vfu/kkZ; ;k vfuf”pr gS lkFk gh x oy; R dk lnL; ugha gSA
;g Hkh /;ku nsus ;ksX; gS fd x 0 , x1 , x 2 ,...., x n oy; R ds fofHkUu vo;oksa a0 , a1 ,...., an dk Øe fuf”pr djus ds fy,
izrhd gSA ;fn fdlh cgqin esa dsoy ,d in vpj a 0 gks] rks mls vpj cgqin ¼Constant polynomial½ dgrs gSA
1- leku cgqin ;k cgqinksa dh rqyuk ¼Equality of Polynomials½ %& ;fn oy; R ij f ( x ) = a0 x0 + a1x1 + .... + an xn vFkok
f = ( a0 , a1,...., an ) vuqØe ladsru esa rFkk g ( x ) = b0 x0 + b1x1 + .... + bn xn vFkok g = ( b0 , b1,...., bn ) vuqØe ladsru esa nks
cgqin gks] rks
Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
f ( x ) = g ( x )  ak = bk , K = 0,1,2,...., n
vFkkZr~ nks cgqin leku dgykrs gS ;fn vkSj dsoy ;fn nksuksa cgqinksa esa x ds leku ?kkrksa ds xq.kkad cjkcj gksAa
2- cgqinksa dk ;ksx ,oa xq.ku ¼Sum and multiplication o Polynomials½ %& ;fn oy; R ij fuEu cgqin gS%
f ( x ) = a0 x0 + a1x1 + .... + am xm vFkok f = ( a0 , a1,...., am ) rFkk g ( x ) = b0 x0 + b1x1 + .... + bn xn vFkok
g = ( b0 , b1,...., bn ) , lkFk gh ekuk m  n. rc f ( x ) rFkk g ( x ) dk ;ksx = f ( x ) + g ( x ) = c0 + c1x + c2 x2 + ... + cn xn ;k
vuqØe ladsr esa f + g = ( c0 , c1,...., cn ) tgk¡ ck = ak + bk tc 1  k  m rFkk cm+l = 0 + bm+l tgk¡ 1  l  n. f ( x )
rFkk g ( x ) dk xq.ku = f ( x ).g ( x ) = d0 x0 + d1x + d2 x2 + .... vFkok vuqØe ladsru esa
f ( x ).g ( x ) = ( a0 , a1,...., am )(b0 , b2 ,...., bn ) = ( d0 , d1, d2 ,....)
1
tgk¡ d0 = a0b0 , d1 = a0b1 + a1b0 =  ak b1−k ,
k =0
2
d2 = a0b2 + a1b1 + a2b0 =  ak b2 − K
K =0
j
d j = a0b j + a1b j −1 + a2b j −2 + .... + a j b0 =  ak b j − K
k =0
;gk¡ a j = 0  j  m rFkk bj = 0 j  n blfy, d j = 0  j  ( m + n )
mnkgj.k %& ;fn iw.kkZadksa ds oy; Z ij cgqin f ( x ) = 2 + 3x − 4x2 , g ( x ) = 3 − 5x − 8x3 gksa rks
¼i½ f ( x ) + g ( x ) ¼ii½ f ( x ) g ( x ) ds eku Kkr dhft,A
gy %& ¼i½ f ( x ) + g ( x ) = ( 2 + 3x − 4 x 2 ) + ( 3 − 5x − 8x3 )
= ( 2 + 3) + ( 3 − 5 ) x + ( −4 + 0 ) x 2 + ( 0 − 8 ) x3
= 5 − 2 x − 4 x 2 − 8 x3
¼ii½ f ( x ) .g ( x ) = ( 2 + 3x − 4 x 2 ) .( 3 − 5x − 8x3 )
= ( a0 + a1x + a2 x 2 ) .( b0 + b1x + b2 x 2 + b3 x3 )
Tkgk¡ a0 = 2, a1 = 3, a2 = −4, a3 = a4 = a5 = ... = 0
b0 = 3, b1 = −5, b2 = 0, b3 = −8, b4 = b5 = ... = 0
;gk¡ C0 = a0b0 = 2.3 = 6, c1 = a0b1 = 2 ( −5) + 3(3) = −1,
c2 = a0b2 + a1b0 = 2.0 + ( 3)( −5 ) + ( −4 )( 3) = −27
c3 = a0b3 + a1b2 + a2b1 + a3b0
= 2 ( −8 ) + 3 ( 0 ) + ( −4 )( −5 ) + 0 ( 3) = 4
c4 = a0b4 + a1b3 + a2b2 + a3b1 + a4b0
= 2 ( 0 ) + 3 ( −8 ) + ( −4 )( 0 ) + 0 ( −5 ) + 0 ( 3) = −24
c5 = a0b5 + a1b4 + a2b3 + a3b2 + a4b1 + a5b0
= 2 ( 0 ) + 3 ( 0 ) + ( −4 )( −8 ) + 0 ( 0 ) + 0 ( −5 ) + 0 ( 3) = 32
lkFk gh c6 = c7 = ... = 0
 cgqinksa ds xq.ku dh ifjHkk’kkuqlkj

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
f ( x ) .g ( x ) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + .....
= 6 − x − 27 x 2 + 4 x 2 − 24 x 4 + 32 x 5
cgqin ?kkr ¼degree of polynomial½ %&
;fn f ( x ) = a0 + a1x + ... + an xn oy; R ij ,d cgqin gS rFkk an  0, ai = 0i  n, rc ,sls cgqin dks n ?kkr dk
cgqin dgrs gS rFkk bls ?kkr ( deg.) f ( x ) = n ls O;Dr djrs gSA lkFk gh bl fLFkfr esa x n ds xq.kkad a n dks vxz.k xq.kkad
¼Leading coefficient½ dgrs gSA lkFk gh an xn vxzx in dgykrk gSA
'kwU; cgqin ¼Zero polynomial½ dh ?kkr ¼degree½ vifjHkkf"kr gSaA vpj cgqin dh ?kkr 'kwU; gksrh gSa D;ksfa d vpj cgqin a0 = a0 x0 .
mngj.kkFkZ] cgqinksa 5 − 3x + 4 x 2 , 4 x − 5 x 2 + 7 x 3 + 9 x 4 ,8 x,9 dh ?kkrsa Øe'k% 2, 4,1, 0 gSaA

,dxq.kkadh cgqin ¼ Monic Polynomial½ %& ;fn f ( x ) = a0 + a1x + ... + an xn ;k ( a0 , a1,..., an ) , an  0 oy; R ij v”kwU;
cgqin gks lkFk gh an , x n dk xq.kkad 1 gks rks cgqin dh ?kkr n gS rFkk ,sls cgqin dks
,dxq.kkadh cgqin ¼Monic Polynomial½ dgrs gSA
cgqin dk eku ¼Value of a polynomial½ %& ;fn {ks= F ij F  x  ,d cgqin izkUr gS lkFk gh bldk dksbZ cgqin
f ( x ) = a0 + a1x + a2 x2 + ... gS rc QhYM F dk ,d vo;o f ( b ) bl cgqin dk eku dgykrk gS ;fn
f ( b) = a0 + a1b + a2b2 + ...
Li’Vr% f ( b )  F , b  F
iqu% ;fn fdlh b  F ds fy, f ( b ) = 0 rks b cgqin f ( x ) dk “kwU;d ¼zero½ dgykrk gSA
;fn cgqin f ( x ) dh ?kkr ¼Degree½ n gS rks f ( x ) = 0 dks n ?kkr dk cgqin lehdj.k ¼Polynomial equationi½
dgrs gSa
;fn cgqin f ( x ) dk “kwU;d b gS rks laxr lehdj.k f ( x ) = 0 dk b ewy ¼root½ ;k gy ¼Solution½ dgykrk gSA lkFk gh
x − b cgqin f ( x ) dk xq.ku[k.M gksrk gSA
;fn cgqin f ( x ) = f1 ( x )  f 2 ( x ) tgk¡ f1 ( x ) , f2 ( x )  F  x vkSj ;k rks deg f1 ( x ) = 0 ;k deg f 2 ( x ) = 0 rc
cgqin f ( x )  F ( x ) ,d v[k.Muh; ;k vHkkT; ¼irreducible½ cgqin dgykrk gSA
tks cgqin v[k.Muh; ;k vHkkT; ugha gksrk gS og [k.Muh; ¼reducible½ cgqin dgykrk gSA
s ¼Theorem½ 17 %& eku yks oy; R in nks “kwU;sÙkj cgqin f ( x ) rFkk g ( x ) tks fuEu izdkj ifjHkkf’kr gSA
ize;
f ( x ) = a0 + a1x + ... + ar xr , ar  0
rFkk ¼and½ g ( x ) = b0 + b1x + ... + bn xn , bn ,  0
rks fl) dhft, fd &
¼i½ deg  f ( x ) + g ( x )  max deg f ( x )  deg g ( x )
¼ii½ deg  f ( x )  g ( x )  deg f ( x ) + deg g ( x )
miifr ¼Proof½ %& ¼i½ fLFkfr I : ;fn r = n rks

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
r ; fn ar + bn  0
deg f ( x ) = 
 r ; fn ar + bn = 0
fLFkfr II %& ;fn r  n rks cgqinksa f ( x ) ,oa g ( x ) ds ;ksx dh ifjHkk’kkuqlkj
deg  f ( x ) + g ( x ) = Max ( r , n )
 nksuksa fLFkfr;ksa dks ,d lkFk ysus ij
deg  f ( x ) + g ( x )  Max ( r , n ) ;k Max. deg f ( x ) .deg g ( x )
¼ii½ nks cgqinksa f ( x ) ,oa g ( x ) dh xq.kk dh ifjHkk’kkuqlkj
f ( x )  g ( x ) = a0b0 + ( a0b1 + a1b0 ) x + ... + arbn xr+n
vc ;fn ar bn  0 rks deg  f ( x )  g ( x ) = r + n
vkSj ;fn ar bn = 0 rks deg  f ( x )  g ( x )  r + n
 deg  f ( x ) .g ( x )  r + n ;k deg f ( x ) + deg g ( x )
miize;
s ¼Corollary½ %& ;fn R ,d “kwU; Hkktd jfgr gS fo”ks"kr% ;fn R ,d iw.kkZadh; izkUr D vFkok {ks= F ij v”kwU; cgqin gS
rc D;ksfa d
ar  0, bn  0  arbn  0
 deg  f ( x ) .g ( x ) = r + n = deg f ( x ) + deg g ( x )
s ¼Theorem½ 18 %& LosPN oy; ( R, +, ) ij lHkh cgqinksa dk leqPp; R  x  cgqinksa ds ;ksx ,oa xq.ku ds fy, ,d oy; gksrk gSA
ize;
cgqin oy; ¼Polynomial Ring½ %&

ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition½ %& R  x  fdlh oy; R ij lHkh cgqinksa dk leqPp; cgqinksa ds ;ksx rFkk cgqinksa ds xq.ku lafØ;k ds fy,
oy; gksrk gSA bl oy; dks cgqin oy; ¼Polynomial ring½ dgrs gSA
s ¼Theorem½19 %& ;fn oy; R Øefofues; gS rks cgqin oy; R  x  Hkh Øefofues; oy; gksrk gSA
ize;
s ¼Theorem½ 20 %& ;fn oy; R bdkbZ lfgr gS rks cgqin oy; R  x  esa Hkh xq.ku lafØ;k ds fy, rRled vo;o gSA
ize;
s ¼Theorem½ 21 %&;fn oy; R ,d iw.kkZadh; izkUr gks] rks cgqin oy; R  x  Hkh iw.kkZadh; izkUr gksrk gSA
ize;
s ¼Corollary½ %& ;fn R ,d {ks= gks] rks cgqin oy; R  x  ,d iw.kkZadh; izkUr gksrk gSA
miize;
mnkgj.k %& fl) dhft, fd oy; ( Z2 , +2 , 2 ) iw.kkZadh; ekM;wyksa 2 ij cgqin x 2 + x + 1 v[k.Muh; gSA
gy %& ;gk¡ Z2 = 0,1 ekuyks fd f ( x ) = x2 + x + 1 lkFk gh ge tkurs gS fd ;fn f ( x ) dk ,d ewy a gS rks bldk x − a
xq.ku[k.M gksxkA
vFkkZr~ f ( x ) = 0, a  Z ijh{k.k djus ls
f ( 0 ) = 02 + 2 0 + 2 1 = 1
f (1) = 12 + 2 1 + 2 = 1
vr% f ( x ) dk dksbZ ewy Z 2 esa ugha gS vFkkZr~ cgqin f ( x ) , Z2 ij v[k.Muh; gSA +

