JFUE 8933 No.

of Pages 11, Model 5G

12 February 2015

Fuel xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

1

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel

5
6

3 Effect of the number and position of nozzle holes on in- and near-nozzle
4 dynamic characteristics of diesel injection
7 Seoksu Moon a,⇑, Yuan Gao b, Suhan Park b,1, Jin Wang b, Naoki Kurimoto c, Yoshiaki Nishijima c
8 a
National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Energy Technology Research Institute, 1-2-1, Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8564, Japan
9 b
Argonne National Laboratory, Advanced Photon Source, 9700 S Cass Ave, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
10 c
Denso Corporation, 1-1, Showa-cho, Kariya-shi, Aichi-ken 448-8661, Japan

11
12

1 4
h i g h l i g h t s
15
16  We analyze in- and near-nozzle dynamics of single- and multi-hole diesel injectors.
17  An X-ray imaging technique was applied for analysis of dynamic characteristics.
18  Number of nozzle holes significantly changes the transient needle behavior.
19  Near-nozzle flow characteristics are highly affected by the hole arrangement.
20  Multi-hole nozzles generate turbulent initial flow with faster mixing at downstream.

21
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
2
3 3
7
24 Article history: Despite the fact that all modern diesel engines use multi-hole injectors, single-hole injectors are fre- 38
25 Received 8 July 2014 quently used to understand the fundamental properties of high-pressure diesel injections due to their 39
26 Received in revised form 13 November 2014 axisymmetric design of the injector nozzles. A multi-hole injector accommodates many holes around 40
27 Accepted 28 January 2015
the nozzle axis to deliver adequate amount of fuel with small orifices. The off-axis arrangement of the 41
28 Available online xxxx
multi-hole injectors significantly alters the inter- and near-nozzle flow patterns compared to those of 42
the single-hole injectors. This study compares the transient needle motion and near-nozzle flow charac- 43
29 Keywords:
teristics of the single- and multi-hole (3-hole and 6-hole) diesel injectors to understand how the differ- 44
30 High-pressure diesel spray
31 Nozzle hole arrangement
ence in hole arrangement and number affects the initial flow development of the diesel injectors. A 45
32 Nozzle hole number propagation-based X-ray phase-contrast imaging technique was applied to compare the transient needle 46
33 Needle motion motion and near-nozzle flow characteristics of the single- and multi-hole injectors. The comparisons 47
34 Near-nozzle flow were made by dividing the entire injection process by three sub-stages: opening-transient, quasi-steady 48
35 X-ray phase-contrast imaging and closing-transient. 49
36
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 50
51

52
53
54 1. Introduction patterns than that exhibited from an axisymmetric single-hole 63
injector. 64
55 Latest diesel injectors use high injection pressure and small However, in many spray studies, single-hole injectors are 65
56 holes to improve the fuel atomization, evaporation and mixture employed due to their simplicity to gain fundamental spray char- 66
57 homogeneity [1–5] and to reduce engine-out emissions [6–9]. Each acteristics and easiness of applying diagnostics techniques and 67
58 injector nozzle often has many holes to ensure a sufficient fuel flow instrument around the single fuel jet and spray from the hole. In 68
59 rate from the small holes, leading to the introduction of multi-hole turn, many engine combustion simulations are developed based 69
60 injectors for modern advanced diesel engines. The holes are placed on the spray models derived from the single-hole injectors. There- 70
61 symmetrically around the nozzle axis. The off-axis hole arrange- fore, understanding how the arrangement and number of the holes 71
62 ment can induce much more complex internal and external flow in an injector nozzle affects the spray development is crucial to 72
correlate the fuel flow characteristics of the single- and multi-hole 73
injectors. 74
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 29 861 3083. The discharge flow rate of the multi-hole injectors is larger than 75
E-mail address: ss.moon@aist.go.jp (S. Moon). that of the single-hole injectors using the same hole diameter 76
1
Present address: Chonnam National University, School of Mechanical Engineering,
under the same injection pressure. As a result, the sac pressure 77
77 Yongbong-ro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 500-757, Republic of Korea.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.01.097
0016-2361/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Moon S et al. Effect of the number and position of nozzle holes on in- and near-nozzle dynamic characteristics of diesel
injection. Fuel (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.01.097
 JFUE 8933 No. of Pages 11, Model 5G
12 February 2015

