CHAPTER ONE

INVESTIGATION FOR BRIDGE

1.1 General Introduction
1.1.1 Definition and Introduction to Bridge

A bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle. The obstacle may be a river,
valley, road or railway. The passage may be for highway or railway traffic, pedestrian, canal
or pipeline.

As the saying “Build bridges and you will have a friend” goes, bridges have a unique
attribute of connecting different people. Rivers and mountains form physical barriers between
people to interact, trade with one another, live and work together. For Ethiopia this holds
especially true as the country is known as “The Water Tower of Africa” due to the high rainfall
we receive, which resulted in quite many big rivers dissecting the rough terrain and flowing
deep in the valleys. Consequently, we are composed of people speaking about 82 different
languages.

Transportation network is crucial for the development and prosperity of a country. Investment
by both nationals and foreigners is crucial for economic development of a country, and one of
the criteria that foreign investors weigh in their investment decisions in a country is the level
of development of the transportation network. Bridges provide essential links in highways and
railways at obstacles. The cost of bridges (and culverts) is a significant proportion of a highway
project.

Many cities and towns are established near rivers and bridges add to the beauty of cities and
towns. Bridges aid the social, cultural and economic improvements of the locations around
them. Bridges also have military strategic importance. The mobility of an army at war is
often affected by the availability or otherwise of bridges to cross rivers. Military training
puts special emphasis on learning how to build new bridges quickly while advancing and
destroy bridges while retreating.

Bridge engineering is one of the fascinating fields in civil engineering calling for expertise in
many areas: structural analysis and design, geotechnical investigation, traffic projection,
surveying, runoff calculation and methods of construction. A bridge engineer has to have an
appreciation of economics and aesthetics besides ability in analysis and design. The materials
and procedures involved in the construction of any sizable bridge are quite varied.

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“From its foundations rooted in bed rock to its towering pylons and vaulting span, a bridge is
a thing of wonder and of poetry.” David B. Steinman

The following Fig. gives components of the most common type of bridge, slab-stringer type.

1- Deck and overpass, 2- Stringer (longitudinal beams), 3-Bearing, 4- Pedestal, 5-Footing

6-Piles, 7-Underpass, 8- Embankment, 9- Live load.

A bridge structure is divided in to upper part (the super structure), which consists of the slab,
the floor system, and the main truss or girders, and a lower part (the substructure), which are
columns, piers, towers, footings, piles and abutments. The super structure provides horizontal
spans, elevating above the ground surface.

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Approach: -It is a part of a bridge length wise to the communication route at the ends of the
bridge. It can either a part of the bridge or a separated small bridge. The main function of
approach is to prevent settlement of the approach pavement.

Wing wall: -Is a wall constructed at both sides of the abutment. And used

• To retain the lateral earth pressure.

• To guide the direction of the river flow.
• To prevent erosion of the bank of the river and the abutment.

Wearing surface: -is a portion of the deck x-section which resists traffic wear. This can be
made either using bituminous materials or an integrated concrete deck. The bituminous wearing
course usually varies in thickness from 51mm to 102mm

Piers: -are structural elements, which sustain superstructure dead load and live loads, carry
their own weight and transmit all loads to the foundation soil. They are constructed of masonry
or reinforced concrete.

Abutments: -is particular type of walls (retaining walls) that supports the end reaction of a
bridge super structure. They resisting loads from the bridge superstructure & earth pressure.

Bearings: -Support the superstructure (girders, slabs,) and transmit the loads to the substructure
(abetments and piers). They connect the upper and lower structures and are designed to resist
forces. This reaction

Span Length: -is the distance between the centers of bearings.

Total width of a bridge: - is defined as the distance between the inside of the owner railings
including walkways.

The width of bridge for differerent number of lanes is given below.

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 Application Width(m)
Two –lane in “urban” area 10.3
Two-lane in “Rural” area 7.3
Singe lane 4.2
Pedestrian 3
Waterway afflux: -The vertical increase of water due to vertical supports.

Freeboard: -The vertical distance between the crown and the level of the bottom of the girder.

Vertical clearance: -The height above roadways. (Min 5.3m)

1.1.2 Historical Development

The History of development of bridges is closely linked with the history of human civilization.
Fig. 1.1 outlines the development of the various forms of bridges. From the point of view of
structural action, bridge structures can be classified into four basic types: beam bridges,
cantilever bridges, suspension bridges and arch bridges.

Nature fashioned the first bridges. Tree fallen accidentally across a chasm or a stream was the
earliest example of a beam type bridge. Similarly, the natural rock arch formed by erosion of
the loose soil below was the earliest forebear of arch bridges. And creepers hanging from tree
to tree allowing monkeys to cross from one bank to the other were the forerunners of suspension
bridges. The ancient who felled tree deliberately across a stream so that it afforded him a
crossing was the first bridge builder. Since the primitive man was a wanderer in search of food
and shelter the first structures he built were bridged.

Around 4000 B.C men were settling to community life and were giving more thought to
permanence of bridges. Between 200 B.C. and 260 A.D. the Romans build many magnificent
stone arch bridges. The arches were semi-circular using massive piers, so that, if one span got
damaged in war, the others would remain standing. Bridge construction was considered very
important an ancient Rome to rule the world. The Chinese were building stone arch bridges
since 250 B.C.

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In the middle ages after the fall of Rome, the bridge building activity was mainly taken up by
the religious orders in Europe. The medieval bridges have decorative and defensive towers,
chapels, statues, shops and dwellings.

Fig. 1.1. Development of Bridges

With the dawn of Renaissance, advances were made in theory, technical skill and mechanical
appliances. Bridges were regarded as civic works of art and the bridge builder was recognized
as a leader in progress and a creator of monuments. Stone masonry segmental arches were
predominantly used in bridges.