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
1. Which one of the following statement is correct ? (c)an integral domain but not a field
(a)Every finite integral domain is a field (d)a non - commutative ring without zero divisors.
(b)In a ring a.b = 0  either a = 0 or b = 0 (1st Grade 2013)
(c)Every finite ring is an integral domain 7. Which one of the following is correct?
(d)The set of natural number N is a ring with respect (a)In a ring if ab = 0  either a = 0 or b = 0
to binary composition usual addition and (b)Every finite ring is an integral domain
multiplication (1st Grade 2011) (c)Every finite integral domain is a fined
2. The set Z4 = 0,1,2,3 , under binary compositions (d)The set of natural numbers is a ring with respect
to the usual addition and multiplication.
addition and multiplication modulo 4 is
(1st Grade 2015)
(a)A field
8. Which of the following is not an integral domain?
(b)A division ring
(c)A ring without zero divisor (a) ( N , +,.) (b) ( C, +,.)
(d)A ring with zero divisor (1st Grade 2011) (c) ( Q, +,.) (d) ( R, +,.)
3. Total number of ideals of the ring
(1st Grade 2015)
Z5 = 0,1,2,3,4 , +5 , 5 is 9. If R is set of the ordered pairs of real numbers such
(a)1 (b)2 that ( a, b ) + ( c, d ) = ( a + c, b + d ) and
(c)3 (d)4
(1st Grade 2011) ( a, b).( c, d ) = ( ac − bd , bc + ad ) , then R is
4. Which of the following ring is not an integral (a)a ring but not a field
domain? (b)a ring with unity but not a field
(a) ( E, +, ) where E is the set of even integers (c)a commutative ring but not a field
(d)a field. (1st Grade 2018)
( )
including zero
10. Let R = 0,1,2,3,4,5 +6 , 6 , then R is a
(b) ( C, +, ) where C is the set of complex
(a)ring with zero divisors
numbers.
(b)field
(c) ( a + b  )
2, a, b  I , +,  where I is the set of (c)division ring
(d)ring without zero divisors
whole numbers.
(1st Grade San. Edu. 2020)
(d) ( Q, +, ) where Q is the set of rational numbers. 11. If R is a commutative ring with unit element, M ,
(1st Grade 2013) is maximal ideal of R if
5. In the field ( R, , ) where R is the set of real (a) R / M is a field
numbers and a  b = a + b − 1, a b = a + b − ab (b) M / R is a field
for all a, b  R, then the additive inverse and (c) RM is a field
(d) RM is not a field (1st Grade San. Edu. 2020)
multiplication inverse of 5 are respectively
(a) −4,1 (b) −3,5 / 4 12. Three statements are ( a ) Every field is an integral
(c) −4,5 / 4 (d) −3,1 domain ( b ) A field has no zero divisor , ( C ) A skew
st
(1 Grade 2013) field has no zero divisor. Then
6. If cancellation laws hold in finite ring R with unity (a) ( a ) and ( b ) are true but ( c ) is not
and a, b  R, ( ab ) = a b , then R is:
2 2 2
(b) ( a ) and ( c ) are true but ( b ) is not

(a)a field
(b)a division ring but not a field (c) ( b ) and ( c ) are true but ( a ) is not

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
(d) ( a ) , ( b ) and ( c ) are true (CL. 2014)

13. Let R be an integral domain and f ( x ) is any
polynomial in R  X  with degree f ( X ) = r , Then
f ( X ) is irreducible, when r is equal to:-
(a)1 (b)2
(c)3 (d)4 (CL. 2014)
14. Let f ( x ) = 2 + x + 4 x + 3x
2 2
g ( x ) = 4 + 3x + 5x2 + 3x2 over the ring of integers

modulo 6, then degree of ( f + g )( x ) is
(a)0 (b)1
(c)2 (d)3 (CL. 2014)
15. Which of the following ring is not of characteristic
0 or  ?
(a) ( Z , +,.) ; Z is the set of integers
(b) ( Q, +,.) ; Q is the set of rational number
(c) ( R, +,.) ; R is the set of real number
(d) ( Z6 , +6 , 6 ) ; Z6 (CL. 2014)

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
+ Tensor
A general tensor or simply a tensor is an entity whose components, when are being transformed
from one coordinate system to the other, obey cerain basic transformation laws. The study of these laws is
the prime aim of tensor algebra.
Space of N-dimensions :-
In a three dimensional rectangular space the coordinates of point are usually denoted by ( x, y, z ) .
But this representation of coordinates is not suitable, if we want to generalize the concept of space from
rectangular to curvilinear coordinates or from three dimensions to N − dimensions. That is why it is
advisable to use a triplet ( x1 , x 2 , x3 ) in place of ( x, y, z ) where 1,2,3 are the supper scripts and do not
posses any significance as power indices. In general, the coordinates of a point in N − dimensional space,
which may or may not be rectangular are denoted by N − tuples of the form ( x1 − x 2 ,..., x N ) where
1, 2,..., N are the superscripts for N − variables and not the powers of x . The N − dimensional space is
generally denoted by Vn .
Coordinates transformation :-
Let ( x1, x 2 ,...., x N ) and ( x 1, x 2 ,..., x N ) be coordinates of a point in two different frames of
reference in a Vn . Suppose there exist N − independent relations between the form
x j = x j ( x1 , x 2 ,...., x N ) , ( j = 1,2,...., N ) ........ (1.3)
Where it is assumed that the functions involved are single valued continuous and have continuous
derivatives. Then the above set of N − equations may be solved and to each set of coordinates
( x , x ,..., x ) there will correspond a unique set ( x , x ,..., x ) given by
1 2 N 1 2 N
x = x ( x , x ,..., x ) , i = 1,2,..., N .
i i 1 2 N
..... (1.4 )
The relations (1.3) and (1.4 ) define a transformation of coordinates from one frame of reference
to another. Differentiating (1.3) wet get.
x j 1 dx j 2 x j N
dx = 1 dx + 2 dx + ... + N dx
j
x x x
N x
j
=  i dxi ........(1.5)
i =1 x
This is the coordinate differential transformation rule. i.e., the change in the direction of
coordinates.
Einstein’s summation convention :-
In a N- dimensional space if an index is repeated in a term then it implies summation with respect
to that index over the range 1,2,…, N unless the contrary is specified.
Hence, using summation convention, the relation (1.5) for the coordinate differential
transformation may be written as
Dr. Ashutosh Sharma & Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati P a g e 24 |

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
x j i
dx j = dx .......(1.7 )
xi
Similarly, by differentiating (1.4) , wet get
x i
dxi = dx j .......(1.8)
x j
Remarks :-
The repeated index is called a dummy index , as it can be replaced by any other index not used in
that term. As for example, equation (1.7 ) may equally well be written as
x j k
d x = k dxj
x
x j
Or dx j = 1 dx1
x
Similarly, we may write equation (1.8) as
xi
dxi = dx m
x m
Or any other superscript in place of m. This device of changing in dummies is often employed as a
useful manipulative trick for simplifying expressions. But the index j in equation (1.7 ) and index i in
equation (1.8) are not repeated and are called free indices.
Kronecker delta :-
The Kronecker delta is written as  ij and is defined by
1 , if i = j
 ij =  ......(1.9 )
0 , if i  j
Thus, 11 =  22 = .... =  NN = 1 (no summation over N )
12 = 32 = .... = 0,
And ii = 11 + 22 = .... +  NN
= 1 + 1 + ... + 1 = N .......(1.10)
An important property of Kronecker delta is that
 jj A j = Ai ........(1.11)
Since in the left-hand side of this equation when summation is carried out over j the only surviving term
will be one for which j = i. Theis shows that the role of  jj when it is multiplied with an entity, is to
replace the index j in the entity by I or vice versa and then itself falls out.
It may be noted that
x i
=  jj
x j
Because the coordinates x i are independent. Similarly,

x i
= i j .......(1.13)
x j

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
EX.2. Show that
(i)  ij kj =  ki
x k x i
(ii) i j =  jk
x x
Solution :-
(i)  jj kj = 1i k1 +  2i k2 + .... +  ki kk + ..... +  Ni  kN
= 0 + 0 + .... +  ki (1) + ... + 0 (no summation over k )
=  ki
x k x i x k x 1 x k x 2 x k x N
(ii) = + + ..... +
x i x j x 1 x j x 2 x j x N x j
x k
= j (by chain rule of partial differentiation)
x
=  jk using (1.12 )
Ex. 3 :- If a x x   0 for all values of the variables x1 , x 2 ,...., x N , Show that aij + a ji = 0.
Solution :- Let S = a x x  0
S
Then = a x i + a  i x  = 0
x i
= ai x + ai x  = 0
Now, differentiation with respect to x i gives
2S
= a i j + ai  j = 0
x x
j i
= a ji + aij = 0
Definition and Types of Tensors :-
Contravariant vectors (Contravariant tensors of first order) :-
Motivated by the relation (1.7 ) , we give the following definition of contravariant vectors.
Definition :- If a set of N quantities Ai in a coordinate system x i are related to another N quantities
A j in a coordinate system x j by the transformation equations
x p
A p = q Aq (Contravariant Law)
x
Then Ai (read as A superscript i) are said to be the components of a contravariant vector or contravariant
tensor of the first order (or first rank)
Theorem 1. The law of transformation for a contravariant vector is transitive.
 dx dy 
Ex .4. (i) If a vector has components r , y  x = , y =  in rectangular cartesian coordinates then r , 
 dt dt 
are its components in polar coordinates.

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
(ii) A vector has components x, y in rectangular cartesian coordinates then its respective components in
polar coordinates are
2
r − r 2 , + r
r
Invariant :-
A function I of the N coordinates xi  I = I ( xi )  is called an invariant or a scalar function or tenson
of order zero with respect to coordinate transformations if
I=I ........1.30
Where I  I = I ( x j )  is the value of I in the new coordinate system x j .
Covariant Vectors (covariant tensors of first order) :-
Motivated by the relation we give the following definition of Covariant Vectors:
Definition :- If a set of N quantities Ai in a coordinate system x i are related to another N quantities Aj
in a coordinate system x j by the transformation equations
x q
Ap = p Ap (Covariant law)
x
Then Ai (read as A subscript i) are said to be the components of a Covariant Vector or covariant
tensor of the first order or first rank.
x p
Multiplying equation by r and summing over the index p from 1 to N we find
x
x p
x x
p q
Ap = r Aq
x r
x x p
x q
= r Aq =  rq Aq = Ar
x
x p
Or Ar = r Ap (covariant law) ……………….1.33
x
Thus relation may equally well be taken as the transformation law of Covariant Vectors.
Theorem 4. :- The law of transformation for a Covariant Vector is transitive .
Product of Vectors :-
Product of two Vectors*
(a)Product of two contravariant Vectors: -
Let the components of two Contravariant vectors relative to the coordinate system x i be Ai and
B j and relative to the coordinate system x m the components be A p and B q . Then by contravariant law.
x p i
A = i A
p
...... (1.48 )
x
x q
And Bq = j B j .......... (1.49 )
x

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
x p x q i j
Multiplying (1.48)and (1.49) known as outer product, we get A p B q = AB ………..(1.50)
xi x j
x p x q ij
2 i
If we denote the N quantities A B by C and A B by C j ij p q pq
then C pq
= i C …………(1.51)
x x j
(b) Product of two Covariant Vectors :-
Let the components of two Covariant Vectors relative to the coordinate system x i be Ai and B j
and relative to x m be Ap and Bq . Then by covariant law
x i
Ap = Ai
x p
x j
And Bq = Bj.
x q
xi x j
Hence Ap Bq = p q Ai B j
x x
xi x j
Or C pq = Cij
x p x q
(C)Product of a contravariant Vector and a Covariant Vector :- Let the components of Contravariant
vector and a Covariant vector relative to the coordinate system x i be Ai and B j respectively and relative
to x m be A p and Bq respectively. Then
x p i
Ap = A ......(1.55 )
xi
x j
And Bq = Bj ...........(1.56 )
x q
x p x j i
Hence A p Bq = A Bj ......(1.57 )
xi x q
Denoting Ai Bj by C ij and A p Bq by Cqp we find
x p x j i
Cqp = Cj ………(1.58)
x i x q
Second Order Tensors
(a)Contravariant tensor of the second order :-

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
Motivated by the relation we give the following definition of second order
contravariant tensor
Definition :- If a set of N 2 quantities Aij in a coordinate system x i are related to another N 2 quantities
Akl relative to the coordinate system x j by the transformation equations.
x k x l ij
A = i
kl
A (Contravariant law)
x x j
Then Aij are said to be the components of a contravariant tensor of the second order (or second rank)
(b)Covariant tensor of the second order :- Motivated by the relation we give the following definition of
second order covariant tensor :
Definition :- If a set of N 2 quantities Aij in a coordinate system x i are related to another N 2

quantities Akl relative to the coordinate system x j by the transformation equations
x i x j
Akl = Aij (Covariant law )
x k x l
Then Aij are said to be the components of a Covariant tensor of the second order (or second rank).
(c)Mixed tensor of the second order : -
Motivated by the relation we give the following definition of a second order mixed tensor:
Definition :- If a set of N 2 quantities Aij in a coordinate system x i are related to another N 2 quantities
Alk relative to the coordinate system x j by the transformation equations
x k x j i
Akj = Aj (mixed tensor law)
xi x l
Then Aij are said to be the components of a maxed tensor of the second order (or second rnak)
Theorem 5 :- The Kronecker delta is a mixed tensor of the second order whose components in any other
coordinate system again constitute the Kronecker delta.
Ex.6 :- If Aij is a covariant tensor of the second order and B i , C j are contravariant vectors; prove that
Aij BiC j is an invariant.
Solution :- we have