2 S. Moon et al. / Fuel xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

78 inside the multi-hole injectors can be lower than that of the in-nozzle structure and liquid-phase features inside the dense fuel 140
79 single-hole injectors in specific transient conditions. Since the sprays. In addition, the short X-ray pulses provide a high temporal 141
80 pressure balance across the needle is a key factor determining resolution for XPCI that enables to freeze the motion of the high- 142
81 the needle motion inside the nozzle [10,11], the difference in sac speed fuel sprays in the near-field. The potentials of the XPCI 143
82 pressure could cause different needle motion of the single- and described above provide benefits to visualize the in-nozzle needle 144
83 multi-hole injectors. On the other hand, in a multi-hole injector motion and near-exit flow dynamics of the high-speed optically 145
84 nozzle, the upstream flow would be more difficult to enter the hole dense fuel jets. 146
85 directly than its single-hole counterpart due to its off-axis hole
86 arrangement. More upstream flow rather rushes to the sac, which
87 would result in the formation of a vortex flow in the sac. This vor- 2.2. X-ray imaging setup 147
88 tex flow inside the sac can be stronger at lower needle lifts due to
89 narrower flow passage and smaller sac volume [12–15]. A consid- We used the experimental setup similar to that described in 148
90 erable amount of research has studied the vortex flow and related detail previously [21–24]. Fig. 1a shows the imaging setup at 7ID 149
91 cavitation phenomenon inside multi-hole diesel injectors and their and 32ID beamlines of the APS. The X-ray beam was generated 150
92 effects on emerging flow pattern using the optically accessible from an insertion device (Undulator A) in the APS electron storage 151
93 large-scale nozzles or by numerical simulation [13–18]. It was ring. A special beam timing pattern (hybrid-singlet mode), shown 152
94 found that the vortex flow is formed inside the nozzle at low nee- in Fig. 1b, was used in the experiment. To protect the imaging sys- 153
95 dle lifts, which induces turbulent emerging flow patterns of the tem from being damaged by the powerful X-ray beam, there were 154
96 multi-hole diesel injectors with a faster breakup. two mechanical X-ray shutters: a slow one operating at 1-Hz fre- 155
97 Although the difference in number and position of the nozzle quency with 8-ms opening duration (Shutter 1) and a fast one of 156
98 holes between the single- and multi-hole injectors would affect 1-kHz frequency with 9-ls opening duration (Shutter 2). Synchro- 157
99 the needle motion and emerging flow pattern of the diesel injec- nized operation of the two shutters cuts off more than 99.9% of the 158
100 tors, thorough understanding of these effects has not been made. beam heat power. A scintillator crystal (LYSO:Ce) converted the 159
101 There is a lack of information on fuel flows associated with real- X-ray ‘‘shadow’’ images of the sprays into visible-light images at 160
102 scale nozzles under practical operating conditions especially inside an emission peak around 420 nm, which were then reflected by a 161
103 the holes and in the near-nozzle region. This lack of information is 45° mirror and captured by a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera 162
104 mainly caused by the difficulties in optical access to the near field, (Sensicam, 1376  1040 pixels, from PCO-Tech Inc.). The temporal 163
105 where the fuel jets are optically dense. Measurements using con- resolution of the imaging was determined by the X-ray pulse dura- 164
106 ventional laser optical techniques inside the nozzle and in the near tion and the camera gating. The effective pixel size of the camera 165
107 field have not been quite successful owing to optical opaqueness in was 0.63 or 1.26 lm when a 10 or 5 objective lenses were used 166
108 these regions. with the CCD camera, respectively. 167
109 In this study, we compare the transient needle motion and
110 near-nozzle flow characteristics of a number of single- and
111 multi-hole diesel injectors. A propagation-based X-ray phase-con- 2.3. Analysis methods 168
112 trast imaging (XPCI) technique was employed to visualize the in-
113 nozzle needle motion and near-nozzle flow dynamics and struc- One part of the stored electron or X-ray timing pattern contains 169
114 tures of the high-speed diesel sprays by analyzing the X-ray eight septets with a total electron current of 88 mA and a length of 170
115 images. The high-energy X-ray beam enables imaging the motion 472 ns (part A in Fig. 1b). The pulse train was used for visualizing 171
116 of the needle through the nozzle. Short (sub-ns to 10’s ns) X-ray the in-nozzle needle motion to ensure sufficient high-energy X-ray 172
117 pulses are able to image high-speed and optically dense jet in photons necessary for visualization through the steel nozzle enclo- 173
118 the near field without severe scattering and absorption. As a result, sure. The pulse-train duration of 472 ns was short enough to freeze 174
119 the detailed information of the in-nozzle needle motion and the needle motion of a less than a meter per second during the 175
120 near-nozzle flow dynamics and structures can be obtained. injection process. 176
The near-field diesel jets and sprays were visualized using the 177
X-ray pulse with a 16-mA electron current and 150-ps pulse dura- 178
121 2. Methods tion (part B in Fig. 1b). On the other hand, the near-nozzle flow 179
velocity was derived using the 3 septets with 11-mA current, 180
122 2.1. XPCI for fuel injection analysis 17-ns width, and 68 ns period (part C in Fig. 1b). Fig. 2a shows 181
the needle images of the single-hole injector before and during 182
123 The principle of the XPCI has been described previously the injection. The needle lift can be obtained by cross-correlation 183
124 [19–22]. Only a brief introduction to the technique will be given of the two needle images. The details of the cross-correlation anal- 184
125 here. The potentials of the XPCI for fuel injection studies originate ysis for derivation of two-dimensional needle motion are pre- 185
126 from the combination of weak interaction between x-rays and sented in a recent publication [11]. Fig. 2b illustrates the method 186
127 materials, high-energy and ultra-short X-ray pulses available at used to derive the local velocity of the diesel sprays from the 187
128 the third-generation synchrotron light sources such as the images taken by XPCI. First, a multi-exposed X-ray image was 188
129 Advanced Photon Source (APS). The cross-section of X-ray/matter taken using the 3 septets as shown in Fig. 1b. Then, an auto- 189
130 interaction minimizes multiple scattering. High-energy X-rays correlation analysis was performed in a particular region of inter- 190
131 are highly penetrative so they can pass through millimeter-thick est (ROI) of the multi-exposed images. The displacement vector of 191
132 metal such as injector nozzle. When an X-ray beam passes through the imaged features during the 68 ns time interval can be obtained 192
133 an object, both absorption and phase-shift occur. In terms of by detecting the relative location of the displacement peak with 193
134 phase-shift, the incident and scattered X-rays can generate an respect to the center self-correlation peak. The details of the anal- 194
135 interference pattern with bright and dark fringes along the object ysis for deriving the local spray velocity were also described in the 195
136 boundary. The XPCI contrast is from both the fringes and the inten- recent publications [23,24]. The interrogation window size of 196
137 sity attenuation due to the absorption, similar to back-illuminated 250 lm for the axial direction and 50 lm for the radial direction 197
138 shadowgraph in the visible light regime. But the high transmit- was applied for auto-correlation analysis to have a sufficient 198
139 tance of the X-ray to the dense materials enables to image the number of features to trace for reliable velocity results. 199