The eighteenth century ushered in the age of reason. The first treatise on bridge engineering
was published in 1714 by a French engineer Rubert Gautier. In 1716, the Corps des Ingenieurs
de Ponts et Chaussees was founded for the scientific advancement of bridge construction; and

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in 1747, the Ecole de Ponts et Chaussees at Paris, the first engineering school in the world, was
founded, with Jean Perronet, “Father of modern bridge building”, as the first Director. Perronet
perfected the masonry arch and introduced slender piers, his best work being the Pont de la
Concorda at Paris built in 1791.

Though timber bridges have been built since early days, covered timber bridges of each form
were popular during the late eighteenth century. Wooden bridges were covered for protection
of the timber from the weather. A notable timber bridge was the “Colossus” bridge over the
Schuylkill River at Fairmount, Pennsylvania, with an arch span of 104m. This fine bridge,
build in 1812, was destroyed by fire in 1838.

The first iron bridge was built at Coalbrookdale in 1779 over the Severn in England by
Abraham Darby and John Wilkinson. It consisted of five semicircular arch ribs in iron, joined
together side by side to form a single arch span of 30m. In 1808, James Finley in Pennsylvania
patented a design for a suspension bridge with wrought iron chain cables and level floor. Forty
bridges of this design were built in the USA within the next eight years. Thomas Telford
completed the Menai Strait bridge in Wales in 1826, a suspension bridge with wrought iron
chains with a record-breaking span of 177m. George Stephenson built the first iron railway
bridge in 1823 on the Stockton-Darlington railway. The most famous of the early iron railway
bridge in 1823 on the Stockton-Darlington railway. The most famous of the early iron railway
bridges is the Britannia tubular bridge built by Robert Stephenson in 1850 across the Menai
Strait. It consisted of twin wrought iron tubes, continuous over four spans of 70, 140, 140 and
70m. Wrought iron replaced cast iron in bridge construction during the period 1840-1890.
Many truss bridges of the form Howe, Pratt, Whipple, Bolman, Fink, and Warren were built
on railways during this period.

The failure of a number of wrought iron railway bridges specially, the Howe truss bridge of
Ashtabula, Ohio in 1877 and the Firth of Tay bridge in Scotland in 1879, resulting in serious
loss of life, led to a new era in bridge building – an era of specialization, research, careful
detailing, thorough inspection and a more durable and stronger material-steel.

Steel was first extensively used in the Eads Bridge at St. Louis, Missouri, built in 1874 as a
steel arch bridge of three spans of 153, 158 and 153 m. The Eads bridge was also the first bridge
to use pneumatic caissons in USA, the first bridge to make extensive use of cantilever method
of erection, and the first to specify and test for elastic limit and ultimate strength for steel. The

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first all-steel bridge was built at Glasgow, South Dakota in 1878. Steel was also used in the
cables and spans of Brooklyn Bridge during 1869-83.

With the introduction of steel, the earlier truss forms yielded place to more efficient forms such
as the Baltimore, Parker, Pennsylvania and K-truss types. The world’s longest simple steel
truss bridge span is the suspended span of J.J. Barry bridge across Delaware river with a span
of 251m.

The world’s first modern cantilever bridge was built in 1867 by Heinrich Gerber across the
river Main at Hassfurt, Germany, with a main span of 129m. The world’s most famous
cantilever bridge is the Firth of Forth bridge in Scotland, with two main spans of 521m, built
in 1889. The world’s longest span cantilever bridge was built in 1917 at Quebec, over the St.
Lawrence river, with a main span of 549m. The Howrah bridge over the Hoogly river at
Calcutta, built in 1943 with a main span of 457m, has elegant aesthetics and possesses pleasing
proportions among the suspended span, cantilever arms and the anchor spans.

Inspired by the success of the Eads Bridge, many fine arch bridges were built. Notable among
these are the Hell Gate Bridge at New York with a span of 297 m built in 1971 and the Sydney
harbor bridge at Sydney, Australia, with a span of 503 m built in 1932. The world’s longest
arch bridge in the new River Gorge bridge in West Virginia built in 1976 using weathering
steel with a span of 519 m. The deck type arch span is aesthetically the most pleasing. The
Henry Hudson bridge built in 1936 with a span of 244 m and the Rainbow bridge at Niagara
Falls built in 1941 with a span of 290 m are outstanding examples of beautiful steel arch
bridges.

The first reinforced concrete bridge was built by Adair in 1871 as a 15 m span bridge across
the Waveney at Homersfield, England. Soon after, a 6m arch was built in 1889 at Golden Gate
Park in San Francisco and a girder bridge was built in 1893 by Hennebique as an approach to
a mill at Don, France. The adaptability of reinforced concrete to any architectural form and the
increased efficiency in concrete construction resulted in its widespread use in bridge building.
Maillart in Switzerland produced fine arch bridges in reinforced concrete, utilizing the
integrated structural action of thin arch slabs with monolithically cast stiffening beams. The
longest span concrete arch bridge is the Gladesville built in 1964 at Sydney, Australia, with a
span of 305 m.

The application of prestressing in concrete design opened new horizons in the use of concrete
since 1930. One of the early prestressed concrete bridges was the Mame bridge built by

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Freyssinet in France. The Bendorf bridge over the Rhine in Germany with a main span of 208
m built in 1965 by Finsterwalder using the free cantilever method of construction and adopting
short high tensile bar tendons marked a breakthrough in prestressed concrete bridge
construction.

Recently, cable stayed bridges have gained popularity for long span bridges in the range of
about 200 m. One well known bridge in this category is the Marakaibo Lake bridge in
Venezuela built in 1963. Many bridges of this type have been built in Europe and in Japan.