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
x i x j
Akl = Aij
x k x l
x k
Bk = p B p
x
x l
Cl = q Cq
x
x i x k x j x l
Then Akl B C = k p l q Aij B pC q
k l
x x x x
x i x j
= Aij B pC q
x p x q
=  pi  qj Aij B pC q
= Aij B iC j
This proves the invariant character of Aij BiC j
Theorem 6 :- The transformation of the tensors form a group (i.e., the law of transformation of tensors
possesses transitive property)
Theorem 7 :- If all components of a tensor in one coordinate system are zero at a point then they are zero
at this point in every coordinate system.
Zero tensor
Definition :- A tensor whose components relatively to every coordinate system are all zero is know as zero
tensor.
Notes : -
(i) The tensor of order zero (scalar or invariant) and zero tensor are two different concepts.
(ii) If a tensor is zero in one coordinate system it will remain zero in all other coordinate system.
Symmetric and Anti – Symmetric

(Skew – symmetric) Tensors
Symmetric tensors :-
Definition :- A tensor is called symmetric with respect to two contravariant or two covariant
indices if its components remain unaltered upon interchange of the indices.
e.g. Astpqr = Astqpr
is symmetric in p and q and if
Astpqr = Atspqr

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
Then it is said to be symmetric in s and t
If a tensor is symmetric with respect to any two contravariant indices and also any two covariant
indices then it is called symmetric tensor.
N ( N + 1)
Theorem 9 :- A symmetric tensor of the second order has at most different components in
2
a VN .
Corollary :- The number of independent components in Aijk . Which is symmetric in i and j is clearly
1 N 2 ( N + 1)
N ( N + 1) .N =
2 2
Skew-symmetric tensors :-
Definition :- A tensor is called skew-symmetric (or antisymmetric) with respect to two contravariant
or two covariant indices if its components change sign upon interchange of the indices.
e.g. Almijh = − Almiih
is Skew-symmetric in I and j and if
Almijk = − Amlijk
It is said to be skew – symmetric in l and m .
If a tensor is skew-symmetric with respect any two contravariant indices and also any two covariant indices
then it is called skew-symmetric tensor.
N ( N − 1)
Notes :- A skew - symmetric tensor Aij of the second order has at most different arithmetical
2
components, as all the N diagonal terms Aij (no summation) are zero in this case.
Addition subtraction and

Multiplication of Tensors
Fundamental algebraic operations with tensors :-
(a)Addition :-
The sum of two or more tensors of the same rank and type (i.e. same number of contravariant
indices and same number of covariant indices) is also a tensor of the same rank and type.
x x j x n lm
i
A = l
ij
An …………………(1.76)
x x m x k
k

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
x i x j x n lm
Bkij = Bn …………………….(1.77)
x l x m x k
Adding ,
x i x j x n lm
(A ij
k + Bkij ) =
xl x m x k
( An + Bnlm ) ………….()1.78
This shows that Anlm + Bnlm = Cnim (say) is a tensor of the same rank.
Remark : - It can easily be verified that the addition of tensors is commutative and associative.
(b)Subtraction :- The difference of two tensors of the same rank and type is also a tensor of the same rank
and type.
It follows immediately from (1.76) and (1.77 ) that
Dnlm = Anlm − Bnlm
is also a tensor of the same rank.
Further, it can be easily deduced from ( a ) and (b) that any linear combination of tensors of the
same rank and type is again a tensor of the same rank and type.
As for example,  Anlm +  Bnlm , where  and  are invariants (Scalars), is a tensor of the same rank
and type.
(c)Outer multiplication :- The product of two tensors of any rank is a tensor whose rank is the sum of the
ranks of the given tensors.
This process which involves ordinary multiplication of the components of the tensor is called the
outer product. As for example Akij Bml is the outer product of Akij and Bml and may be denoted by Ckm
ijl
which
is a tensor of 5th order contravariance of order 3 and covariance of order 2.
Note :- The converse of (c) is not always true, i.e. not every tensor can be written as a product of two
tensors of lower rank (e.g.  ij ). For this reason division of tensors of tensors is not always possible.
The division in the usual sense of one tensor by another is not defined.
(d)Contraction :-
If one contravariant and one covariant index of a tensor (mixed tensor) are set equal, the result
indicates that a summation over the equal, indices (dummy indices) is to be taken according to the
summation convention. This resulting sum is a tensor of rank two less than of the original tensor. The
process is called con.
We shall now prove that a contracted tensor of the type ( r , s ) is of the type ( r − 1, s − 1).

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The new tensor obtained on contraction is of the type ( r −1, s −1)
(e)Inner multiplication :-
By the process of outer multiplication of two tensors (different type or mixed type) followed by a
contraction we obtain a new tensor called an inner product of the given tensors. The process is called inner
multiplication.
As for example, given the tensors Akij and Bqrp the outer product is Akij Bqrp . Letting j = q we obtain
the inner product Akij B jrp = Ckrip Letting j = q, i = r another inner product Akij Bjip = Dkp is obtained.
Theorem 10 :- Every tensor, which has at least two contravariant or two covariant indices, can be
expressed as the sum of two tensors, one of which is symmetric and the other skew- symmetric in a pair of
contravariant or covariant indices.
Proof :- Without loss of generality let the tensor be Akij then we may write Akij =
2
(
1 ij
Ak + Akji ) + ( Akij − Akji )
1
2
Denoting (
1 ij
2
Ak + Akji ) = Bkij
And
2
( Ak − Akji ) = Ckij
1 ij
We find Bkij = Bkji and Ckij = −Ckji
Hence Akij = Bkij + Ckij
In which Bkij is symmetric and Ckij is skew-symmetric.
Illustrative Examples
Ex.7 :- If Ars is skew symmetric and Brs is symmetric, prove that Ars Brs = O.
Solution :- Given Ars = − Asr and Brs = Bsr
Now changing the dummy suffixes in Ars Brs , we get
Ars Brs = Asr Bsr = − Ars Brs
Or 2 Ars Brs = O
Or Ars Brs = O

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Quotient Law of Tensors
Statement :- An entity whose inner product with an arbitrary tensor is a tensor, is itself a tensor.
Relative Tensor :- If the components of an entity
Aij11i2j2.....ir
.... js
Transform according to the equation
x x p1 x pr x j1 x js i1i2 ......ir
w
A p1 p2 .......... pr
= ..... ..... Aj j .... j
x xi1 xir x 1 x qs 1 2 s
q1 q2 ...........qs q
x
Then the given entity is called a relative tensor of weight w, where is the Jacobian of transformation
x
. If w = 0, the entity is called absolute tensor or simply tensor. If w = 1 the relative tensor is called the
tensor density.
Conjugate Tensors
Conjugate tensors (or Reciprocal Tensors)
Lemma 1 :- Consider a symmetric covariant tensor of the second order Aij whose determinant Aij  0.
Let G( A) ( i, j ) denote the cofactor of Aij in the determinant Aij and let
*
G( A) ( i, j )
B ij =
Aij
We shall now prove that Bij represents the components of a symmetric contravariant tensor of the
order two.
We have labelled the indices i and j in Bij as contravariance indices in anticipation of the result.
Lemma 2 :- Let us now form another tensor Eij from Bij by the same process as defined in Lemma 1 i.e.
G( B ) ( i, j )
Eij =
B ij
Since Aij . Bij = 1 and Aij  0, it following that Bij  0 . We shall now prove that Eij = Aij
Definition :- Two second order symmetric tensors Aij and Bij one covariant and the other contravariant are
said to be conjugate (or reciprocal) tensors it they satisfy the equation.
Aij Bik =  jk and Aij . Bij  0.

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1
Ex. 19 :- If Aij = 0 for i  j , Show that the conjugate tensor B ij = 0 for i  j and Bii = ( no summation )
Aii
Solution :- We have Aij Bik =  jk ……….(1.125)
(i)Let k  j then
0 = Aij B ik
= A1 j B lk + A2 j B 2 k + ... + Ajj B jk + .... + ANj B Nk
=0 + 0 + .... + Ajj B jk + .... + 0
= Ajj B jk ( No summation over j )
But Ajj  0 ( No summation over j )
Hence B jk = 0, j  k i.e., B ij = 0, i  j
(ii)Let k = j, then from ……..(1.125)
1 = Aij Bij
= Ai1Bi1 + Ai 2 B i 2 + .... + Aii B ii + .... + AiN B iN
=0 + 0 + ..... + Aii Bii + .... + 0
= Aii Bii .( No Summation over i )
But, Aii  0 ( No Summation over i )
1
Hence, B ii = ( No summation )
Aii
Metric Tensor
[Metric and Fundamental tensors, Associate tensors and Principal directions]
Euclidean space of Three-dimension :-
In the familiar Euclidean space of three dimensions in rectangular cartesian coordinates the
distance ds between two neigh- bouring points ( x , x , x ) and ( a + dx , x
1 2 3 1 1 2
+ dx2 , x3 + dx3 ) is given by
ds 2 = ( dx1 ) + ( dx 2 ) + ( dx3 ) = dx i dx i , ( i = 1, 2,3) ,

2 2 2
……….(2.1)
The distance ds is also called the line-element.
If instead of rectangular cartesian coordinates we take the coordinates of the point in curvilinear
coordinates such that ( x '1, x '2 , x'3 ) then x i are functions of x 'i and dxi are linear homogeneous functions
of the dx 'i given by.

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xi
dxi = dx 'm ( i, m = 1, 2,3) ……………..(2.2)
x 'm
When we substitute these linear functions in we get a homogeneous quadratic expression in

dx 'i viz..,
 xi xi  m n
ds 2 =  m n 
dx ' dx ' ( Summation over i )
 x ' x ' 
Which may be written as
ds2 = g 'mn dx 'm dx 'n ( m, n = 1,2,3) …………(2.4)
xi x i
Where g 'mn = ( Summation over i ) …………..(2.5)
x 'm x 'n
No matter what curvilinear coordinates are used the distance between two given points has the
same value, i.e. ds (or ds 2 ) is an invariant.
The differential expression on the right hand side of (2.4) which represents ds 2 may be called the
metric form or fundamental form of the space under consideration . It may also be called the square of the
line element.
Motivated by this, the idea of distance was extended by Riemann, originator of tensor calculus to a
space of N − dimensions.
Metric and fundamental Tensors
Riemannian Space, Metric Tensors

Definition :- If the square of the line element ds between two neighboring points , whose coordinates in
a VN are x i and xi + dxi is given by the quadratic differential form
ds 2 = gij dxi dx j …………(2.6)
Where gij are functions of x i and g = gij  0 the space is said to be Riemannian space.
In addition to this we postulate that the line element ds is independent of the coordinate system
i.e. ds is an invariant. It follows from (2.6) ( seen theorem 1) that gij is a symmetric covariant tensor of the
2
order two. It is called the fundamental covariant tensor or metric tensor of the Riemannian space. The
quadratic differential form gij dxi dx j is called the Riemannian metric or simply the metric of the space.
Theorem 1 :- The fundamental tensor gij is a covariant symmetric tensor of the order two.
Indicator :-

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It is implied that the metric of a Euclidean space is positive definite i.e.
ds 2  0
We introduce an indicator e, which is +1 or -1, so as to make ds 2 always positive i.e.
ds 2 = egij dxi dx j
Conjugate Metric Tensor :-
Since gij is a symmetric covariant tensor of the second order and g = gij  0 we can define
G ( i, j )
g ij =
g
Where G ( i, j ) is the expression formed by the cofactor of gij in the determinant g ij . In otherwards
cofactor of gij in det gij
gij =
det gij
It follows from that g ij is a symmetric contravariant tensor of the second order and is said to be the
conjugate of gij i.e. Conjugate metric tensor. It is also called the fundamental contra variant tensor. Hence
the fundamental covariant tensor gij and fundamental contravariant tensor g ij being conjugate are
related to each other by the equation.
gij g ik =  jk
The three tensor gij , g ij , g ij defined by equation and respectively are called fundamental tensors
and are of basic importance in tensor analysis.
Ex. 1 :- The metric of a Euclidean space, referred to cylindrical coordinates is given by
ds 2 = ( dr ) + ( rd ) + ( dz )
2 2 2
Determine its metric tensor and conjugate metric tensor.