Please cite this article in press as: Moon S et al. Effect of the number and position of nozzle holes on in- and near-nozzle dynamic characteristics of diesel
injection. Fuel (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.01.097
 JFUE 8933 No. of Pages 11, Model 5G
12 February 2015

S. Moon et al. / Fuel xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 3

8 septets
(a)

%HDP&XUUHQW P$

µV µV

& $
%


$VHSWHWVZLWKQVSHULRG 7LPH µV
%VLQJOHSXOVHZLWKSV GXUDWLRQ
&VHSWHWVZLWKQVSHULRG
(b)
Fig. 1. Experiment setup for X-ray phase-contrast imaging (a) and X-ray pulse timing pattern used for PCI-based single-pulse or multi-exposure experiments (b).

Nozzle

Orifice

Auto-correlaon

Correlaon FactorContour

displacement
(µm)
0
-63 63
(base peak)

(a) (b)

Fig. 2. Illustration of the X-ray imaging method to derive needle motion and local spray velocity: (a) cross-correlation of images taken at different times to derive the needle
position as a function of time, and (b) multi-exposure spray image (2 or 3 exposures) to calculate the projected velocity map using 2D auto correlation functions.

200 2.4. Experiments common rail was controlled by a feedback system that controlled 204
a bleeding valve attached to the rail. The spray chamber had two 205
201 Diesel fuel was injected into a spray chamber by a common-rail KaptonÒ windows which allowed the X-ray beam to pass through 206
202 injection system, composed of a fuel tank, motor, high-pressure the chamber without attenuating intensity.Fig. 3 shows the X-ray 207
203 pump, injector and common-rail. The fluid pressure inside the images of the mini-sac type single-, 3- and 6-hole diesel injector 208

Please cite this article in press as: Moon S et al. Effect of the number and position of nozzle holes on in- and near-nozzle dynamic characteristics of diesel
injection. Fuel (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.01.097
 JFUE 8933 No. of Pages 11, Model 5G
12 February 2015

4 S. Moon et al. / Fuel xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Single-hole 3-hole 6-hole

85o 85o

0.25mm

Fig. 3. XPCI images of internal structures near the needle tip, sac, and the orifices.

Table 1
Experimental conditions.
Injection pressure (Pinj)
Injection pulse Duration (Tinj)
Ambient pressure
Ambient Temperature
Ambient density
Fuel
as the time delay between the injection pulse supply and SOI, 247
appeared identical for the applied injectors. Based on the needle 248
150 MPa positions, the injection process is divided into three stages: 249
1.0 ms opening-transient (Region A), quasi-steady (Region B) and clos- 250
Atmospheric (0.1 MPa) ing-transient (Region C). The boundaries of the three stages were 251
Room condition (302 K)
1.25 kg/m3 with nitrogen (N2), 6.17 kg/m3
defined by the unique characteristics of the needle motion for this 252
with sulfurhexafluoride (SF6) type of injectors as shown in Fig. 4. There are clearly three regions, 253
Diesel (US No. 2) excluding the instance when needles change the direction, for all 254
three injectors. Within the first 100 lm, the needles accelerate 255
and decelerate. Then they move at a near-constant speed till the 256

209 nozzles used in this study. All injectors have the nominal nozzle change of direction. We defined this initial short transient stage 257

210 hole diameter of 0.120 mm. Meanwhile, the 3-and 6-hole injectors as the opening-transient. The quasi-steady stage is characterized 258

211 have a nominal umbrella angle of 170°. The measured nozzle hole by near-constant needle speeds (opening and closing), during 259

212 diameters from the X-ray images were very close to the designed which the needles change their directions. During the needle clos- 260

213 diameter for all test nozzles with a deviation of ±2 lm. The inlet ing, below the 100 lm needle lift, the needle accelerates in the 261

214 edge radii of the applied nozzles were also quite close, in the range downward direction and decelerates to 0, reversing the process 262

215 of 29 ± 2 lm. Table 1 shows the experimental conditions. The fuel in the opening-transient stage. We define this last 100 lm range 263

216 (US No. 2 diesel) was injected at 150 MPa injection pressure into as the closing-transient stage. 264

217 the chamber at an atmospheric pressure (0.1 MPa) and room tem- A highly transient needle behavior is observed immediately 265

218 perature (302 K). A gentle nitrogen (N2) or sulfurhexafluoride (SF6) after the onset of the needle opening. The needle speed abruptly 266

219 flow scavenged the fuel fume between the injections. The SF6 has increases from zero, and then decreases after hitting a peak value 267

220 relatively high ambient density than N2. The injection pulse was of between 1 and 1.5 m/s depending on the nozzle hole configura- 268

221 chosen to be sufficiently long (1 ms) to ensure that all injections tion before dropping to a more constant speed (about 0.7 m/s) 269

222 have transient opening and closing periods and a quasi-steady (Region A in Fig. 4). In general, needle movement is initiated by 270

223 one in between, so that the spray characteristics of the injectors actions of actuator such as solenoids and piezoelectric transducers, 271