The suspension bridge has come to stay as the type best suited for very long spans. In 1883 the
Brooklyn Bridge was completed with a main span of 486 m the longest bridge in the world at
that time. Other suspension bridges followed raising the record span. The Golden Gate bridge
at San Francisco was completed in 1937 with a record span of 1280 m. In 1940, the Tacoma
Narrows bridge at Puget Sound, Washington, was opened to traffic. It had a span of 853 m and
stiffening truss only 2.4 m deep. The bridge collapsed the same year during a 68 kmph gale
due to aerodynamic instability. This failure forcefully brought home the need for consideration
of aerodynamic effects on suspension bridges and triggered many theoretical and experimental
studies into the problem.

The next longest span bridge in the world is Humber Estuary Bridge at Humber, England. It
was built in 1981 with a main span of 1410 m. This great bridge is indicative of the irresistible
urge of man to continually thrust forward. According to D.B. Steinman, bridge spans as large
as 3000m are practically feasible and will be built in the future. The Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge in
Japan is now the longest span suspension bridge with a main span of 1990m.

The design of long span bridges always poses a challenge to the ingenuity and to the
perseverance of the designer. Every long span bridge brings in new problems in design
concepts and new construction details. The designer chooses his solution with full freedom of
decision, but with full responsibility for the success of the work. In fact, long span bridges are
creative works, and serve as landmarks in the art of bridge building.

There are many bridges built 30-70 years back in transportation networks which require
maintenance, and some rehabilitation. From this experience, now many codes require
considering (inspectability and) maintainability during design and total cost comparison as
opposed to first cost comparison in bridge selection.

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1.1.3 Historical Development of Bridge Construction in Ethiopia

Early travelers before the 16th century had recorded near complete absence of roads and river
crossings in the country. The rough terrain, deep gorges and fast and high floods during rainy
season that wash off everything are the main difficulties that hindered bridge construction.

Almeida first recorded about two crude but sturdy and useful bridges in the second half of the
16th century. One of these was on Blue Nile near Alata where thick log is placed across the
narrow rocky banks. The whole of emperor Susenyos’ army often crossed by this crossing. The
second one was on river Zebes which is a wide and fast river. A long was placed across and as
people crossed it vibrated up and down.

Portugese mission which came to help the highlander dynasty from Muslim invaders of Harar
constructed the first stone masonry bridge using lime mortar as binder in 1626 near the old
bridge at Alata. Later Susenyos ordered construction of bridges, which was carried out by a
draftsman from India.

During the period following Fasiladas (after 1667) it is said that many bridges were constructed
in Gonder and Lake Tana area. Pankhrust listed the following: two arch bridges at Alata, one
at Sila, one on Gondar-Debretabor road, one on Angereb river, another at the junction of
Angereb and Keha.

Many of the bridges built during the 17th and 18th centuries were destroyed during the civil war
in the Zemene Mesafint. The knowledge of bridge building was also lost during this period.

Emperor Theodros was much admired for his road building activities and built road from his
capital Debretabor to Gojjam, Maqdella and to the north. He supervised the road construction
in person. But most of these might have been temporary bridges.

The first modern bridges seem to have been built by the local chief of Gojjam, king Tekle
Haymanot in the years 1884-1885.

Like many other aspects of modernization, Menelik’s period marks the revival of bridge
building in Ethiopia. During his many campaigns especially to the south, he felt the great
necessity of roads. The first bridge constructed was timber bridge on Awash river.

During and after battle of Adwa, and having seen the difficulty in the march to and back from
Adwa, the emperor was more than determined to construct roads. After the battle he had many
Italian prisoners working on road and bridge construction.

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In Addis the first stone bridge was constructed on Kebena river in 1902 by a Russian engineer
after their compatriate staff was drowned. The second was Ras Mekonnen bridge built in 1908
by Ras Mekonnen. In Jimma and Illubabor areas, fine timber bridges are reported to be
constructed by the local community.

After 1906 Menelik employed many foreign experts: Indians, Greeks, and Italians to construct
roads in the country, especially in the provinces for the first time. But these bridges were made
of timber and stone bridges were exclusively constructed in the capital.

On the eve of Italian invasion of 1935, road building program with the erection of numerous
bridges was initiated and constructed. This was carried out under Ministry of Public Works.
But these served the invaders only.

The years 1935-1941 were the years of occupation by Italians. The great program was
announced in which Italy tried to win Ethiopia and set a program of building major and minor
roads throughout the country.

The following roads were constructed by Italians during this period:

Assab-Serdo-Dessie road – 1504 minor and 80 major bridges constructed 288km road on of
Asmara-Addis road upto Debre Sina – 606 minor and 24 major bridges

Road from Tekkezie to Tanna (431km)-686 minor bridges and culverts and 52 major bridges

Road from Gondar to Debretabor(168km), road from Addis to Mille(138km)-650 small and
50 major bridges. Most of the roads were built to connect Addis to the different parts:

Addis to Debre Sina, Addis to Debre Markos-Gondar-Axum, Addis to Lekemtie, Addis to

Jimma, Addis Ato Nazareth and Assela, Addis to Modjo and Shashemenie, and Addis to Dire
Dawa and Harar.

Bridges were also built to in the Ogaden and Southern Bale regions to connect Addis and
Jimma to their Somali colony. Totally 673 small bridges and culverts and 16 major bridges
were constructed. These were: road to connect Jimma to Indian ocean through Borena and
Filtu (Bale), road to connect Addis with Mogadishu through Ferfer and Shashemenie, and road
connecting Addis to Mogadishu through Ferfer and Harar.

After 1941 the Ministry of Public works was mainly engaged in maintenance of bridges
destroyed in the liberation battles and construction of few new bridges, one of which is Abai
bridge near Dejen constructed in 1949.

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An independent agency for road building was established as Imperial Highway Authority in
1951 with expatriate staff from the US Bureau of Public Roads.