Hence, ds 2 = g11 ( dx 1 ) + g 22 ( dx 2 ) + g33 ( dx 3 )
2 2 2
= ( dr ) + ( rd ) + ( dz )
2 2 2
The metric tensor g pq in cylindrical coordinates in matrix form is

1 0 0
 
g pq = 0 r 2 0
0 0 1

Clearly g = g pq = r 2
And the conjugate metric tensor g pq , which is the inverse of the matrix is

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1 0 0 
 1 
g pq = 0 0 
 r2 
0 0 1 
 
Ex. 2 :- The metric of a Euclidean space referred to spherical coordinates is given by
ds 2 = ( dr ) + ( rd ) + ( r sin  d )
2 2 2
Determine its metric tensor and conjugate metric tensor.

ds 2 = g11 ( dx 1 ) + g 22 ( dx 2 ) + g33 ( dx 3 )
2 2 2
= ( dr ) + ( rd ) + ( r sin  d )
2 2 2
The metric tensor g pq in spherical polar coordinates in matrix form is therefore given by
1 0 0 
 
g pq = 0 r 2 0 
0 0 r 2 sin 2  
 
Clearly, g = g pq = r 4 sin 2 
And the conjugate metric tensor g pq ' which is the inverse of the matrix
1 0 0 
 1 

g pq = 0 2 0 
 r 
0 0 r 2 sin 2  
 
Ex. 4 :- If the metric of a V3 is given by ds 2 = 5 ( dx1 ) + 3 ( dx 2 ) + 4 ( dx3 ) − 6 ( dx1 )( dx 2 ) + 4 ( dx 2 )( dx3 ) , find

2 2 2
(i ) g and ( ii ) g ij
Solution :- Comparing the given metric with the metric
ds 2 = gij dxi dx j , (i, j = 1,2,3)

We find g11 = 5, g12 = g 21 = −3
g 22 = 3, g 23 = g32 = 2
g 33 = 4, g13 = g 31 = 0
 5 −3 0 
Hence, g ij =  −3 3 2 
 0 2 4 
and g = gij = 4
To get the conjugate of giji.e. the inverse of the matrix we find

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G (1,1) = 8, G (1, 2 ) = G ( 2,1) = 12, G ( 2,3) = G ( 3, 2 ) = −10,
G ( 2, 2 ) = 20, G ( 3,1) = G (1,3) = −6
G ( 3,3) = 6.
G ( i, j )
Since, g ij =
g
We obtain g 11 = 2, g 12 = g 21 = 3
5
g 22 = 5 g 23 = g 32 = −
2
3 3
g 33 = g 31 = g 13 = −
2 2
 3
 2 3 − 
2
 
5
Hence, g = 3
ij
5 −
 2
 3 5 3 
− −
 2 2 2 
Associate Tensors
Definition :- The associate vector of a contravariant vector A j is defined the inner product of the
fundamental tensor gij and A j and is denoted by Ai .
Thus, Ai = gij A j
The covariant vector Ai is the associate vector of the contravariant vector A j and the process is
called the lowering of the superscript.
In a similar manner we may define the associate vector of the covariant vector B j by
Bi = g ij B j
The contravariant vector B i is the associate vector of the covariant vector B j and the process is
called the raising of the subscript.
Associate tensors :-
The process of raising and lowering the indices can be performed on tensors of
higher order. From the tensor Almijk we can form associate tensors like
. jk
Arlm = gir Almijk
..k
Arslm = gir g js Almijk
A..mrijk = g rl Almijk
The dot notation is used to indicate the indices which have been raised or lowered.
The dots may be omitted when there is no scope of confusion, e.g., we may write A pq = g ip g iq Aij . It
may be noted that an associate tensor of gij is.

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
g pi g qj gij
= g pi iq
= g pq
This shows that fundamental tensors gij and g ij besides being conjugate are also associate
tensors. However, any second order tensor and its associate, like Aij and Aij may not be conjugate as a
rlule
Magnitude of a Vector :-
Definition :- The magnitude of a contravariant vector Ai which is usually denoted by A, is defined by the
square of length or norm of vector Ai as
( A)
2
= e( A) gij Ai A j
( A)
2
= e( A) Aj A j
Where e( A) is the indicator +1 or -1 which makes A real.
Unit vector :- A vector whose magnitude is unity is called a unit vector.
It may be noted that
ds 2 = egij dxi dx j
 dxi  dx j 
1 = egij   
 ds  ds 
This shows that ( dxi / ds ) is a unit contravariant vector. It is a unit tangent vector to the
curve in VN .
Null vector :- A vector whose magnitude is zero is called a null vector.
Angle between Two vectors :- In familiar vector algebra the scalar product of two vectors A and B is
defined as
A . B = A B cos
Where  is the angle between A and B
A.B
Hence, cos = .
A B
Motivated by this the angle between two vectors Ai and B i in Riemannian space is defined by
Ai Bi
cos =
( e( ) A A ) ( e( ) B B )
A
l
l B
m
m
gij Ai B j
=
( e( ) g
A lp )(
Al A p e( B ) g mq B m B q )
If the two vectors Ai and B i are unit vectors , then
cos = Ai Bi = gij Ai B j = Aj B j

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Orthogonal vectors :- Two vectors are said to be orthogonal if the angle between them is a right angle,
i.e. cos = 0. Hence it following
that the necessary and sufficient condition for orthogonality of two vectors Ai and B i is.
g ij Ai B j = 0
Ai Bi = 0.
Note :- We do not define the angle between two vectors when one or both of them happens to be null
vector. However is still takes as the definition of orthogonality of two null vectors. It may be noted that for
a null vector dxi .
gij dxi dx j = 0.
This shows that the null vector is self orthogonal.
Ex. 9 :- In a three-dimensional coordinate system the angles between the coordinate curves are given by
g12 g13 g23
cos12 = ,cos13 = ,cos23 =
g11 g22 g11 g33 g22 g33
( )
Ex. 10 :- If Ai and B i are orthogonal unit vectors ghj gik − ghk gij Ah Bi A j B k = 1
Permutation symbols and tensors :- The permutation symbol is written as eijk and in the Euclidean three
dimensional space V3 is defined by
0 , if any two of i, j , k are equal

eijk = +1, if i j , k is a cyclic permutation
−1, if i, j , k is anti − cyclic permutation

Thus
e112 = e113 = e221 = e223 = e331 = e332 = e111 = e222 = e333 = 0
e123 = e231 = e312 = +1
e132 = e321 = e213 = −1
We now introduce the entities defined by
1 eijk
 ijk = geijk ;  ijk = e
8
Where g is the determinant of the metric tensor gij of the space referred which a may not
necessarily be rectangular. We shall now prove that although eijk is not a tensor, in general, both  ijk and
 ijk are tensors covariant and contravariant respectively, and are called permutation tensors in three
dimensional space. The generalization to higher dimensions is possible. It is clear from the definitions of
eijk , and  ijk that they are skew -symmetric in all their indices.

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1
Theorem 4 :- The entities defined by (Permutation tensors)  ijk = geijk ,  ijk = eijk ' are respectively
g
covariant and contravariant tensors, where eijk is a permutation symbol and g is the determinant of the
metric tensor gij .
EX. 16 :- Prove that  ijk = gil g jm gkm lmn
1
gi l g jm gkn l mn = gij g jm gkn el mn  By definition
g
1
= gij g jm g knelmn
g
But gil g jm gkmelmn = gi1g j 2 gk 3 + gi 2 g j 3 gk1 + gi 3 g j1gk 2
−gi1g j 3 gk 2 − g j 2 g j1gk 3 − gi 3 g j 2 gk1
g i1 gi 2 gi 3
= g j1 g j2 g j3
g k1 gk 2 gk 3
= geijk
Combining and we get
gil g jm gkn lnm = geijk =  ijk 0
Hence the proposition
Christoffel symbols and Covariant Differentiation
Types of Christoffel Symbols :-

Introduction (Christoffel Symbols) :-
In order to carry out partial differentiation of tensors we require two functions,
which are not tensors (in general) formed with the help of the fundamental tensor gij known as Christoffel
symbols or Christoffel brackets of the first an second kinds. They are defined respectively by
1  g g g 
First kind i j, k  =  ikj + jki − ijk 
2  x x x 
l 
And second kind   = g lk ij, k 
ij 
l 
(i)The symbols i j , k  and   may also be represented by k ,ij and lij respectively. However,
ij 
we shall use only the brackets type of representation. The symbol ij, k  may sometimes be written as
 k , ij 
(ii)These symbols, in general are not tensors.
(iii)In Euclidean space fo N − dimensions

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g11 = g22 = .... = gNN = 1 and gij = 0, i  j
In this case all the Christoffel symbols are zero
g
(iv)Since gij is symmetric tensor and has  N ( N + 1) / 2 independent components in space Vn , ijk well
x
N ( N + 1)
have N . independent components. Therefore the number of independent components of
2
Christoffel symbol of a kind are  N 2 ( N + 1) / 2
Properties of the Christoffel Symbols
l 
Property 1 :- i, j, m = glm  
ij 
gik
Property 2 :- = ij , k  +  kj , i 
x j
g mk mi   ki  
k m
Property 3 :- = − g   − g  
xl il   il 
 i  1 g
Property 4 :-   =
ij  2 g x
j
1 
=
g x
j
g ( )

=
x j
 
log g , if g is positive


= j log − g , if g is negative
x

Ex. 3 :- Surface of a sphere is a two- dimensional Riemannian space. Compute the Christoffel symbols.
Solution :- for a sphere r is constant the metric of the surface of a sphere of a sphere is given by
ds 2 = r 2 ( d ) + r 2 sin 2  ( d )
2 2
Here, g11 = r 2 , g22 = r 2 sin2  , g21 = 0

1 22 1
g 11 = , g = 2 2 , g 12 = g 21 = 0
r 2
r sin 
r is constant x =  and x 2 =  .
1
(i)First kind
Case -I :- i = j = k then
1 gii
i i, i  =
2 xi
Therefore 11,1 = 0, 22,2 = 0
Case II :- i = j  k , then

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1 gii
 i i, k  = −
2 x k
Therefore 11,2 = 0, 22,1 = −r 2 sin cos
Case III :- i = k  j, then
1 g ij
i j , i  =
2 x j
Therefore 12,1 = 0,21,2 = r 2 sin cos .
Case iv :- i  j  k
Redundant in a two- dimensional space.
(ii)Second kind
l 
  = g i j , l 
ll
(No Summation)
 
ij
The non-zero components are
1
  = g  22,1 = − sin  cos 
11
22
2
  = g  21, 2 = cot 
22
21
The remaining four will be zero
It may be noted that the Christoffel symbols of the second kind are independent of the radius of
the sphere.
Ex. 4. :- If the metric of a VN is such that gij = 0 for i  j , show that that
i  i 1 g jj
  = 0;   = − ;
 jk   jj  2 gii xi
i   i  
 
  = j log gii ;   = i log gii
ij  x ii  x
 
Where i, j and k are not equal and the summation convention does not apply.
Laws of Transformation
Laws of transformation of Christoffel symbols
Theorem 1 :- If we denote by a bar a symbol in a coordinate system x k , then

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xi x j x k xi  2 xi
(i) lm, n  = i j , k  + g
x l x m x n x n x l x m
ij

 p  s  x x
p i
x p x 2 x j
(ii)   =   s m + j
  ij  x x
lm  x x l x m
Are the laws of transformations of Christoffel symbols of the first and second kinds respectively.
These transformation laws show that ordinarily Christoffel symbols do not transform like tensors.
Remark :- However in a very special case of linear trans formation of coordinates, viz.
x j = amj xm +bj
Where amj and b j are constants we have
2 x j
= 0,
x l x m
And the equations and become
x i x j x k
l m , n  =  i j , k  l m n
  x x x
 p   s  x p x i x j
 =  s l m
lm  ij  x x x
These equations imply that the in the case of linear transformation Christoffel symbols
transform like a tensor.
Corollary (second order differentiation of x i with x j )
x r
Taking the inner multiplication of by , we get
x p