224 can be compared under the transient and steady conditions. but what controls the needle motion is the hydraulic pressure 272
applied to the upstream and downstream ends of the needle 273
[10,11]. Before an injection begins, a downward force exerts to 274
225 3. Results and discussion the needle because the pressure at the needle upstream end (pres- 275
sure control chamber) is equivalent to that in the common-rail 276
226 In this section, transient needle motion and near-nozzle flow while almost no pressure exists at the needle downstream (nozzle 277
227 dynamics and structures of the single-, 3-, 6-hole diesel injectors sac). Once the actuator is activated, the fuel discharge passage at 278
228 are compared in terms of needle lift and speed, exit velocity distri- the upstream pressure control chamber opens, from which the 279
229 bution, near-exit flow structure and jet/spray velocity distribution pressure inside the pressure control chamber decreases. As a 280
230 at downstream. The comparison is made in the three stages of the result, the needle starts to moves up and the fuel enters to the noz- 281
231 needle motion during an injection event: opening-transient, zle sac with a concurrent increase in the sac pressure. The sudden 282
232 quasi-steady, and closing-transient. rise and following drop in the needle speed (like an overshoot) dur- 283
ing the opening-transient can be caused either by actuator motion 284
233 3.1. Transient needle motion itself or by abrupt rise in the sac pressure due to the sudden intro- 285
duction of the fuel to the sac. The different needle speed traces of 286
234 In Fig. 4, we show the time dependence of needle lift measured the 3 injectors during the opening-transient indicate that the effect 287
235 by X-ray imaging and calculated needle speed of the single-, 3- and of the flow conditions at the sac should be somehow associated 288
236 6-hole diesel injectors through the entire injection process. The with this result. The higher discharge flow rates of the larger hole 289
237 needle lift results in Fig. 4a are obtained by averaging the results number nozzles could decrease the degree of sac pressure rise with 290
238 of 5 time-lock snapshots. We did not put the error bars in the slower needle motion during this opening-transient. 291
239 graphs since the needle motion of the injectors were highly repro- In Fig. 5a and b, we highlighted the above discussion with the 292
240 ducible and the shot-to-shot deviation was less than 0.5% of the plots of the peak needle speed and time at the peak needle speed 293
241 peak needle lift regardless of the nozzles (<3 lm) and almost unde- of the 3 injectors during the opening-transient. The result shows 294
242 tectable. For simplicity, the needle motion discussed in this work is that the peak needle speed becomes lower, and the time at the 295
243 limited to its axial direction. A positive speed value indicates its peak needle speed appears later as the hole number increases. This 296
244 opening motion while a negative one is associated with closing. result demonstrates that the needle motion is highly affected by 297
245 The time of start of injection (SOI) was chosen to be the instance the fuel flow and pressure at the needle downstream during the 298
246 when the needle just started to move. The injection delay, defined opening-transient. 299

Please cite this article in press as: Moon S et al. Effect of the number and position of nozzle holes on in- and near-nozzle dynamic characteristics of diesel
injection. Fuel (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.01.097
 JFUE 8933 No. of Pages 11, Model 5G
12 February 2015

S. Moon et al. / Fuel xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 5

(a)

µ
A
C C C

(b)

Fig. 4. Transient needle motion characteristics of the single-, 3- and 6-hole injectors after the start of injection (SOI) at an injection pressure of 150 MPa and at 300 K ambient
temperature with N2 environment: (a) needle left, and (b) needle speed calculated by the derivative of the needle lift profile.

1.75 0.15
During Opening-Transient [m/s]

(a) (b)
During Opening-Transient [ms]
Time at Peak Needle Speed
Peak Needle Speed

1.50
0.10

1.25

0.05
1.00

0.75 0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of Holes [-] Number of Holes [-]

4.5 60
Needle Lift at Double Needle Speed
During Closing-Transient [ms]
Time at Double Needle Speed

During Closing-Transient [µm]

(d) (e)
(c) 50
During Quasi-Steady [m/s]

4.0
40
Needle Speed

Opening-steady 3.5 30
Closing-steady
20
3.0
10

2.5 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of Holes [-] Number of Holes [-] Number of Holes [-]

Fig. 5. Notable characteristics of the needle behavior of the single-, 3- and 6-hole injectors. During opening-transient stage: (a) peak needle speed and (b) time at peak needle
speed; During quasi-steady stage: (c) needle speeds during opening- and closing-steady; During closing-transient stage: (d) time and (e) needle lift at doubled needle speed:
Pinj = 150 MPa, Tamb = 300 K, N2 environment.

300 The highly transient characteristics of the needle motion hap- needle velocity) and closing (negative needle velocity) processes. 306
301 pened before the needle reached around 100 lm needle lift for The results show that the needle speed is slightly lower (within 307
302 all test nozzles. When the needle lift is over around 100 lm, the 10%) when the hole number increased from 1 to 3 and 6. Mean- 308
303 needle speeds of the all test nozzles become relatively steady while, a reverse trend was observed for steady speed during clos- 309
304 (Region B in Fig. 4). Fig. 5c shows the needle speed of the 3 injec- ing. The increase in flow discharge rate and corresponding lower 310
305 tors during the quasi-steady stage for both the opening (positive sac pressure are likely to be responsible for these results. The lower 311

Please cite this article in press as: Moon S et al. Effect of the number and position of nozzle holes on in- and near-nozzle dynamic characteristics of diesel
injection. Fuel (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.01.097
 JFUE 8933 No. of Pages 11, Model 5G
12 February 2015