This authority established district headquarters at Shoea, Gondar, Wello, Tigrai, Harar and
Sidamo. Since its establishment, the Authority set different highway maintenance at the
beginning and mainly construction programs. These are

First Highway Program (1951-1957) – this consisted of reconstruction and maintenance

Second Highway Program (1957-1965) – Constructed 1200km new roads and maintained
4500km all-weather roads. Many minor and major bridges were constructed. Abai bridge near
Bahir Dar was constructed in this program.

Third Highway Program (1965-1968) – new and improved standard bridge and culvert plans
were prepared during this program. Many minor and major bridges were constructed.

Fourth Highway Program (1968-1972) – two major road projects were completed during this
period: Lekemte-Ghimbi and Agaro-Bedele roads. Others: Bedele-Mettu, Awash-Tendaho,
Nazareth-Awash, Jimma-Agaro and Dilla-Moyalle projects. Many minor and major bridges
were constructed.

Fifth Higway Program (1972-1975) – During this period, local contractors began to take
major contract projects.

Sixty Highway Program (1975-) – Rural Roads Division established with in the Authority to
program and execute the construction of access roads, mainly in the drought affected areas.
Drought in the north, east and southern parts of the country-initiated construction of low cost,
standard roads where in many small bridges were constructed. A notable bridge constructed
during the Derge regime is the one on Baro river with a total span of 305m, which was the
longest span in the country.

1.2 Elements of a Bridge Project

The design of bridges requires the collection of extensive data and from this the selection of
possible options. From such a review the choice is narrowed down to a shortlist of potential
bridge designs. A sensible work plan should be devised for the marshalling and deployment of
information throughout the project from conception to completion and through the design
period to the end of its life. Such a checklist will vary from project to project but a typical
example might be drawn along the following lines.

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 i) Feasibility Phase: iii) Design phase:
a) data collection; (a) choice of bridge:
b) topographical and hydrographical surveys; (b) detailed design of bridge including foundations,
c) hydrological information; substructure and superstructure;
d) geological and geotechnical information; (c) production of drawings and documentation,
e) site investigation requirements for soil and (d) preparation of quality assurance plan;
rock evaluation (e) estimation of cost and program.
f) Meteorological and aerodynamic data;
g) Assembly of basic criteria; iv) Construction phase:
h) Likely budget (a) contractual matters;
(b) construction methods;
ii) Assembly of design criteria: (c) budget and financial control;
(a) data and properties on the material to be used (d) quality control;
including steel, concrete, timber, masonry, (e) supervision of construction;
etc.; (f) commissioning;
(b) foundation considerations; (g) operating, inspection and maintenance
(c) hydraulic considerations, flood, scour; schedules for each part of the work.
(d) loading and design criteria; iv) Performance phase:
(e) clearance height and width (such as for (a) obligations of owner;
navigation or traffic); (b) management of facility;
(f) criteria for gradients, alignment, etc,; (c) inspection, maintenance and repair;
(g) hazards such as impact, accident; (d) rehabilitation and refurbishment
(h) proximity to other engineering works requirements (change of loading,
(i) functional requirements; widening, change of use and durability
(j) transportation and traffic planning; aspects);
(k) highway and/or railway engineering aspects; (e) decommissioning and demolition
(l) drainage requirements;
(m) provision for services (water, sewage,
power, electricity, telephone,
communications links)
(n) design life and durability considerations.

Such a project list serves to highlight the various requirements of a bridge project

1.3 Design Objectives

The objectives in a bridge design are safety, serviceability, economy, constructability and
aesthetics.

Safety – the primary responsibility of the engineer is to ensure public safety in the design by
ensuring adequate structural safety (the philosophy of achieving structural safety is treated in
subsection 1.5)

Serviceability – consists of satisfying requirements of deformation, durability, inspect ability,

maintainability and ride ability.

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Deformation – Bridges should be designed to avoid excessive deformations that cause
undesirable structural or psychological effects. Limits on deflection or minimum depth to
consider are given in codes (AASHTO 98, Articles 2.5.2.6.2 and 2.5.2.6.3 respectively).

Durability – contract documents specify quality of materials to be used and standards of

fabrication and erection of elements to ensure durability. Self - protecting measures of the
structure from the effects of the weather will be taken during design and construction

Inspectability – inspection ladders, walkways, catwalks and covered access holes will be
provided where other means of inspection are not practical.

Maintainability – structural systems whose maintenance is expected to be difficult should be

avoided

Rideability – the deck of the bridge will be designed to permit smooth movement of traffic.
The number of deck joints will be kept to a practicable minimum.

Economy – structural types, span lengths and materials should be selected based on cost.

The cost of future expenditures during the projected service life of the bridge should be
considered

Constructability – bridges should be designed in a manner such that fabrication and erection
can be performed without undue difficulty or distress and that construction force effects are
within tolerable limits

Aesthetics – Aesthetics aspect and space requirement of buildings are designed by architects.
Aesthetic, space requirement, hydraulic and structural aspects of bridges are designed by civil
engineers. Bridges should complement their surroundings, be graceful in form and present an
appearance of adequate strength. Because the major structural components are the largest parts
and are seen first, they determine the appearance of a bridge.

Oftentimes the most aesthetically pleasing bridge is also the least expensive. Sometimes a
modest increase in construction cost is required to improve the appearance of a bridge. Menn
states that the additional cost is about 2% for short spans and only about 5% for long spans in
California, USA. Public expenditures on improved appearance are generally supported and
appreciated. Given a choice, even with a modest increase in initial cost, the public prefers the
bridge that has a nicer appearance.

Although beauty in anything is somewhat subjective and undefinable, experience has shown
that there are some general guidelines which, if followed, will result in a structure of improved

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appearance. Bearing in mind that a bridge may well serve for 100 years or more, the designer
should become familiar with the aesthetic techniques that may be used to improve the
appearance of a bridge so that the bridge will be a credit to its designer and to itself for many
decades to come. The following are some special areas of concern.