 p x r  s  xi x j r 2 x j r
  p =   l m s + l m  j
  x
l m ij  x x x x
 2 xr 
 p  x r  r  xi x j
=   −  l m
x l x m  l m x
p
ij  x x
This is a very important equation and should be remembered. It expresses the second
partial derivative of x r with respect to x i in terms of the first derivatives and Christoffel symbols of the
second kind.
Covariant Differentiation
Covariant differentiation of vectors :-
Let us study the transformation laws for the partial derivatives of contravariant and
covariant vectors respectively, and investigate their tensor character if it exists.
Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
Laws of covariant differentiation of tensors :-
We shall see that the covariant differentiation of sums (or difference) and product of
two tensors obey the same laws as in the case of ordinary differentiation.
Theorem 2 :- The covariant derivative of the sum (or difference) of two tensors is the sum (or
difference) of their covariant derivatives.
Theorem 3 :- The covariant derivative of the product (outer or inner) of two tensors is equal to the
sum of the two terms obtained by the product (outer or inner) of each tensor with covariant derivative of
the other tensor.
(Same law as in ordinary differentiation)
Corollary :- The covariant derivative of an invariant is the same as its ordinary derivative.
Ricci’s Theorem :-
The covariant derivatives of the fundamental tensors gij , g ij and  ij all vanish identically or
in otherwards the fundamental tensors are Cova riantly constant.
1  i 
Ex. 6 :- Aijj =
g x
j ( )
g Aij + A jk   the last term vanishes if Aij is skew – symmetric.
 jk 
1- ij, k  + kj, i dk eku gSA ¼c½ f}rh; Øe ds ,d lefer izfn'k vkSj ,d izfrlfer
g ij izfn'k ds ;ksx ds :i esa (Sum of a symmetric
g ik
¼a ½ ¼b ½ tensor and a skew-symmetric tensor of order
x k
x j
two.)
1 gik g jk
¼c ½ ¼d½ ¼d½ f}rh; Øe ds nks lefer izfn'k ds varj ds :i esa
2 x j x i
(Difference of two symmetric tensors of order
(1st Grade 2011)
two) (1st Grade 2015)
2- VN esa f}rh; Øe ds lefer izfn'k esa vf/kd ls vf/kd
4- ewyHkwr VsUlj gij dk dksosfj;.V vodyu gSa&
fHkUu fHkUu ?kVd gSa%
A symmetric tensor of the second order has at The covariant differentiation of the
most different components in a VN is: fundamental tensor gij is.
N ( N + 1) N ( N − 1) ¼a½ ,d (One)
¼a ½ ¼b ½ ¼b½ 'kwU; (zero)
2 2
( N + 1)( N + 2 ) ( N − 1)( N − 2 ) ¼c½ l / gij
¼c ½ ¼d½
2 2 ¼d½ buesa ls dksbZ ugha (None of these)
st
(1 Grade 2013) (1st Grade 2018)
3- dksbZ f}rh; Øe dk lgfiorhZ izfn'k vf}rh; :i ls
O;Dr fd;k tk ldrk gSa% 5- ;fn ,d izfn'k lehdj.k ,d funsZ'kkad fudk; esa lgh gS]
Any covariant tensor of second order can be rks dkSu lk lgh ugha gSa%
expressed uniquely as the. If a tensor equation holds in a one coordinate
¼a½f}rh; Øe ds nks lefer izfn'kksa ds ;ksx ds :i esaA system, then which is not correct:
(sum of two symmetric tensor of order two.) ¼a½ og dkrhZ; funsZ'kkad fudk; esa lgh gksxhA (It will
¼b½ f}rh; Øe ds nks izfrlefer izfn'kksa ds ;ksx ds :i hold in cartesian coordinate system)
esa (sum of two skew – symmetric tensor of order ¼b½ og /kzqoh; funsZ'kkad fudk; esa lgh gksxhA ( It will
two.) hold in polar coordinate system.)

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
¼c½ og lHkh funsZ'kkad fudk;ksa esa lgh gksxhA (It will ¼a½ Aij Bi C j
hold in every coordinate system.)
¼b½ Aij BiC j
¼d½ og xksyh; funsZ'kkad fudk; esa lgh ugha gksxhA (It
will not hold in spherical coordinate system) ¼c½ Aij BiC j
(C.L. 2014) ¼d½ Aij Bi C j (C.L. 2014)
ai
6- ds 2 = 5 ( dx1 ) + 3 ( dx 2 ) + 4 ( dx 3 ) ds
2 2 2
x j
gSa 10- V3 esa nwjhd
¼a½ 'kwU; tkfr dk ,d izfn'k gSa (a tensor of rank fy, nwjhd izfn'k ds Hkkx g 33 dk eku gksxk%
zero) For the metric in
¼b½ ,d nks tkfr dk izfn'k gSa ( a tensor of rank two.) V3 , ds 2 = 5 ( dx1 ) + 3 ( dx 2 ) + 4 ( dx 3 ) The value
2 2 2
¼c½ izfn'k ugha gSA ( not a tensor)

of component g 33 of metric tensor will be:
¼d½ ,d fu'pj gSA (an invariant) (C.L. 2014)
7- fdlh izfn'k ds ladqpu ds fy, dkSu lk dFku lgh ugha ¼a½1/5
gSA ¼b½1/3
Which statement is incorrect for contraction ¼c½1/4
of a tensor. ¼d½1/60 (C.L. 2014)
¼a½ ladqpu] lwpdksa ds ek/;e ls fd;k tkrk gSaA 11- ;fn A ,d fo"ke lefer izfn'k gS rFkk Bij lefer gSa]
ij
(Contraction is being done through indices)

rc Aij Bij dk eku gksxk%
¼b½ ;g tkfr dks lwpdksa ds fy, nks ls de dj nsrk gSaA
(It reduces the rank by two for an index.) If Aij is skew symmetric tensor and Bij is
¼c½ nks izfrifjo`r lwpdksa dks leku cukrs gSaA (Set two symmetric the value of Aij Bij will be:
contravariant indices equal.)
¼a½-1
¼d½ ,d lgifjorhZ rFkk ,d izfrfijo`rh lwpd dks leku
¼b½1/2
cukrs gSaA (Set one covariant and one
¼c½1
contravariant indices equal.) (C.L. 2014)
¼d½0 (C.L. 2014)
8- Vn esa ,d fo"ke lefer izfn'k ftldh tkfr nks gS] fuEu
Lora= Hkkx j[krk gSa%
12- fdlh ykfEcd funsZ'kkad fudk; V3 ds fy, dkSu lk ,d
lgh gS%
A skew symmetric tensor of rank two in Vn has
for an orthogonal coordinate system V3 which
independent components.
one is correct:
n ( n − 1)
¼a ½ 1
2 ¼a½ g11 = − 11
g
n ( n + 1)
¼b ½ 1
2 ¼b½ g11 =
g11
n ( n − 1)
2
¼c ½ ¼c½ g11  g11 = 0 a

2
¼d½ g11 + g 22 + g33 = 0 (C.L. 2014)
n ( n + 1)
2
¼d½ (C.L. 2014)  i 

2 13- ;fn g = gij , rc   cjkcj gksrk gS%
9- ;fn Aij izfn'k gS rFkk B i ,oa C j lfn'k gSa rks fu'pj i j 
gksxk%  i 
If g = gij , then   is equal to:
If Aij is a tensor and B i and C j are vectors i j 
then the invariant is.
Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
1  g  ¼c½ gij ,oa g ij O;qRØe izfn'k gSA ( gij and g ij are
¼a ½  
g  x j  reciprocal tensors.)
 g  ¼d½ ;fn Aj ,oa A j lgpkjh lfn'k gSa] rks A = Aj A j (If
¼b ½  j 
 x  Aj and A j be associate vectors, then
1  g 
¼c ½   A = Aj A j ) (C.L. 2020)
2 g  x j 
1  g  17- ;fn Åu foe i`"B x i = vpj vkSj x i = vpj ykafcd gks]
¼d½ −   (C.L. 2014)
2 g  x j  rks g ij gSa%
14- nwjhd ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 − sin ( xyz ) dt 2 , ds If the hypersurfaces x i = constant and x j =
constant are orthogonal then g ij is:
fy, fØLVksQy fpgu  4 1, 4 dk eku gksxk%
¼a½ 'kwU; ¼Zero½
For the metric
¼b½ 'kwU; ls vf/kd (greater than zero)
ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 − sin ( xyz ) dt 2 , The value
¼c½ 'kwU; ls de ¼less than zero½
of Christoffel symbol  4 1, 4 will be: ¼d½ none of these (C.L. 2020)
xy
¼a ½ cos ( xyz )
18- ,d izfrifjorhZ lfn'k ,oa ,d lgifjorhZ lfn'k dk ckã
2 xq.ku gS ,d
yz The outer product of a contravariant vector
¼b½ cos ( xyz )
2 and a covariant vector is a
zx ¼a½ feJ izfn'k ¼Mixed tensor½
¼c½ cos ( xyz )
2 ¼b½ feJ lfn'k (Mixed vector)
xz ¼c½ izfrifjorhZ izfn'k ¼Contravariant tensor½
¼d½ sin ( xyz ) (C.L. 2014)
2 ¼d½lgifjorhZ izfn'k (Covariant tensor) (C.L. 2020)
15- g l = % 19- ;fn p, q ykafcd bdkbZ lfn'k gS] rks

mk
x (g hj g jk − ghk gij ) p h qi p j q k =
 k  ki  m 
¼a½ − g mi  − g   ¼a ½ 1
i l  i l  ¼b ½ 0
 i  ki 
m
¼c½ -1
¼b½ − g mk  + g  
i l  i l  ¼d½ pq (C.L. 2020)
 l  ki  l  1 0 0 
¼c½ − g mi  − g    
i k  i m  20- ;fn  gij  = 0 r 0
2
 vkSj
k  ki 
m 0 0 r 2 sin 2  
¼d½ − g mi  + g   (C.L. 2014)  
i l  i l  1 0 0 
 
16- fuEu esa ls dkSu lk dFku xyr gSa\  g  = 0 K 0
ij
 rks K =
Which of the following is wrong statement?  0 0 K sin 2  
¼a½ bdkbZ ifjek.k dk ,d lfn'k] bdkbZ lfn'k dgykrk
1
gSA ¼A vector of magnitude one is called unit ¼a ½ r 2 ¼b½
vector½ r
1
¼b½ 'kwU; ifjek.k dk ,d lfn'k] 'kwU; lfn'k dgykrk gSaA ¼c ½ ¼d½ r (C.L. 2020)
r2
¼A vector of magnitude zero is called zero vector.½
21- fuEu es ls dkSulk xyr gSa\
Which of the following is false?
Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
¼a½ gij dk lkjf.kd 'kwU; gSaA ¼The determinant of gij 25- ;fn izfn'k Aijk vuqyxz i vkSj j esa lefer gSa] rc Vn esa
is zero½ blds LoraU= ?kVd gSa%
 i 
( )
If tensor Aijk is symmetric in suffixes i and j
¼b ½ log g =  
x j
ij  then its independent components in Vn are:
¼c½ curl Ai = Ai , j − Aj ,i n
¼a ½
2
¼d½ ;fn ( ds ) = ( dx ) + ( dy ) + ( dz ) gS rks
2 2 2 2
n
¼b½ ( n + 1)
22, 2 = 0 (C.L. 2020) 2
k  n2
22- fØLVksQsy ladsr ij, k  vkSj   fdlesa lefer gSa\ ¼c ½ ( n − 1)
ij  2
k  n2
Christoffel symbols ij, k  and   are ¼d½ ( n + 1) (C.L. 2020)
2
ij 
symmetric in:
¼a½ i and j
¼b½ i and k
¼c½ j and k
¼d½ None of these (C.L. 2020)
23- ,d izfrifjorhZ lfn'k dk lgifjorhZ vodyt gS ,d
The covariant derivative of a contravariant
vector is a?
¼a½ 0 dksfV dk izfn'k ¼Tensor of order 0½
¼b½ 2 dksfV dk izfrifjorhZ izfn'k (Contravariant
tensor of order 2)
¼c½ 2 dksfV dk feJ izfn'k (Mixed tensor of order 2)
¼d½ 2 dksfV dk lgifjorhZ izfn'k ¼Covariant tensor of
order 2½ (C.L. 2020)
Ai
24- ;fn Ai ,d lgifjorhZ lfn'k gS] rc j ds fy;s fuEu
x
esa ls dkSulk lR; gS\
A
If Ai is a covariant vector, then for ij which
x
of the following is true?
¼a½ ;g ,d lgifjorhZ lfn'k gSa ¼It is a covariant
vector½
¼b½ ;g ,d izfrifjorhZ lfn'k gSa (It is a contravariant
vector)
¼c½ ;g ,d feJ izfn'k gSa (It is a mixed tensor)
¼d½ buesa ls dksbZ ugha (None of these) (C.L. 2020)

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
Integral Transforms
   
1. The value of L−1 
1 p
3
is 6. L−1  =
 ( p + a )   ( p2 + a2 ) 
3/2
 
1 (a) J1 ( at ) (b) t J1 ( at )
(a) t 2e − at (b) t 2e − at
2
(c) J 0 ( at ) (d) t J 0 ( at )
1
(c) t 2e at (d)None of these (CL 2014)
2
 sin x
(1st Grade 2011) 7. The value of  dx is
2. If ' L ' is Laplace transform operator and ' s ' is 0 x
parameter then Lcosh at (a)  / 2 (b) 
(c) infinity (d) Zero
a s (CL 2014, 1st Grade 2018)
(a) (b)
s − a2
2
s − a22
8. If f ( p ) is the laplace transform of function
a s
(c) 2 (d) 2 F ( t ) then Laplace transform of 0 F ( ) d is
t
s + a2 s + a2
(1st Grade 2013) 1
(a)  f ( p ) dp (b) f ( p ) − f ( 0 )
 e−u p
3. If Ei ( t ) =  du , then Laplace transform of
1
(c) pf ( p ) − f ( 0) (d) f ( p )
t u
Ei ( t ) is p
1 (CL 2014)
(a) (b) log P
 
9. The value of L−1  
p 1
3
is
1
(c) log P
1
(d) log ( p + 1) 
 ( p + 25 ) 

p p 1
(1st Grade 2015) (a) t 2e−25t (b) 2te−25t
2
4. If Fs  F ( x ) = f s ( w) and Fc  F ( x ) = fc ( w) , (c) t −2e−5t (d) 2t −2e 25t
then the sum of Fourier sine and Fourier Cosine (CL 2014)
transform of F ' ( x ) is  
10.The value of L−1  3 
1
 is
(a) wf s ( w) + wfc ( w) − 2F ( 0)  p ( p + 1) 
 