6 S. Moon et al. / Fuel xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

312 sac pressure decreases the needle lifting force during the upward different injections. In addition, the data were averaged over 10- 344
313 needle motion while the lower sac pressure reduces the resistance shots at every instance in time to improve the signal-to-noise ratio. 345
314 force against the downward needle motion. Corresponding needle speed curves are also presented together in 346
315 At the very low needle lifts during the needle closing, the down- the Fig. 6a. At needle opening, a sharp increase in exit velocity was 347
316 ward needle speed abruptly increases for the applied injectors observed due to increased pressure in the sac and the hole. Inter- 348
317 (Region C in Fig. 4). This increase in needle speed is related to estingly, the single-hole injector showed a small but apparent 349
318 the sudden decrease of sac pressure due to flow restriction from ‘‘overshooting’’ peak in exit velocity curve, similar to the needle 350
319 the needle at the low needle lifts (‘‘throttling effect of the needle’’). speed. This overshoot diminished with the 3- and 6-hole nozzles. 351
320 If the flow rate entering to the sac becomes lower than the dis- The overshoot may be due to a water-hammer effect accompany- 352
321 charging flow rate, the sac pressure decreases. The decreased sac ing the needle lifting and the restricted outlet flow from the sin- 353
322 pressure reduces the resistance force against the downward needle gle-hole nozzle. The overflow can generate pressure waves in the 354
323 motion that abruptly increases the needle speed. Fig. 5d and e sac and higher pressure than the common-rail pressure at certain 355
324 show the time and needle lift in which the needle speed is double instance. In the case of nozzles with more holes, this transient 356
325 of that during the quasi-steady. The time of the double needle overflow may not be happened because of the larger outlet flow. 357
326 speed is significantly advanced as the hole number increases. The This may also be related to the inter-nozzle vortex flow in 358
327 higher needle closing speed with an increase in the hole number the multi-hole injectors at the low needle lifts [12–15,22,25]. The 359
328 is responsible for this result, from which the needle reaches the vortex flow would dissipate the initial flow momentum in the 360
329 location of flow restriction at earlier times. The needle lift at the transverse direction that could reduce the flow velocity in 361
330 double needle speed appears higher at large hole numbers since the orifice axial direction. 362
331 the flow becomes restricted from the higher needle lifts due to The exit velocity of the single-hole injector becomes steady 363
332 higher discharge flow rate. Due to the higher needle closing speed, when the needle lift reaches over around 100 lm. On the other 364
333 the total injection duration becomes shorter with the increase in hand, the exit velocity of the multi-hole injectors is lower than that 365
334 the hole number under the same injection pulse duration (see of the single-hole injector and only reached the maximum speed 366
335 Fig. 4). slightly after the needle started to close. At this point, the exit 367
velocity of the single and multi-hole injectors had the similar val- 368

336 3.2. Near-nozzle flow dynamics and structures ues of just above 500 m/s. This gradual velocity increase of the 369
multi-hole injectors with time and the equivalent velocity of the 370

337 3.2.1. Exit velocity distribution single- and multi-hole injectors at the top needle location can be 371

338 With the X-ray imaging based velocimetry measurement, we associated with the reasons below. As the needle lift increases, 372

339 are able to obtain the near-nozzle fuel jet velocity as the jet just the upstream flow passage becomes larger and the space in the 373

340 exits the hole. In Fig. 6a, we compare the time dependence of the sac increases. The larger flow passage increases the flow rate enter- 374

341 jet center velocity of the single-, 3- and 6-hole injectors at 1 mm ing the sac and holes that attenuates the sac pressure drop at high 375

342 from the nozzle exit (see Fig. 6b), which is denoted by exit velocity. needle lifts. Also, the larger flow passage and more space in the sac 376

343 Each point in time was collected in a phase-lock mode from make the flow in the hole be more directly supplied from the upper 377

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

(b)
Radial
]

Axial

(a)
Single-hole
]

6-hole 3-hole

ab c d 6-hole 3-hole Single-hole

Fig. 6. Time evolution of diesel jet axial speed at 1 mm from the hole exit and needle displacement profiles of the single-, 3- and 6-hole injectors (a) and illustration of the
measurement location (b): Pinj = 150 MPa, Tamb = 300 K, N2 environment.

Please cite this article in press as: Moon S et al. Effect of the number and position of nozzle holes on in- and near-nozzle dynamic characteristics of diesel
injection. Fuel (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.01.097
 JFUE 8933 No. of Pages 11, Model 5G
12 February 2015