Proportions and Lines. All the members should bear a pleasing relationship to each other.
Columns should not be spindly nor superstructures too heavy. Span lengths should be chosen
carefully. Where there are no other constraints, and odd number is better that an even number,
with the longest span in the center – lines should be mainly horizontal so that the structure
seems to flow from end to end. Intermediate supports should be subdued to that they do not
break the dominant horizontal flow. This means pushing the bent caps up into the
superstructure or covering their ends with skirts to make the longitudinal lines continuous over
the supports. The bridge should look like it was designed as a whole, not as a lot of individual
parts glued together. Bridges using precast concrete or simple steel plate girders require special
treatment to conceal the caps and extend the horizontal lines over the supports. Giving the soffit
lines a slight arch, more than the normal camber, will often improve the overall appearance.

Pleasing Shapes – appearance can be enhanced by avoiding stereotyped round or square

columns and flat soffits. A column which may be adequate structurally will often be too small
to be good looking. Add enough size to make the proportions seem right. Columns, which are
smaller at the bottom than the top, will help make the structure seem lighter and more dynamic.
Make sure the columns are all the same type and size both for appearance and for reusability
of forms. Avoid large expanses of plain concrete. Break them up with ledges to create shadow
lines or use heavily textured panels. Slope the sides of box girders back under the bridge, and
give the bottom edge a large curved fillet to diminish its apparent depth.

Compatibility – make the bridge fit its surroundings. If it looks like it belongs there, it will be
a pleasing addition to its environment. If it is a misfit, it will be an eyesore forever. Even
industrial or utilitarian bridges need not be ugly. It is worthwhile to make every bridge have an
appearance of quality and careful craftsmanship.

Implementation of those features must be balanced with their effects on the structural adequacy
of the bridge as a whole. Consequently, engineers should seek excellent appearance in bridge
parts in the following order of importance: horizontal and vertical alignment and position in
the environment, superstructure type (girder, arch, etc), pier placement, abutment placement

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and height, superstructure shape (haunched, tapered depth), pier shape, abutment shape,
parapet and railing details, surface colors and texture and ornament.

1.4 Design Philosophy

Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to achieve the objectives of safety,
serviceability, economy, constructability and aesthetics. Each component and connection
should be designed to satisfy equation 1-1 for each of the limit states: service, fatigue and
fracture, strength and extreme event limit states. A bridge for which any of these limit states is
exceeded is unfit for the intended function or use. This equation is the basis of the Load and
Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) method, which will be used in this course. Factors obtained
from the theory of reliability based on current statistical knowledge of loads and structural
performances are used for both the loads and the resistances. Besides, ductility and redundancy
are important in ensuring safety.

∑ 𝛈𝐢 𝛄𝐢 𝐐𝐢 ≤ 𝐑 𝐟 . . . . . (1.1)

𝛾i = load factor, a statistically based multiplier applied to force effects

𝜑i = Resistance factor, a statistically based multiplier applied to nominal resistance

i =Load modifier, a factor relating to ductility, redundancy and operational importance

Qi = force effect, Rn = nominal resistance and Rf = factored resistance = φRn

The different limit states may be defined now

Strength limit state – is meant to ensure that strength and stability, both local and global, are
provided to resist the specified statistically significant load combinations that a bridge is
expected to be subjected to in its design life

Service limit state – is restrictions on stress, deformation and crack width under regular service
conditions

Fatigue and fracture limit state – the fatigue limit state is restrictions on stress range as a result
of a single design truck occurring at the number of expected stress range cycles. The fracture
limit state is taken as a set of material toughness requirements.

Extreme event limit states - this is taken to ensure the structural survival of a bridge during a
major earthquake or flood, or when collided by a vehicle, vessel, possibly under scoured
conditions.

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Ductility – the structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the
development of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme event
limit states prior to failure. Ductile structures give ample warning before they lose load carrying
capacity whereas brittle structures collapse without giving warning.

Redundancy – multiple load path and continuous structures should be used unless there are
compelling reasons not to use them. Indeterminate structures survive overloads and extreme
events due to multiple load paths and redistribution of internal forces.

1.5 Site Selection and Data Collection

1.5.1 Introduction

The aim of the investigation is to select a suitable site from possible alternatives at which a
bridge can be built economically, at the same time satisfying the demands of safety, traffic,
the stream, and aesthetics. In this first stage of design, the engineer identifies a preferred
location for the bridge and decides on the type, size and capacity of the structure. He/she
reaches these decisions on the basis of field surveys and information concerning:

 T h e proposed road alignment

 T h e local terrain and site conditions
 T h e required design life of the bridge
 T h e likely traffic volumes
 T h e resources available for the project

The local terrain and site conditions dictate the height, length and number of spans, and the
design of the substructure foundations. The required design life and the resources available
to construct the bridge will influence the choice of materials and construction methods. The
traffic predictions enable the engineer to determine the necessary width of the bridge.

The investigation for a major bridge project should cover studies on technical feasibility and
economic considerations and should result in an investigation report. The success of the final
design will depend on the thoroughness of the information furnished by the officer in charge
of the investigation.

1.5.2 Preliminary Survey

The objective of the preliminary survey is to study more than one alternative bridge sites.
Usually, the road plans are not prepared with contours at this early stage, which make it
necessary to use the topographic maps available in the country. Possible bridge sites are first

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located on topographic maps. The Ethiopian Mapping Authority has prepared maps to scale
of 1:250,000 for the whole country. In addition, there are also maps to scale of 1:50,000
available for large areas of the country shown in the current “Map Catalogue” published by
the Ethiopian Mapping Agency. These are especially suited for the planning stage to calculate
catchment areas, possible provisional road alignments, aggregate quarries, and other uses.
After locating the possible bridge sites on these maps, these sites are visited to collect certain
preliminary data required for thorough examination of alternative bridge sites from which the
final site shall be selected.