(b) wf s ( w) − wfc ( w) − F ( 0) t2 t2
(a) 1 + t + e − t − (b) 1 − t + e − t +
(c) wf s ( w) + wfc ( w) − F ( 0) 2 2
2 2
t t
(d) wf s ( w) − wfc ( w) − 2F ( 0) (c) 1 + t − e − t − (d) 1 − t − e − t +
2 2
(1st Grade 2020)
(CL 2014)
5. Which function is of exponential order: 11.The inverse Fourier transform F ( x ) of
2 3
(a) et (b) et
f ( p) = e
−py
where −  y   will be
(c) cosh ( 3t ) (d) cosh ( t 4 )
y2 y
(a) 2 2 (b) 2/
(CL 2014)
( y + x2 ) ( y + x2 )
2

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
2 y ( y 2 + x 2 ) 16.Laplace Transform of Dirac Delta function is:
y
(c) (d) 2/
( y − x2 )
2
(a) e − as (b) e as
(CL 2014) e − as es
(c) (d)
a s
12.If Fourier cosine transform of (CL tech Edu 2020)
2
f ( x ) = e−2 x + 4e−3 x is 2 I ( p ) , then I ( p ) 1 x

 17.The inverse Laplace transform L−1  2 e c  is :
− s
will be: s 
 1 6   x
(a)  2 + 2  (a) f ( t ) =  t − 
 p − 4 p −9  c
 1 6   x
(b)  2 − 2  (b) f ( t ) =  t −  H ( t )
 p − 4 p −9  c
 1 6   x  x
(c)  2 + 2 (c) f ( t ) =  t −  H  t − 
  c  c
 p + 4 p + 9
 1 6   x  x
(d)  2 − 2 (CL 2014) (d) f ( t ) =  t −  H  t + 
  c  c
 p + 4 p + 9
Where H (.) is Heaviside’s function.
13.If F  F ( x ) = f ( p ) then, F  F ( x ) cos ax  is
(CL tech Edu 2020)
equal to
(a) f ( p + a ) + f ( p − a )
18.If fc ( p ) and f s ( p ) are Fourier cosine and sine
1 transforms of f ( x ) respectively then
(b)  f ( p + a ) + f ( p − a ) 
2 (a) Fc  f ( x ) sin ax =  f s ( p + a ) + f s ( p − a ) 
1
(c) f ( p + a ) − f ( p − a ) 2s
(b) Fc  f ( x ) sin ax =  f s ( p + a ) − f s ( p − a ) 
1
1
(d)  f ( p + a ) − f ( p − a )  (CL 2014) 2
2
(c) Fs  f ( x ) sin ax =  f c ( p − a ) + f s ( p + a ) 
1
14.The Fourier cosine transform of e− x is 2
1 p (d) None of these
(a) (b)
1+ p 2
1 + p2 (CL tech Edu 2020)
(c)
1
(d)
p  p 
1− p 2
1 − p2 19.The value of L−1  2 2 2  is
(CL 2014)  ( p + a ) 
15.If the first 100 derivative of F ( x ) vanish x
(a) − sin ax (b)
x
sin ax
identically as x → , then Fourier transform a 2a
x x
 d 101  (c) − sin ax (d) cos ax
of  101 F ( x )  = 2a 2a
 dx  (CL tech Edu 2020)
(a) p101 f ( p ) (b) − p101 f ( p ) − x2
(c) ip101 f ( p ) (d) −ip101 f ( p ) 20.The Fourier transform of e is :

2
p2
(CL 2014) 2
(a) e 2 (b) e p
Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
1
− p2 p2
26.If LJ 0 ( t ) = (1 + p2 )
−
(c) e 2
(d) e 4
2 where J n ( t ) is a
(CL tech Edu 2020) Bessel function of order n, then 1 − LJ1 (t ) =
21.In general notation the relation between p 1
Fourier and Laplace transform is (a) 2 (b) 2
p +1 p +1
(a) F F ( t ) = LF (t )
p p2
(c) (d)
(b) F  F ( t ) = L F ( t )
1
a
( p 2 + 1) ( p 2 + 1)
(c) F F ( t ) = L  F ( G ( t ) ) (CL 2020)
(d) F F ( t ) = 
L F (G (t ))   
1
27.If L f (t ) = F ( p ) then L  f ( x ) dx = 0
t
a 0
(CL tech Edu 2020)
(a) F ( p ) + p (b) pF ( p )
1
22.The inverse Fourier sine transform of F ( s ) = F ( p)
s (c) (d) v F ( p ) − p
is p
1  1  (CL 2020)
(a) Fs−1   = (b) Fs−1   = 
s 2 s 2 t   1 
28.If L  2  = p −3/2 , then L  =
1  1      t 
(c) Fs−1   = (d) Fs−1   =
s 2 s 2 (a) p (b) p
−1 −1/2
(CL tech Edu 2020) (c) p (d) p
23.The exponential order of F (t ) = t 2 is (CL 2020)
(a) 3 (b) 2 29.If L F ( p ) = f (t ) , and f ( 0) = 0 then
−1
(c) 1 (d) 0 L−1  pF ( p ) =

(CL 2020)
f '(t )
24.If L 
sin t   sin at  (a) f ' ( t ) − t (b)
 = cot p, then L  =
−1
t
 t   t 
(c) tf ' ( t ) (d) f ' ( t )
1 a
(a) tan −1 (b) tan −1 (CL 2020)
ap p
  t
1 1 −1  p
(c) tan −1 ap (d) tan −1 30.If  2 2  = sin t , then 2.
L
a p  ( p + 1)  2
(CL 2020)
 1 
L−1  2
=
25. L ( t − 1) H ( t − 1) =  ( p + 1) 
2 2
e− p 2e − p (a) t sin t − cos t (b)

sin t
− cos t
(a) 2 2 (b)
p p3 t
(c) 2 p 2e − p (d) 2 p 3e − p t2
(c) sin t − t cos t (d) sin t − t cos t
(CL 2020) 2
(CL 2020)

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
31.If 
 e−1/ p 
 cos 2 t then for 
e 
− a/ p
 33.If Fourier cosine transform of f ( x ) is e − as ,
=
−1
L  , a  0, L−1  

 p  ( t ) 
 p   
then f ( x) =
is 2
cos 2a t  cos 2 ( at ) (a) 2
a
(b)
a2
(a) (b) a + x2 a2 + x2
( t ) ( t ) x x2
a cos 2 t  a cos 2 t 
(c) 2 (d) 2
a + x2 a + x2
(c) (d) (CL 2020)
( t ) ( at )
(CL 2020) Answer Key
−
x2 1A 2B 3D 4D 5C 6D 7A
32.Fourier transform of f ( x ) = e 2
is
−
p 8D 9A 10D 11B 12C 13B 14A
(a) e −2 p (b) e 2
p2
p 2
(c) e− p (d) e
−
2 15D 16A 17C 18D 19D 20C 21A
2
(CL 2020) 22D 23 A,B,C 24B 25B 26C 27C
28D 29D 30C 31D 32D 33A

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
Linear Algebra
1. The linear transformation t : V2 ( R ) → V2 ( R ) such F V1  = (1,0) , F V2  = ( 2, −1) , F V3  = ( 4,3)
that t ( 2,3) = (12,15) and t (1,0) = ( 0,0) is then F ( 2, −3,5) is
defined by (a) ( 0,0 ) (b) ( 3, 4 )
¼a½ t ( x1, x2 ) = ( x1 − x2 ,4x2 )
(c) ( 9,16) (d) ( 9,23)
¼b½ t ( x1, x2 ) = ( 4x2 ,5x2 ) ¼1st Grade 2018½
¼c½ t ( x1, x2 ) = ( 4x1,5x2 ) 6. V3 ( R ) is a vector space over the real field the
¼d½ t ( x1, x2 ) = ( x1 + x2 , x1 − x2 ) coordinate vector of ( 3,1, −4 ) relative to the basis
¼1st Grade 2011½ V1 = ( 0,0,1) ,V2 = ( 0,1,1) and V3 = (1,1,1) is
2. The set 1,3,2 ,1, −7, −8 and 2,1, −1 of
(a) ( −5, −2,3) (b) ( −5,2, −3)
3
vectors in R is (c) ( 5, −2, −3) (d) ( −5,2,3)
¼a½ jSf[kd vkfJr linearly dependent st
¼b½jSf[kd LorU= independent ¼1 Grade sank. Edu 2020½
¼c½jSf[kd vkf{kr o jSf[kd LorU= linearly dependent and 7. The sum of the eigen values of the matrix
linearly independent  −2 2 −3 
¼d½buesa ls dksbZ ughaA None of these  2 1 −6  is equal to
 
¼1st Grade 2013½  −1 −2 0 
3. If V be a vector space of dimension n then which
(a) −2 (b) −1
one of the following is not true?
(c) 0 (d) 1
¼a½Every list of ¼n+1½ vectors of V is linearly
¼1st Grade sank. Edu 2020½
independent
(b)No list of ( n −1) vectors of V can span V .
3 −1
8. Linear combination of matrix  =   in
1 −2
(c)Any set of ( n −1) linearly independent vectors is
1 1 
a basis of V . vector space of matrices matrices A =  
(d)Any set of n vectors that spans V is a basis. 0 −1
¼1st Grade 2015½  1 1 1 1 
B=  and C =   is
4. R is a field of real numbers x, y, z are rational  −1 0 0 0 
numbers then ( x, y, z ) is (a)  = A + B + C
(a)always subspace of V3 ( R ) (b)  = 2A + B + C
(c)  = 2 A − B + 2C
(b)always basis
(d)  = A − 2B + C
(c)Vector space over R
¼1st Grade C.L. Part 1 2014½
(d)None of these ¼1st Grade 2018½
9. If 1 , 2 , 3 are eigen values of a 3 order square
rd
5. If S = V1,V2 ,V3 be the basis for R 3 where
matrix A then
V1 = (1,1,1) ,V2 = (1,1,0) ,V3 = (1,0,0 ) and the 1
( a ) 1  2  3 = A and ( b ) 1  2  3 = A
linear transformation F : R → R is such that
3 2
3
Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
(a)Only (a) is true 1 0 0 
(b)Only (b)is true 
15. The product of the eigen values of 0 3 −1 is

(c)both (a)and (b)are true  
(d)Neither (a)nor (b)is true
 0 −1 3 
¼1st Grade C.L. Part 1 2014½ equal to
10. Union of two subspaces W1 and W2 of a vector (a) −4
(b) 4
space V ( F ) is a subspace iff (c) −8
(a) W1  W2 and W2  W1 (d) 8
¼C.L. Tech. Edu 2014½
(b) W1  W2 or W2  W1 16. Consider the following row vectors
(c) W1  W2 or W2  W1 a1 = (1,1,0,1,0,0) , a2 = (1,1,0,0,1,0) , a3 = (1,1,0,0,0,1)
(d)None of these ¼ C.L.2014½ a4 = (1,0,1,1,0,0) , a5 = (1,0,1,0,1,0) , a6 = (1,0,1,0,0,1).
2
11. C (a Set of pair of complex numbers) is not a vector The dimension fo the vector space spanned by these row
space over K when vectors is
(a) K = R (the set of real numbers) (a)6 (b) 5
(b) K = Q (The set of rational numbers) (c) 4 (d) 3
(c) K = C (the set of complex number) ¼C.L. Tech. Edu 2014½
(d) K = Z (The set of integers) 17. Consider the linear transformation T : R → R given
4 4
by T ( x, y, z, u ) = ( x, y,0,0) ( x, y, z, u )  R .
4
¼ C.L. 2014½
12. The dimension of the subspace W of vector space R 4 Then which one of the following is correct?
Spanned by vectors (1, −4, −2,1) , (1, −3, −1,2 ) and (a) Rank of T  Nullity of T
(b) Rank of T  Nullity of T
(3, −8, −2,7 ) is
(c) Rank of T = Nullity of T = 3
(a)1 (b)2 (c)3 (d)4
st
¼1 Grade C.L. Part 1 2014½ (d) Rank of = Nullity of T = 2
 2 2 ¼C.L.Tech. Edu 2014½
13. The character equation of the matrix A=  is 1 2
1 3 M =  and M − M − I 2 = 0 then  =
2
18. If
(a) A − 5 A + 4 = 0
2
(b) A + 4 A + 5I = 0
2  2 3 
(a) −2 (b) 2
(c) A − 5 A + 4 I = 0 (d) A + 5 A + 4 I = 0
2 2
(c) −4 (d) 4
¼1st Grade C.L. Part 1 2014½
¼C.L. Tech. Edu. 2020½
1 4
19. If A − A + I = 0, then A =
−1
14. Let A = 
2
 Then eigenvector corresponding to
 2 3 (a) A−2 (b) A + I
eigenvalue 5 is
(c) I − A (d) A − I
(a) (1,1) (b) ( 2, −1)
t t
¼C.L.Tech. Edu. 2020½
(c) ( −1, −2 ) (d) ( −2, −1)
t t 20. Which of the following statements is not true?
(a)Any list of vectors in a vector space V containing
¼1st Grade C.L. Part 1 2014½ the zero vector is always linearly dependent
(b)A void set is always linearly independent set.
(c)Any superset of a linearly independent set of
vectors in a vector space is linearly independent.