S. Moon et al. / Fuel xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 7

378 supply passage that attenuates vortex strength of the multi-hole Until the time of 1.44 ms, the radial velocity of the applied injec- 407
379 injectors with the increase in the needle lift [26–28]. These bring tors attenuates with time. The difference in radial velocity between 408
380 the exit velocity of the multi-hole injectors gradually close to that the single- and multi-hole injectors becomes smaller with an 409
381 of the single-hole injector. The exit velocity of the 6-hole injector is increase in the needle lift. However, the shot-to-shot velocity fluc- 410
382 almost equivalent to that of the 3-hole injector through the whole tuation of the emerging flows from the multi-hole injectors is still 411
383 injection process except at the low needle lifts, in which the effects larger than that of the single-hole injector even at the high needle 412
384 of hole number on the sac pressure is prominent. lifts, as shown in Fig. 7b. The difference in axial and radial velocity 413
385 To further understand the exit flow characteristics, the velocity between the 3- and 6-hole injectors is insignificant except at the 414
386 distributions of the single- and multi-hole injectors at different low needle lifts, in which the effects of the hole number on the 415
387 radial locations are compared in Fig. 7a at the instances of sac pressure is prominent. 416
388 0.11 ms (‘a’ in Fig. 6a), 0.44 ms (‘b’ in Fig. 6a), 1.44 ms (‘c’ in
389 Fig. 6a) and 2.44 ms (‘d’ in Fig. 6a). The four points for the velocity 3.2.2. Near-exit flow structure 417
390 comparison were chosen based on the needle motion. The point ‘a’ Fig. 8 presents the near-exit flow structure of the single-, 3- and 418
391 is the time at the peak needle speed during the opening-transient 6-hole injectors during the opening-transient (Fig. 8a) and at the 419
392 stage. The points ‘b’, and ‘d’ are within the quasi-steady stages but time of 1.44 ms (Fig. 8b). In addition, the three representative shot 420
393 during the needle opening and closing process, respectively. In images of the near-exit flow structure of the 3-hole injector at the 421
394 both cases, the exit flow velocities of the multi-hole nozzles are instances of 0.44 ms and 2.44 ms are presented in Fig. 8c. 422
395 lower than that of the single-hole injector. The point ‘c’ is the time During the opening-transient, the multi-hole injectors show a 423
396 for the exit velocity of the three nozzles are almost identical. At the more turbulent flow morphology (see Fig. 8a). The flow instabili- 424
397 time of 0.11 ms, the exit flow of the applied injectors expands to ties of the multi-hole injectors occur from the nozzle inside and 425
398 the radial direction due to the sudden introduction of the fuel flow at the whole flow region across the hole while those of the sin- 426
399 to the sac accompanying turbulence or vortex flow during the gle-hole injector starts to occur outside the nozzle. This more tur- 427
400 opening-transient. The multi-hole injectors show the higher radial bulent flow morphology of the multi-hole injectors during the 428
401 velocity but lower axial velocity than the single-hole injector. The opening-transient can be associated with the formation of inter- 429
402 lower axial velocity of the multi-hole injectors can be associated nozzle vortex at the low needle lifts. 430
403 with the lower sac pressure and the vortex flow inside the sac At the time of 1.44 ms, the spray widths are almost equivalent 431
404 and holes at the low needle lifts. On the other hand, the higher for the applied injectors (quasi-steady state), demonstrating that 432
405 radial velocity of the multi-hole injectors can be associated with the in-nozzle vortex of the multi-hole injectors associated with 433
406 the vortex flow inside the sac and holes at the low needle lifts. the radial flow expansion is almost diminished. Nevertheless, the 434

0.11ms (‘a’ in Fig. 6) 0.44ms (‘b’ in Fig. 6)

0.50 0.50
Single-hole -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
30
Radial Location [mm]

Radial Location [mm]

0.25 0.25 Single-hole

0.44ms
3-hole
20
0.00 0.00 6-hole
Shot-to-shot Deviation of
Radial Velocity [m/s]

10
-0.25 -0.25
3-hole
6-hole 0
-0.50 (a) -0.50 30
0.50 0.50
1.44ms (‘c’ in Fig. 6) 2.44ms (‘d’ in Fig. 6) 1.44ms
20
Radial Location [mm]
Radial Location [mm]

0.25 0.25

10
0.00 0.00
(b)
0
100m/s

-0.25 -0.25 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3

Radial Location [mm]
-0.50 100m/s -0.50

Fig. 7. Radial distribution of velocity vector map and the shot-to-shot variation of the velocity magnitude measured at 1 mm from the orifice exit (top illustration): (a)
velocity maps at 0.11, 0.44, 1.44 and 2.44 ms after the SOI, (b) radial distribution of the variation for the 3 nozzles at 0.44 and 1.44 ms: Pinj = 150 MPa, Tamb = 300 K, N2
environment.

Please cite this article in press as: Moon S et al. Effect of the number and position of nozzle holes on in- and near-nozzle dynamic characteristics of diesel
injection. Fuel (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.01.097
 JFUE 8933 No. of Pages 11, Model 5G
12 February 2015

8 S. Moon et al. / Fuel xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Fig. 8. Near-exit flow structure of the single-, 3- and 6-hole injectors during opening-transient (a) and at quasi-steady condition (b), and three representative shot images of
the 3-hole injector at intermediate stage (c): Pinj = 150 MPa, Tamb = 300 K, N2 environment.

435 breakup process seems to appear different. The jet flow breakup of in Fig. 7b. In addition, the flow instabilities of the multi-hole injec- 449
436 the single-hole injector occurs as if the flow is peeled-off from the tors can be from the flow-to-flow interaction heading to each hole 450
437 surrounding gas, while the breakup of the multi-hole injectors that can be supported from the fact that the 6-hole injector shows 451
438 occurs as if the flow is perturbed from internal instabilities. The a more turbulent flow morphology than the 3-hole injector as 452
439 flow instabilities of multi-hole injectors appear faster at the upper shown in Fig. 8b. 453
440 side (positive radial locations in Fig. 7b) supposedly due to forma- At the times of 0.44 ms and 2.44 ms, sometimes wide-jet but 454
441 tion of film cavitation at the upper side of the hole. Owing to the sometimes shallow-jet appears for the multi-hole injectors 455
442 high umbrella angle (170°) of the multi-hole injectors, the (intermediate stage), while the single-hole injector only shows 456
443 upstream flow is hard to enter the upper side of the hole. As a the quasi-steady shallow jet. The structure of the wide-jet 457
444 result, the film cavitation can be formed at the upper side of the resembles the jet structure during the opening-transient, while 458
445 hole as a previous computational study demonstrated [26]. This the structure of the shallow-jet resembles the jet structure at 459
446 supposition can be supported from the fact that the upper side the quasi-steady state. The probability of the appearance of the 460
447 jet/spray region of the multi-hole injectors shows the higher wide-jet decreased with an increase in the needle lift.Fig. 9 shows 461
448 shot-to-shot velocity fluctuation at the time of 1.44 ms, as shown the 10-shot averaged near-exit spray width and its shot-to-shot 462