1.5.3 Selection of Bridge Site

For the bridge engineer, rivers are the most common obstructions needing to be bridged.
Occasionally the engineer may be called upon to design a rail or road grade separated
crossing. These are relatively simple compared to river crossings because they involve
considerations only of height and span. The design of a river crossing has to also take
hydraulic requirements into account.

There are three initial considerations to bear in mind in selection of the site:

 a bridge site must offer appropriate vertical and horizontal alignments (skew
angle above 20o should be avoided due to increased bridge costs).
 its soils must be of sufficient strength to ensure the stability of the structure (the
site selection should if possible be made together with a soil engineer to minimize
costs and select the best site).
 the bridge and its associated works should not have an adverse impact on
adjoining land or buildings, or be susceptible to damage from/to the local
environment.

For a river crossing it is important to identify the type of river to be crossed. There are two
types of rivers namely alluvial and incised.

Alluvial rivers are winding and they crode their tanks and scour their beds; they have flood
plains on either side of the channel and the flow regularly overtops the channel banks to
spread across the flood plain. They are continually active, scouring and depositing materials
on the banks and transporting quantities of sediment. The main channels and any of the
minor channels can change position and islands can disappear in the course of a single major
flood.

Incised rivers have relatively stable tanks and are generally narrower and deeper than alluvial

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rivers. Some overtop their banks during flood, but the flow returns to the existing channel
when the flood subsides.

Steeply graded tributary streams flowing into a major river commonly exhibit abrupt changes
in channel width and bed gradient where they enter the main flood plain. These changes
result in the deposition of large quantities of sediment in the form of alluvial fans of gravel to
clay sized debris.

There is a wide range of sites for bridges in rural areas but the choice may be limited in urban
areas and for Passovers.

An ideal site for bridge crossing is one that:

• is on a straight reach of the river. If the river is meandering the best crossing site will
be at the nodal points of the course, which are not affected by the meandering.
• where the flow is steady without serious whirls and cross currents
• is beyond the disturbing influence of large tributaries
• has well defined and stable high banks above flood level
• has uniform flow i.e. larger average depth compared to localized maximum depth
• has reasonable straight approach roads and permits as a square a crossing as possible.
Curves should be avoided in the immediate approaches to the bridge. Skew crossing
may be acceptable if curved approach is required for square crossing. The approaches
should also be economical (not very high or long) and not liable to flank attack of the
river during floods.
• has good foundation conditions
• has short span (narrow channel
• does not require expensive river training work
• does not require excessive underwater construction

A bridge aligned at right angles to the river results in the shortest superstructure. A skewed
bridge requires more material and is more complicated to design and construct. If a skew is
unavoidable, the angle should preferably not exceed 200 due to the increased cost.

Bridge crossings over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to stabilize the
channel flow within the bridge waterway opening.

The location of the bridge in relation to the alignment of the approaches may be decided as
below.

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 a) Total span <60m-The alignment of the approaches will govern.

b) 60m<Total span < 300m-Both the alignment and good bridge site
govern

c) Total span>300m-Good bridge site governs.

Selection of a suitable bridge site especially for major bridges is teamwork consisting of
highway engineer, bridge engineers, geologist and hydraulic engineer. If all the requirements
cannot be satisfied there may be some compromise for the less important sites.

It is most common that two to five different alignments are compared and evaluated from
technical, economical, environmental, and other points of view, to select the most beneficial
alignment(s). This may be performed either by hand or by a computer program. The
preliminary cost of the bridges may be calculated by unit cost per m2 of bridge deck.

Several computer programs are available. An example is a computer program developed in

1993-98 by the Overseas Centre Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) in Berkshire, United
Kingdom is “RTIM3-Road Transport Investment Model”, which is widely used to carry out
cost- benefit analysis on road construction, upgrading and maintenance projects in developing
countries. The program runs on a microcomputer and operates as a series of linked compiled
spreadsheets for traffic flow, road deterioration, and vehicle operating costs and economic
analysis.

1.6 Site Investigation

Once the engineer has identified a likely site for the bridge, he/she needs to obtain field
information on the catchment area and run off, local terrain, river conditions and water levels,
navigational (only for river Baro) and other clearance requirements, and soil information.
Field reviews shall be made by the designer in order to become familiar with the site. The
most complete survey data cannot adequately depict all site conditions or substitute for
personal inspection by someone experienced in bridge design.

There are several criteria that should be established before making the field visit. Does the
magnitude of the project warrant an inspection, or can the same information be obtained from
maps, aerial photos, or by telephone calls? What kind of equipment should be taken and
most important, what exactly are the critical items at the site under consideration?

Factors that most often need to be confirmed by field inspection (see Form 4.1) are

• High-water marks or profiles and related frequencies

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 • Selection of roughness coefficients
• Evaluation of apparent flow direction and diversions,
• Flow concentration (main stream),
• Observation of land use and related flood hazards, and
• Geomorphic relationships and soil conditions

An actual visit to the site where the project will be constructed shall be made before any design
is undertaken. This may be combined with a visit by others, such as the roadway designers
and soil investigators, environmental reviewers, and local officials. The designer may visit
the site separately, however, because of interests which are different from the others, and
the time required to obtain the data as warranted below. It may not be possible to survey the
entire watershed, therefore a sample area may have to be studied.

1.6.1 Catchment Area and Run off Data

The extent of the river catchment area determines the area to be included in plans and
sections, and can be used to estimate flow volumes. Using maps or aerial photographs to an
appropriate scale, the catchment area can be marked and its size calculated, using transparent
squared graph paper or a planimeter. If soft copy of the topographic map is available, the
area can easily be calculated from this file.

The information which is of interest are: catchment size, catchment grade, catchment cover,
presence of any artificial or natural storage such as dams, lakes etc., possibility of any change
in the nature of the catchment due to forestation or deforestation, maximum recorded
intensity and frequency of rainfall in the catchment.