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
(d)A set containing a single non-zero vector is  −1 2 2 
always linearly independent. 
23. The eigen values of the matrix 2 2 2  are –
21. If V be a finite dimensional vector space over a field F 
and S and T be its two subspaces, then dim ( S + T )  −3 −6 −6 
(a) 0, 2, −3 (b) 0, −2, −3
is equal to
(d) 0, −2, −3
(a) dim ( S ) + dim (T ) − dim ( S  T )
(c) 0, 2,3 (C.L. 2021)
24. If V = (1, K ,5) is an element of vector space
(b) dim ( S ) + dim (T )
V = V3 ( R ) , then for which value of k , the vector v is
(c) dim ( S  T ) − ( dim S + dimT )
a linear combination of vectors v1 = (1, −3,2) and
(d) dim ( S  T ) − dim ( S  T ) (C.L. 2021)
v2 = ( 2, −1,1) ?
22. If V and two vector spaces fo dimensions m and n (a) −8 (b) 8
respectively and t : V → V ' be a linear transformation (c) −10 (d) 10 (C.L. 2021)
of rank r , then which of the following is true? 25. If V and V ' be finite dimensional vector spaces over the
(a) r = max ( m, n ) (b) r  min ( m, n ) same field F , then dim homo (V ,V ') is equal to
(c) r  max ( m, n ) (d) r  min ( m, n ) (a) dim V + dimV '
(C.L. 2021) (b) dim V + dim V ' − dim (V V ')

(c) dim V  dimV '
(d) dim (V V ') − dim (V V ') (C.L. 2021)
Metric Space
1. In a matric space ( X , d ) which of the following (d) A B  A B

statements is correct? (1st Grade 2015)
(a) X is open but not closed 3. If ( X , d ) is a metric space, then which statement
(b) Every open set is an open sphere is not true:
(c) For a closed set A, A = A where A denotes (a)  is open
the closure of A (b) X is open
(d) Every open sphere is an open interval (c) The union of arbitrary collection of open sets is
(1st Grade 2011) open
2. If ( X , d ) be a metric space and let A, B  X , (d) The intersection of infinite number of open sets
is open (C.L. 2014)
then true statement is.
(a) A is a open set
4. If ( X , d ) is a metric space, then which statement
is true:
(b) A is closed if and only if A= A
(c) A B  A B
(a)On real line, with usual metric, singleton set  x
is open.
(b) Every set in a discrete space ( X , d ) is open
Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
(c) The set Q of rational numbers is closed 10.If ( X , d ) be a metric space and x, y, z are in a
(d) Every finite subset of a metric space is not straight line, then
5.
necessarily be closed
Which statement is not true:
(C.L. 2014)
(a) d ( x, y )  d ( x, z ) + d ( z, y )
(a)Every closed subset of a compact metric space is (b) d ( x, y )  d ( x, z ) − d ( z , y )
compact.
(c) d ( x, y )  d ( x, z ) − d ( z , y )
(b) The discrete space ( X , d ) where X is finite set,
is compact. (d) d ( x, y )  d ( x, z ) − d ( z , y )
(c) open interval (0,1) with usual metric is compact. (C.L. 2020)
(d) Compactness is connected with heineborel
11.Which of the following is not true?
property . (C.L. 2014)
(a)Every open interval is an open set
6. A subset A of a metric space X is closed iff its (b) Every closed interval is a closed set.
complement A’ is- (c) Every singleton set is an open set
(a)Closed (d) Every finite set is a closed set. (C.L. 2020)
(b) Open
12.If A is any subset of metric space X, then
(c) Bounded
(a)A is open iff A contains all its limit points.
(d) None of these (C.L. 2014)
(b) A is open iff A is neighbourhood of each of its
7. A mapping d : R  R → R defined by points
1 , x  y
d ( x, y ) =   x, y  R, then d is
(c) A is closed iff interior ( A) = A
0 , x = y (d) The diameter of A is less than the diameter of
known as: A, (closure of A = A ) (C.L. 2020)
(a)Usual Metric 13.If d is a metric on X and Kd ( x, y ) is a metric on
(b) Trivial Metric
(c) Euclidean Metric X then:
(d) None of these (C.L. 2014) (a) K  0
8. In the statement of Heiner Borel Theorem, a subset (b) K = 0
A of R is compact iff: (c) K  0
(a) A is bounded and open (d) None of these (C.L.2020)
(b) A is unbounded and open 14.Let d be the usual metric defined as
(c) A is bounded and closed d ( x, y ) = x − y  x, y  R. If A = 1,2 and
(d) A unbounded and closed (C.L. 2014)
B = 3,5 then relation between diameter of A
9. ( X , d ) be a Metric space and A be a subset of X ,
and B is.
then diameter of A is:
(a) d ( A) − d ( B ) = 0
(a) inf d ( a1 , a2 ) : a1 , a2  A
d ( A) + d ( B ) = 0
inf,d ( a1 + a2 , a1 − a2 ) : a1 , a2  A
(b)
(b)
(c) d ( B ) + 1 = d ( A)
(c) sup.d ( a1, a2 ) : a1, a2  A
(d) d ( A) + 1 = d ( B ) (C.L.2020)
(d) sup,d ( a1 , a2 , a1 / a2 ) : a1, a2  A
15.If A,B be subsets of a metric space X, then which of
(C.L. 2020) the following is not true?
Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
(a)interior of
( A  B ) = (interior of A)  (interior of B)
(b) A is open iff interior of A = A
(c) A  B  interior of A  interior of B
(d) ( interior of A)  (interior of B)  interior of
( A  B) (C.L. 2020)
16.Two sets A and B are not separated sets if
(a) A = ( 2,3) and B = ( 3,4 )
(b) A = ( 3,4) and B =  4,5

(c) A = ( 2,3) and B = ( 4,5)
(d) None of these (C.L. 2020)
17.If A be be a compact subset of a metric space
( X , d ) and B be a closed subset of X such that
A  B =  , then
(a) d ( A, B )  0
(b) d ( A, B )  0
(c) d ( A, B ) = 0
(d)None of these (C.L. 2020)

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
Special Function
❖ Bessel function :
( −1) n+2r
r
 x
Jn ( x ) =   
r =0 r n+r 2
2 2
+ x + ( x2 − n2 ) y = 0
xd y dy
Deff. Eq. 2
dx dx
❖ J − n ( x ) = ( −1) J n ( x )
n
xJ n ' ( x ) = nJ n ( x ) − xJ n +1 ( x ) 

xJ n ' ( x ) = − xJ n ( x ) + xJ n −1 ( x ) 
d n 
x J n ( x ) = x n J n −1 ( x )  Recurence
dx 
d −n 
x J n ( x ) = − x − n J n +1 ( x ) 
dx 
 2nJ n = x  J n +1 + J n −1 
2 J n1 = J n −1 J n +1
4 J 0 ( x ) + 3J 0 ( x ) + J 3 ( x ) = 0 
 '" '

 " 
2 J 0 ( x ) = J 2 ( x ) − J 0 ( x )
 

❖ Generating function :-
 x 1 
 J n ( x ) z = exp   z −  
n
n =− 2  z 
cos ( x sin  ) = J 0 + 2cos 2 J 2 + 2cos 4 J 4 + ....


sin ( x sin  ) = 2sin  J1 + 2sin 3 J 3 + ...

❖ Integral Representation of Bessel function .
1
Jn ( x) =
 cos ( n − x sin  ) d
r
 0
 ( n + 2r ) n + r
❖ x n = 2n  J n+ 2 r ( x )
r =0 r
−n
 x
J n ( x ) = −1 ei x t (1 − t 2 ) dt
1
❖   n+
1
2   2
J1 2 2
❖ ( x) \ sin x, J −1 ( x ) = cos x
2 x 2 x
2
J 1 ( x) = sin x,
x
❖ 2
2
J ( x) = cos x
−
1
2 x
Dr. Ashutosh Sharma & Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 59 | P a g e

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
❖ Orthogonality
0, 
 2
 xJ n ( n ) J n (  x ) dx =  a 2
a
 J n +1 ( a ) ,  = 
0
2
d
dx
( J n2 + J n2+1 ) = ( nJ n2 − ( n + 1) J n2+1 )
2
x
( xJ n J n+1 ) = x ( J n2 − J n2+1 )
d
dx
x = 2 J 0 J1 + 6 J1 J 2 + ... + 2 ( 2n + 1) J n J n +1
❖ Diff. Equation
d2y
+ x + ( x2 − n2 ) y = 0
dy
Bessel - x 2 2
dx dx
2
Legendre - (1 − x ) 2 − 2 x + n ( x + 1) y = 0
2 d y dy
dx dx
2
d y dy
P ( x) 2 + Q ( x) + R ( x) y = 0
dx dx
x = x0 P ( x0 )  0 and P, Q, R are continuous at x = x0 then ordinary
P ( x0 ) = 0 or any one of P,Q,R is discts  singular Point
Q ( x) 2 R ( x)
lim ( x − x0 ) & lim ( x − x0 ) exist finitely then regular singular point otherwise irregular
x → x0 P ( x ) x → x0 P ( x)
J 02 + 2 ( J12 + J 22 + ...) = 1
J 0 + 2 ( J 2 + J 4 + ...) = 1
−2
J n J −' n − J n' J − n = sin  x
x
❖ Legendre Polynomial :
2
(1 − x ) ddxy − 2 x dy
2
2
dx
+ n ( x + 1) y = 0
( −1)
2n − 2r x − 2 r
r
n /2
Pn ( x ) =  x
r =0 2 r n − r n − 2r
n
( )
 −1/2
❖ Generating Function:  Pn ( x ) Z n = 1 − 2 xz + z 2
n =0
❖ Pn ( − x ) = ( −1) Pn ( x )
n
1
❖ P 'n (1) = n ( n + 1)  Pn (1) = 1
2
2n  −n 1 − n 1 1  −n −n 1
❖ Pn ( x ) = x n 2 f1  , , − n, 2  = x x 2 f1  , ;1;1 − 2 
2 ( n)
2
n
 2 2 2 x   2 2 x 
Pn ( x ) z n  
= e zx 0 f1  0;1; z 2 ( x 2 − 1) 
1

n  4 

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
1
( −1)   ( 2x )
s x −2 s
 x /2  2 n − s
Pn ( x ) = 
s =0 s n − 2s
dn
n (
−1 + x 2 )
1
❖ Rodrigue : pn ( x ) = n
x
2 n dx
❖ −1 P0 ( x ) = 2
1
❖ −1 Pn ( x ) dx = 0, n 
1
 x −1  x +1   x +1  x −1 
n n
 
❖ Pn ( x ) =   2 f1  −n, −n;1, =  f  −n, −n,1, 
x −1   2  x +1 
2 1
 2   
2
Orth. −1 Pm ( x ) Pn ( x ) dx =  mn
1
❖
2n + 1
1 n x
❖ Pn ( x ) = 0  x  x 2 − 1 cos   d
  
1 n
❖ Pn ( x ) =   x  x 2 − 1 cos   d
 0 
❖ Pn ( x ) = P− n−1 ( x )
❖ Recurrence Relation :
1. ( 2n +1) xPn ( x ) = ( n +1) Pn+1 ( x ) + nPn−1 ( x )
2. nPn ( x ) = xPn ' ( x ) − Pn'−1 ( x )
3. ( 2n + 1) Pn ( x ) = Pn'+1 ( x ) − Pn'−1 ( x )
4. ( n + 1) Pn = Pn'+1 − xPn' ( x )
5. (1 − x 2 ) Pn' ( x ) = n  Pn−1 − xPn ( x )
6. (1 − x 2 ) Pn' ( x ) = ( n + 1)  xPn ( x ) − Pn+1 ( x )
❖ Beltrami’s result : ( 2n + 1) ( x 2 − 1) Pn' = n ( n + 1)  Pn+1 − Pn−1 

dPn
❖ Christoffel’s ex: = ( 2n − 1) Pn −1 + ( 2n − 5 ) Pn −3 + ( 2n − 9 ) pn −5
dx
❖ P 'n+1 + Pn' ( x ) = P0 + 3P1 + ... + ( 2n + 1) Pn
 1 1
❖ 0 Pn ( cos  ) cos n d = B  n + ,  , ( Beta function )

 2 2
❖ Zeros of Pn ( x ) are all real & lies b/w -1 to 1.
 1 x
❖ Musphy’s formula : Pn ( x ) = 2 F1  −n, n + 1;1; − 
 2 2
x −1 
n
1 x 
❖ Pn ( x ) =  +  2 F1  −n, −n;1; 
2 2  x +1 
Bessel - x = 0 Reg, x =  irr
Legendre - x = 1 both Reg.