Please cite this article in press as: Moon S et al. Effect of the number and position of nozzle holes on in- and near-nozzle dynamic characteristics of diesel
injection. Fuel (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.01.097
 JFUE 8933 No. of Pages 11, Model 5G
12 February 2015

S. Moon et al. / Fuel xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 9

Spray Width Needle Lift

700 Single-hole Single-hole 700
3-hole 3-hole
600 600
6-hole 6-hole
Spray Width [µm]

Needle Lift [µm]

500 500

400 400

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Time after SOI [ms]

700 700

600 600
Spray Width [µm]

500 500

Needle Lift [µm]

400 400

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time after SOI [ms]

Fig. 9. Ten-shot averaged near-exit spray width and its shot-to-shot deviation of the single-, 3- and 6-hole injectors measured at 0.7 mm axial location, Pinj = 150 MPa,
Tamb = 300 K, N2 environment.

463 deviation of the single-, 3- and 6-hole injectors. The spray width 1.0
464 was defined as the distance between the right- and left-side
465 boundaries of the flow mainstream across the line perpendicular Single-hole
466 to the hole axis. The droplets isolated from the mainstream were 3-hole
0.8
467 ignored because our main focus is to understand the hydrody- 6-hole
Probability Density [-]

468 namic characteristics of emerging flow related to the internal flow.

469 The results of near-exit spray width in Fig. 9 were measured at 0.6
470 0.7 mm axial location, in which the flow breakup is not yet active
471 so that the hydrodynamic characteristics of the emerging flows can
472 be identified. At the low needle lifts, the spray width increases for 0.4
473 the applied injectors, but the multi-hole injectors show the larger
474 spray width and higher shot-to-shot deviation compared to the
475 single-hole injector. The spray width and its shot-to-shot deviation 0.2
476 of the single-hole injector sharply decrease and become steady
477 from around 0.20 ms while those of the multi-hole injectors
478 decrease more gently with time. The spray widths of the multi- 0.0
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
479 hole injectors become almost equivalent to that of the single-hole
480 injector around the top needle lift (1.44 ms), but the shot-to-shot Near-Exit Spray Width [ µm]
481 deviation is still greater (refer to Fig. 7b). These flow features of Fig. 10. Histogram of the near-exit spray width of the single-, 3- and 6-hole
482 the multi-hole injectors again demonstrate the high vortex injectors at the 0.7 mm axial location under the quasi-steady condition in the time
483 strength at the low needle lifts and attenuated vortex strength range from 1.0 ms to 2.0 ms (total 50 samples): Pinj = 150 MPa, Tamb = 300 K, N2
484 with an increase in the needle lift. environment.
485 Fig. 10 presents the histogram of the near-exit spray width of
486 the applied injectors at the times from 1.0 ms to 2.0 ms, in which and flow-to-flow interaction heading to each hole inside the sac. 491
487 the 10-shot averaged spray widths of the applied injectors are near The 6-hole injector shows a slightly wider spray width distribution 492
488 constant (quasi-steady). Even in this quasi-steady condition, the with higher turbulence than the 3-hole injector that might be 493
489 spray width of the multi-hole injectors shows a far wider distribu- related to the reinforced flow-to-flow interaction inside the sac 494
490 tion than the single-hole injector due to off-axis hole arrangement due to larger hole number. 495

Please cite this article in press as: Moon S et al. Effect of the number and position of nozzle holes on in- and near-nozzle dynamic characteristics of diesel
injection. Fuel (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.01.097
 JFUE 8933 No. of Pages 11, Model 5G
12 February 2015

10 S. Moon et al. / Fuel xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

but sometimes not. This can be the reason why sometimes wide- 538

1.05 Single-hole jet but sometimes shallow-jet appears during this stage. 539
3-hole The results above indicate that the inter- and near-nozzle flow, 540
6-hole and breakup and mixing processes of the multi-hole injectors are 541
1.00 quite different with those of the single-hole injector. The exit flow 542
of the multi-hole injectors is rather affected by the inter-nozzle 543
Vz / Vexit [-]

vortex or turbulence during the entire injection process. Although 544

0.95 the difference in exit flow conditions between the single- and 545
multi-hole injectors becomes less significant with an increase in 546
the needle lift, the breakup process seems to be different even at 547
0.90
the quasi-steady state. The breakup of the multi-hole injectors is 548
likely to be initiated by the internal instabilities of the flow rather 549
0.85 than by the aerodynamic effect outside the nozzle. It indicates that 550
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 the conventional wave breakup models based on the capillary 551
z [mm] wave growth on the jet surface is infeasible to describe the spray 552
development of the multi-hole injectors. Introduction of the alter- 553
Fig. 11. Normalized velocity of the single-, 3- and 6-hole injectors at different axial native spray models which regard the effect of turbulence and cav- 554
locations (z) of the jet/spray center under a quasi-steady condition: Pinj = 150 MPa,
Tamb = 300 K, N2 environment, time = 1.44 ms after SOI, 20-shots averaged.
itation on the jet breakup is essential to improving the reliability of 555
the engine simulation results. 556