1.6.2 Drawings
a) Index Map – showing the proposed location of the bridge, the alternative bridge sites
investigated and rejected, towns and villages in the vicinity and the general topographic
of the area. Scale may be 1:50,000.

b) Contour Survey Plan of the river showing all topographic feature for a sufficient
distance on either side of the site to give indication of the features, which would influence
the location, and the design of the bridge and its approaches. Distances to be coveted by
contour plans are shown in Table 2.1.

c) Site plan – showing the details of the selected site and of the stream to a distance of
100 to 200m upstream and downstream of the selected site. This should show the
crossing point and alignment of approaches, location and reduced level of benchmark,

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 location of cross section and longitudinal sections of road and stream taken within area
of the plan, and location of buildings, rock outcrops and other possible obstructions to
the road alignment.

Table 2.1 Distance to be covered by contour plans

Catchment area (Sq.Km) Upstream Downstream

Up to 2.5 150m 150m

2.5 0 10.0 200 – 400m 150m

Over
d) Cross-section and10.0 400 – 500m
longitudinal sections of the river – Cross-sections
250m are taken at
suitable distances both upstream and downstream of the proposed bridge site. These
should indicate the distance from the centerline of the bridge and also the HFL,
OFL,LWL and the bed levels at suitable intervals along the centerline of the deep water
channel.

e) Catchment area map – is prepared by tracing the ridge line of the water shed on
the topographic map of the area.

1.6.3 River Survey

Information required by the designer for analysis and design include not only the physical
characteristics of the land and channel, but all features that can affect the magnitude and
frequency of the flood flow which will pass the site under study. These data may include
climatological characteristics, land runoff characteristics, and stream gauging records, high
water marks and the sizes and past performances of existing structures in the vicinity. The
exact data required will depend upon the methods utilized to estimate discharges, and
frequencies.

The collection of flood data is a basic survey task in performing any hydraulic analysis. The
field collection will consist mainly of interviews with local people, maintenance personnel,
and local officials who may have recollection of past flood events in the area. In some cases,
if a stream gauging station is on the stream under study close to the crossing site and has
many years of measurements, this may be the only hydrologic data needed. These data should
be analyzed to ensure that stream flows have not changed over the time of measurement due
to watershed alterations such as the construction of a large storage facility, diversion of flow
to another watershed, addition of flow from another watershed, or development which has

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significantly altered the runoff characteristics of the watershed.

High-water marks are often the only data of past floods available. When collected, these data
should include, when possible, the date and elevation of the flood event. In the search for
marks, local people could be of great help. The cause of the high-water mark should also be
noted, often the mark is caused by unusual debris build up rather than an inadequate structure,
and designing roadway or structure to such an elevation could lead to an unrealistically
uneconomical design. High water marks can be identified in several ways. Small debris,
such as grass or twigs caught in tree branches, elephant grass or similar matted down, mud
lines on stones or bridges, are all high- w a t e r indicators. Beware however that grass,
bushes, and tree branches could be bent over during flood flows and spring up after the flow
has passed, which may give a false reading of the high-water elevation.

The hydrologic characteristics of the basin or watershed of the stream under study are needed
for any predictive methods used to forecast flood flows. Although many of these
characteristics can be found from office studies, some are better found by a field survey of
the basin. The size and configuration of the watershed, the geometry of the stream network,
storage, volumes of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and flood plains, and the general geology and
soils of the basin can be found from maps.

Having determined these basin characteristics, runoff times, infiltration values, storage values,
and runoff coefficients can be found and used in calculating flood flow values using different
methods outlined in Equations 2.1 to 2.4.

Rainfall records are available from the Ethiopian Meteorological Services Agency (Weather
Bureau). This data should be used to supplement, update, and refine the data developed and
presented in Drainage Design Manual prepared by Ethiopia Roads Authority.

Once the best site is selected, information is needed on the highest known flood level, the
ordinary flood level and the low water level at the proposed site. The design discharge also
needs to be determined.

The normal high-water level, Ordinary Flood Level (OFL) – is the level to which the river
normally rises during the wettest season of the year.

The normal low water level, the Low Water Level (LWL) – is the level prevailing in the river
during dry weather. If there is little or no flow in dry weather, the period during which the
riverbed remains dry should be noted.

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Highest know Flood Level (HFL) – is the highest level that the river is known to rise
to. The bridge engineer is required to select Design Flood Level (DFL), design
discharge and design velocity on which to base calculations of waterway geometry,
foundation depth, scour protection and vertical clearance.

The design flood is the maximum flow that can pass through the bridge without

• Causing unacceptable disruption to traffic

• Endangering the pier and abutment foundations with scours
• Damaging approach embankments
• Causing flood damage on the upstream side of embankments

On important roads the bridge may be designed for a design flood occurring no more than
once every ten years and a high flood occurring once every hundred years (Refer drainage
manual for recent ERA recommendations)

A minor road may be served by bridges or low water crossings designed to be overtopped for
a few days every year.

In Ethiopia, hydraulic records are not available for most of the rivers and the DFL is taken as
the High-Water Mark (HWM) which is obtained from silt marks left on banks or twigs left
adhering to nearby trees supplemented by inquires of people residing nearby the river at the
proposed bridge site.

The high flood is the rarely occurring flow that it is uneconomical to include in the design
flood, but which may be considered when stress designing the superstructure and piers of the
bridge.

The maximum discharge may be determined by the following methods

Empirical Formula
Q=C*An, Q=C*A Ryve‟s formula …. (2.1)
Rational Formula
Q=C*1*A . . . (2.2)
Area-Velocity Method
Q=V*A . . . (2.3)

Unit Hydrograph

From any available records of the flood discharge at the bridge site or at any other site in the

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vicinity

The design discharge may be taken as the maximum value obtained from at least two of the
methods mentioned.

1.6.4 Soil Investigation

Soil investigation is required to get soil profile, engineering property of the foundation
material and foundation level for the abutments and piers for design of the foundations. This
information is obtained by analyzing samples taken from boreholes, test pits or geophysical
surveying.