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
1. If J n ( x ) denotes Bessel’s function of first kind, (d) nPn ( x ) = xPn'+1 − Pn'−1 ( x ) (C.L. 2014 )
then the value of 2n. jn ( x ) is 6. For Bessel function J n ( x ) which series is correct
(a) J n−1 ( x ) − J n+1 ( x ) jacobi series.
(a) cos ( x sin  ) = 2 J1 ( x ) sin3 + ....
( )
(b) x J n+1 ( x ) + J n−1 ( x )
(b) cos ( x sin  ) = J 0 ( x ) + 2J 2 ( x ) cos2
(c) x ( J ( x ) − J ( x ) )
n+1 n−1
(d)None of these (1st Grade 2011) + 2J 4 ( x ) cos4 + ...

2. If J n ( x ) represents the Bessel function then the (c) cos ( x cos ) = 2J1 ( x ) cos − 2J 3
true relation is ( x ) cos3 + 2J5 ( x ) cos5 + ...
(a) xJ ' ( x ) = nJ n ( x ) + xJ n+1 ( x )
(d) cos ( x sin  ) = J 0 ( x ) − 2J 2 ( x )
(b) 2 J 'n ( x ) − J n+1 ( x ) = J n−1 ( x )
cos2 + 2J 4 ( x ) cos4 + .... (C.L. 2014 )
(c) xJ 'n ( x ) = −nJ n ( x ) + xJ n−1 ( x )
7. The Value of the integral  x2 J1 ( x ) dx is
(d) 2nJ n ( x ) = x  J n−1 ( x ) − J n+1 ( x )
(a) x 2 J1 ( x ) + c (b) x2 J −1 ( x ) + c
(1st Grade 2013)
(c) x2 J −1 ( x ) + c (d) x2 J −2 ( x ) + c
3. If J n ( x ) is Bessel function then J n−1 ( x ) / J n+1 ( x )
(Lect. Tech. Edu. 2014)
is 1
(a) nJ n ( x ) + xJ 'n ( x ) / nJ n ( x ) − xJ 'n ( x ) 8. The Value of  P3 ( x ) P4 ( x ) dx is equal to
−1
(b)  xJ n ( x ) + nJ 'n ( x ) /  xJ n ( x ) − nJ 'n ( x ) (a) 1 (b) 0

2 2
(c)  xJ n ( x ) + nJ 'n ( x ) / nJ n ( x ) − xJ 'n ( x ) (c) (d)
9 7
(d) nJ n ( x ) + xJ 'n ( x ) / nJ n ( x ) − xJ 'n ( x ) (Lect. Tech. Edu. 2014)
(1st Grade San. 2020) 9. The value of P2 ( x ) is given as
1
( 3x 2 + 1)
1
( −3 x 2 + 1)
4. Which statements is true for legendre Function of
(a) (b)
first kind Pn ( X ) 2 2
(c) ( 3 x 2 − 1) (d) − ( 3x 2 + 1)
1 2 1 1
(a)  P502 ( x ) dx =
−1 101 2 2
1 2 (Lect. Tech. Edu. 2014)
(b)  P100 ( x ) P200 ( x ) dx = 10. If J 0 J1 are Bessel’s Function then J1' ( x ) is given by
−1 301
(c) P50 ( x ) = 50
1 d 51
2 50 dx 51 (
x 2 − 1) 
50
 (a) − J 0 (b) J 0 ( x ) +
1
x
J1 ( x )
1
1 d 50
(d) P50 ( x ) = 50
2 50 dx50
( x 2
− 1) 
51
(C.L. 2014 )  (c) J 0 (d) J 0 ( x ) − J1 ( x )
x
5. Which recurrence relation for Legendre function of d
first kind is incorrect. 11. The value of x −1  xJ n J n+1  =
dx
(a) ( 2n + 1) Pn ( x ) = P 'n+1 ( x ) − P 'n−1 ( x )
(a) J n2 + J n2+1
(b) nPn ( x ) = xP ( x ) − P ( x)
' '
n n−1 (b) ( J n + J n+1 )( J n − J n+1 )
(c) ( n + 1) Pn ( x ) = Pn+1 ( x ) − xPn ( x )
' '
(
(c) J n2 + J n2+1 )( J 2
n − J n2+1 )
Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
(d) ( J n − J n+1 ) 16. If Pn ( x ) be Legendre polynomial of order n, then
2
1 which of the following is not true for all values of n?
12. The value of  P2 n ( x ) dx is
−1 (a) Pn (1) = 1
(b) Pn ( −1) = ( −1)
(a) 1 (b) 0 n
(c) x (d) 2n
(c) Pn ( − x ) = ( −1) Pn ( x )
n
13. The square of geometric mean of Bessel’s
(d) Pn ( 0) = 0 (C.L. 2020)
Functions J 1 ( x ) and J 1 ( x ) is
2
−
2 17. If Pn ( x ) be the Legendre polynomial of order n,
then 3P1 ( x ) + 2P3 ( x ) =
sin 2x sin 2x
(a) (b)
x  2 x2
cos 2x sin 3x (a) P0 ( x )
(c) (d)
x  (b) x
(Lect. Tech. Edu. 2020) (c) x 2
14. The relation among P0 ( x ) , P1 ( x ) and P2 ( x ) is (d) 5x3 (C.L. 2020)
( )
1
(a) P2 ( x ) = 3xP1 ( x ) − 2P0 ( x )
' 2
18.  P n dx =
−1
(b) 2P2 ( x ) = xP1 ( x ) + 3P0 ( x ) (a) n(n+1)
(c) 2P2 ( x ) = 3xP1 ( x ) − P0 ( x )
(b) n-1
(c) n+1
(d) 3P2 ( x ) = 2xP1 ( x ) − P0 ( x ) (d) n(n-1) (C.L. 2020)
(Lect. Tech. Edu. 2020) 19. Which of the following results is false?
(a) J 0' = − J1
 d ( x − 1) 
 n 2 n

15. For n Legendre polynomial Cn  
th
n  (b) 2J 0" = J 2 − J 0
 dx 
  (c) J0" = xJ0' + J 2
the value of C n is
(d) J3 + 3J 0' + 4J 0" = 0 (C.L. 2020)
1 n
(a) n (b) n 20. Which of the following is not true?
(a) xJ n' ( x ) = xJ n−1 ( x ) − nJ n ( x )
2 n 2
2n
(b) xJ n ( x ) = nJ n ( x ) − xJ n+1 ( x )
n '
(c) n 2 (d)
n
(c) J 0 ( x ) = − J1 ( x )
'

(d) J 0' ( x ) = J1 ( x ) − J0 ( x) (C.L. 2020)
x

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555
ANSWER KEY
Ring Theory
Practice set 1.
5. 4
Practice set 2
10. No, yes
Practice set 3
2. 0 , 1 , 2 , 3
3. No, because it is a field and every field has only two ideals
8. (i)  3 (ii)  5 (iii)  2 i  (iv)  2

 2
 
1. A 4. A 7. C 10. A 13. A
2. D 5. B 8. A 11. A 14. C
3. B 6. A 9. D 12. D 15. D
TENSOR ANALYSIS
1. B 6. C 11. D 16. D 21. A
2. A 7. C 12. B 17. A 22. A
3. C 8. A 13. C 18. A 23. C
4. B 9. B 14. * 19. A 24. D
5. D 10. C 15. A 20. * 25. D
LINEAR ALGEBRA
1. B 6. A 11. D 16. C 21. A
2. A 7. B 12. B 17. D 22. B
3. A,C 8. * 13. C 18. D 23. B,D
4. D 9. A 14. A 19. C 24. A
5. D 10. B 15. D 20. C 25. C
METRIC SPACE
1. C 5. C 9. C 13. A 17. A
2. B 6. B 10. C,D 14. D
3. D 7. B 11. C 15. A
4. B 8. C 12. B 16. B
SPECIAL FUNCTION
1. B 5. D 9. C 13. A 17. D
2. C 6. B 10. D 14. C 18. A
3. A 7. D 11. B 15. A 19. C,D
4. A 8. B 12. B 16. D 20. D

Mob. : 7792988108, 8696149555

Special Function, Tensor, Ring

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INNOVATIVE INSTITUTE OF MATHEMATICS

oy; ¼fjax½ dh ifjHkk’kk ¼Definition of a Ring½ %&

R1 : ;ksx dk lkgp;Z ¼Associativity of Addition½ ( a + b ) + c = a + (b + c ) a, b, c  R

Øefofues; ¼vkcsyh½ xzqi gks lkgp;Z fu;e dk ikyu djrk gks

Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 1|Page

Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 2|Page

oy; lEcU/kh ifjHkk’kk,¡ ¼Some definitions Related to a Ring½ %&

a  0, ba = ca  b = c ¼nf{k.k fujlu fu;e½

3. oy; dk dsUnz ¼Centre of a ring½ %&

4. oy; ds ,d vo;o dk izlkekU;d ¼Normalizer of an element of a ring½ %&

oy; ds mnkgj.k ¼Examples of Rings½ %&

¼i½ ( z, + ) , ( Q, + ) , ( R, + ) , ( C, + ) izR;sd fudk; ,d vkcsyh xzqi gSA

¼ii½ izR;sd fudk;  lafØ;k ds fy, lkgp;Z gSA

Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 3|Page

¼i½ oy; 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 , +8 , 8  esa 2, 4 rFkk 6 “kwU; ds Hkktd gS D;ksfa d 2 8 4 = 0, 4 8 2 = 0, 4 8 6 = 0,6 8 4 = 0

¼i½ oy; ( z, +, ) , ( Q, +, ) rFkk ( c, +, ) lc iw.kkZadh; izkUr gSA

¼ii½oy; z3 = (0,1,2, +3 , 3 ) ,d iw.kkZadh; izkUr gSA

8. {ks= ds mnkgj.k ¼Example of field½ %&

¼ii½oy; Z3 = 0,1,2 , +3 , 3  ,d {ks= gSA

Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 4|Page

oy; ds izkjfEHkd xq.k/keZ ¼Elementary Properties of a Ring½ %&

;fn lEHko gks rks ekuk a, b  R; a  0, b  0 rFkk a  b = 0 ........(i )

vr% R “kwU; Hkktd jfgr gSA

Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 5|Page

Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 6|Page

vc ekuk a + ib  0 + i0  J dk xq.kukRed izfrykse x + iy gS] rks

vr% ( J , +, ) {ks= ugha gSA

Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 7|Page

4 fl) dhft, fd izR;sd 2 vfHky{k.k okyh Øefofues; oy; esa ( a + b ) = a 2 + b2 .

5 oy;  z4 , +4 , 4  dk vfHky{k.k Kkr dhft,A

mioy; rFkk HkkxQy {ks= ¼foHkkx {ks=½

Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 8|Page

lkFk gh a  S , b  S  a  b  S ¼ S xq.ku lafØ;k ds fy, lao`Ùk gSA½

mi{ks= ¼Subfield½ rFkk vHkkT; {ks= ¼Prime Field½

vHkkT; {ks= ¼Prime Field½ %

iqu% ;fn b  0, b  K rc K {ks= gS blfy, b −1 dk vfLrRo gS rFkk K esa fo|eku gSA

Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 10 | P a g e

Okke xq.ktkoyh ¼Left Ideal½ %&

nf{k.k xq.ktkoyh ¼Ringht Ideal½

xq.ktkoyh ¼Ideal½ %&

Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 11 | P a g e

ljy oy; ¼Simple Ring½ %&

gy %& vc mZ   rFkk ;fn mx1  mZ , mx2  Z rks

 mZ ;ksx lafØ;k ds fy, mixqzi gSA

vr% leqPp; mZ , oy; ( Z , +, ) dh xq.ktkoyh gSA

vc a  I rFkk a −1  F  a  a −1  I  I x.qktkoyh gAS

Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 12 | P a g e

ekuk 0  a  R tc Ra =ra ; k ar | r   ,d xq.ktkoyh gSA

pw¡fd R esa dksbZ mfpr xq.ktkoyh ugha gS blfy, Ra = 0 ;k Ra = R

Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 13 | P a g e

lkFk gh I , oy; R esa xq.ktkoyh gS rFkk bldk ,d vo;o a gSA

ekuk fd R esa ,d vkSj xq.ktkoyh K gS ftlesa ,d vo;o a gS rc

Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 14 | P a g e

 a  Z , a1  Z  aa1  Z , a1b, b1c  Z  a1b + b1c  Z 

vr% U , R esa ,d xq.ktkoyh gSA

gy %& p¡wfd R esa S xq.ktkoyh gS blfy, S  R

Dr. Ashutosh Sharma, Dr. Onkar Singh Bhati 15 | P a g e

vHkkT; xq.ktkoyh ¼Prime Ideal½ %&

mnkjg.k %&  Z , +,  oy; esa xq.ktkyh

mfPp’B xq.ktkoyh ¼Maximal Ideal½ %&

mnkjg.k %& ekuk R iw.kkZadks dk oy; gS vFkkZr~ R =  Z , +, 

S = 6 = ..., −18, −12, −6,0,6,12,18,....

ijUrq U = 3 = ....., −18, −15, −12, −9, −6, −3,0,3,6,9,12,15,18,...