496 3.2.3. Jet/spray velocity distribution at downstream 4. Summary 557

497 In this section, we discuss how the differences in near-nozzle
498 flow conditions of the single- and multi-hole injectors alter the In this study, a propagation-based X-ray phase-contrast imag- 558
499 jet/spray dynamics at downstream under a quasi-steady condition ing (XPCI) technique was employed to analyze the transient needle 559
500 (1.44 ms after SOI). Fig. 11 illustrates the normalized jet/spray cen- motion and near-nozzle flow structure and dynamics of the 560
501 ter velocity (Vz/Vexit) of the 3 injectors at the axial locations (z) up single- and multi-hole (3- and 6-hole) diesel injectors in terms of 561
502 to 25 mm. Here, the normalized velocity is defined as the ratio of needle lift, needle speed, exit velocity and near-nozzle flow mor- 562
503 the jet/spray center velocity (Vz) to the exit velocity (Vexit) which phology and velocity distribution. The transient needle motion 563
504 is an indicator of the jet/spray deceleration and degree of momen- and near-nozzle flow characteristics of the single- and multi-hole 564
505 tum exchange between the jet/spray and surrounding gas. The diesel injectors are compared in various injection stages during 565
506 result shows that the multi-hole injectors show a higher degree the entire injection event. 566
507 of jet/spray deceleration than the single-hole injector. It demon-
508 strates that more turbulent near-nozzle flow characteristics of  During the transient stage of needle opening (the needle lift 567
509 the multi-hole injectors promote the jet breakup and spray/air below 100 lm), a sharp increase and following drop in the nee- 568
510 mixing process at downstream at quasi-steady state. dle speed (like an ‘‘overshooting’’) were observed. The slower 569
needle motion and lower peak needle speed were observed 570
with an increase in the hole number during this stage. This 571
511 3.3. Discussion result can be associated with the sac pressure decrease with 572
an increase in the hole number due to higher discharge flow 573
512 Understanding the inter-nozzle flow pattern is crucial to inter- rate. During the transient stage of needle closing (needle lift 574
513 pret the near-nozzle flow characteristics of the multi-hole injectors below 100 lm), the needle speed abruptly increased due to 575
514 at each stage. A recent study measured the inter-nozzle flow pat- ‘‘throttling effect’’ of the needle and following drop in the sac 576
515 tern of a mini-sac type multi-hole injector using a real-size trans- pressure. The throttling effect was initiated at larger needle lifts 577
516 parent nozzle [27]. The previous study and current study applied with an increase in the hole number. 578
517 different geometries of the needle (Ref. [27]: sharp tip, current  The multi-hole injectors showed a higher radial velocity with a 579
518 study: flat tip), nozzle hole diameter (Ref. [27]: 0.14 mm, current lower axial velocity at the nozzle exit than the single-hole 580
519 study: 0.12 mm), and injection pressure (Ref. [27]: 50 MPa, current injector. The lower sac pressure and vortex flow inside the 581
520 study: 150 MPa). However, integrated speculations on the results multi-hole injectors can be responsible for this result. The dif- 582
521 of the previous and current study would provide a way to link ference in exit velocity distribution between the single- and 583
522 the inter- and near-nozzle flow pattern of the multi-hole injectors. multi-hole injectors became smaller with an increase in the 584
523 The previous results show that the strength of the vortex and the needle lift probably due to attenuated inter-nozzle vortex and 585
524 location of vortex core vary with the needle lift. At the low needle sac pressure drop of the multi-hole injectors at the high needle 586
525 lifts, a strong vortex is formed, and the vortex core is close to the lifts. The exit velocity distribution of the 3- and 6-hole injectors 587
526 hole axis. As a result, a spiraling flow can emerge through the hole appeared quite similar except at the low needle lifts, in which 588
527 at the low needle lifts. This emerging spiraling flow at the low nee- the effects of hole number on the sac pressure is prominent. 589
528 dle lifts can be responsible for the large spray width and turbulent  Unstable wide sprays were formed for the applied injectors at 590
529 flow characteristics of the multi-hole injectors during the opening- the low needle lifts, but the 10-shot averaged spray width of 591
530 transient. As the needle lift increases, the strength of the vortex the multi-hole injectors was much larger than that of the sin- 592
531 decreases and the location of the vortex core moves upstream. A gle-hole injector with higher shot-to-shot deviation. At the 593
532 previous computational study also presented a similar result top needle lift, almost equivalent spray width was observed 594
533 [18]. As a result, the vortex flow becomes hard to enter the hole for the applied injectors, but the breakup process seems to be 595
534 that causes relatively narrower spray width with decreased shot- different. The jet flow breakup of the single-hole injector 596
535 to-shot deviation at the high needle lifts. In the intermediate stage occurred as if the flow is peeled-off from the surrounding gas, 597
536 of the multi-hole injectors, the unstable nature of the vortex flow while the breakup of the multi-hole injectors occurred as if 598
537 seems to make the vortex sometime emerge through the nozzle the flow is perturbed from internal instabilities with more 599

Please cite this article in press as: Moon S et al. Effect of the number and position of nozzle holes on in- and near-nozzle dynamic characteristics of diesel
injection. Fuel (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.01.097
 JFUE 8933 No. of Pages 11, Model 5G
12 February 2015

S. Moon et al. / Fuel xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 11

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Please cite this article in press as: Moon S et al. Effect of the number and position of nozzle holes on in- and near-nozzle dynamic characteristics of diesel
injection. Fuel (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.01.097