It is important to sample for soil, rock, stone, water, etc in co-operation with the soil
investigators. Samples of at least 2 kg each should be collected marking the station number
where they are collected.

In the preliminary survey state, the soil investigation could be very brief, since the final
alignment of the roadway is not yet decided. The most probable location should be
investigated to get a general view of the soil conditions.

If the conditions are complex or if there is only one possible bridge site, and for the selected
final bridge site, the investigations will be made thoroughly. This work should be made
under the guidance of a geotechnical engineer.

In has proved very practical to make a simple sketch of the bridge site with approximate
water shores, existing structures, scour holes, main stream location, etc including very rough
dimensions with approximate measurements.

As a minimum, photos shall be taken looking upstream, and downstream from the site as well
as along the contemplated highway centerline in both directions. Details of the streambed
and banks should also be photographed along with any existing structures in the vicinity both
upstream and downstream. Close-up photographs complete with a scale or grid shall be
taken to facilitate estimates of the stream bed gradation.

1.7 Span Determination

1.7.1 Economical Span
For a given lineal waterway the total cost of the superstructure increase and the total cost of
the substructure decrease with increase in span. The most economical span length is that for
which the cost of superstructure equals the cost of substructure, the point at which the total

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cost is a minimum.

1.7.2 Hydraulic Requirements

Bridges are designed to accommodate design discharge at design flood. When a bridge
structure and its associated embankments encroach upon the flow of the river in flood, there
is a risk to the structure, the embankments and the surrounding land. It is not economical,
however, to build a bridge to clear a wide flood plain. So lineal waterway that passes the
design discharge should be provided (plus free board) and the bridge be stress designed for
the high flood.

When a river has a wide flood plain, the economical solution may be using short span bridge
with proper scour and erosion protection for the embankments, abutments and piers.

1.7.3 Location of Piers

Piers should be located in such a manner that they can provide the required lineal waterway
and navigational clearance. They should be located to cause a minimum of obstruction to the
flow. Piers should not be located in the river if there is boulder transport during flood. The
most economical spans should be adopted as far as possible. Piers and abutments should also
be located to make the best use of the foundation conditions available. If navigational or
aesthetic requirements dictate, the spans may be suitably modified.

The alignment of piers and abutments should, if possible, be set parallel to the direction of
flow during maximum flood even for skewed and curved bridges, which may not be the same
as during normal flow.

Bridge crossings over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to stabilize the flow
within the bridge water way opening.

1.7.4 Free Board

The waterway below the superstructure must be designed to pass the design flood and the
floating debris carried on it. This should apply even after several years of sedimentation.
The free board allows for uncertainty in determining DFL also. The minimum free board
above the design water level is given in table below unless a refined hydraulic have been
made.

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 Table 2.2 Free Bard

Discharge(m3/s) Free Board(m)

0-3 0.3
3-30 0.6
30-300 0.9
>300 1.2

These clearance measurements should be increased for backwater effects when the flow is
restricted by short span bridge or when the river has a history of unusual large floating items
or in the case of the Baro River for navigational requirements. For arched structures the
clearance will be measured at quarter points of the span. The minimum clearance above
roadways shall be at least 5.1m. Light superstructures (timber, steel trusses, steel girders, etc)
will have a minimum clearance height of 5.3m above roadways.

Underpasses for pedestrian and bicycles should not be less than 2.4m. For cattle and wildlife
underpasses should be designed as the normal height of the actual kind of animal plus 0.5m
and for horse riding, the clear height should not be less than 3.4m. Bridges above railways
shall have a clearance height of at least 6.1m if not otherwise stated to facilitate future
electrification.

1.7.5 Grade Requirements

Often in mountainous areas the roadway grade is governed by capacity of heaviest vehicle to
climb, vertical curve and sight distance. These grade requirements may increase the bridge
span more that required by hydraulic design.

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FIELD VISIT INVESTIGATION FORM

• PROJECT:………..................................................………………......……………… Date: …................……….

Inv. by ……….........................…………………………….........................… Site Situated @ STA: .................……….

• WATERWAY: Name: .............................................................................. Direction of flow: ....................................

High Water Mark:... ...................... Level: +...............Side Slopes: ..................................degrees: ............

Diversions/ Flow concentration / Flood Hazards year, level: .............................................................................................

% Grade of Stream: ......... Channel, Base: ……(m) Height of Banks:…...... (m) Manning's Value n=..................

Crossing angle (estimated): …………degrees Meandering: ……………………………………(show figure below)

Bottom/Base material............................................................ Material on channel side: ......................... n=..........

Up or Downstream Restriction (debris/sedimentation/scour/soil mtrl.): ............................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................................................................

• STRUCTURES : Bridges/ Buildings upstream and downstream: ............................................. @ M up/down:.......

Type: ..........................................................................................Piers: Type: ............................................................

Abutment Types: ........................................Width: ...............(m) Size of Spans: ...................................................

Clear Height: ……(m) @............; ............m@..............; .............m@ .............; Total water width at HWL:............(m);

(Overflow? Year? Level: +...) .............................................................................................................................................

• MISC. Land Uses upstream and downstream: ..............................................................................................................
Vegetation (Location, Type, Name): ...................................................................................................................................
Wildlife (Paths, Traces, Type, Name): ...............................................................................................................................
• Soil Conditions: .......................................................................................................... at Roadway STA: .....................
Sample no: ............. @ STA: .............; Sample no: ............ @ STN: ................; Sample no: ............ @ STA: ................;
• Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: ................... Photos no:..........@STA:............... Shows: .........................
Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: ..................... Photos no:............@STN:............... Shows: .........................
• REMARKS: ........................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................

(please, make simple plan sketch incl. water shores/Road alignment and continue the text on back side of this
page, if needed)

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