Psychology Notes Show the importance of heredity factors in Intelligence. What is the influence of heredity and environment on the development of intelligence? Role of heredity and environment - Intelligence According to Sternberg there are three facts about the roles of heredity and environment in intelligence: (1) both contribute to intelligence, (2) they interact in various ways, and (3) poor and enriched environments influence the development of intellectual ability regardless of heredity. What these facts illustrate is that the typical nature- nurture debate in intelligence is no longer valid. According to nature-nurture argument, behaviour or function is determined solely by the environment or solely by genetics/ heredity. Psychologists have discovered that this argument is too simplistic. In fact, it is inaccurate. Almost all psychologists agree that intelligence has a hereditary (as well as environmental)Almost all psychologists agree that intelligence has a hereditary (as well as environmental) component. The debate now focuses on the degree to which each contributes to intelligence and the ways in which they interact to influence intellectual development. The meaning of heritability Heritability is a statistical measure that expresses the proportion of the observed variability in a trait that is a direct result of genetic variability. The value of this measure can vary from 0 to 1. The heritability of many physical traits in most cultures is very high; for example, eye colour is affected almost entirely by hereditary factors and little, if at all, by the environment. Thus, the heritability of eye colour is close to 1. Heritability is a concept that many people misunderstand. It does not describe the extent to which the inherited genes are responsible for producing a particular trait; it measures the relative contributions of differences in genes and differences in environmental factors to the over- all observed variability of the trait in a particular population. An example may make thisall observed variability of the trait in a particular population. An example may make this distinction clear. Consider the heritability of hair colour in the Eskimo culture. Almost all young Eskimos have black hair, whereas older Eskimos have grey or white hair. Because all members of this population possess the same versions of the genes that determine hair colour, the genetic variability with respect to those genes is in essence zero. All the observed variability in hair colour in this population is explained by an environmental factor — age. Therefore, the heritability of hair colour in the Eskimo culture is zero. As with hair colour, we infer the heritability of a person's intelligence from their observed performance. Thus, looking at a person’s IQ score is equivalent to looking at the colour of a person's hair. By measuring the correlation between IQ score and various genetic and environmental factors, we can arrive at an estimate of heritability. Clearly, even if hereditary factors do influence intelligence, the heritability of this trait must be considerably less than 1 because so many environmental factors also influenceinfluence intelligence, the heritability of this trait must be considerably less than 1 because so many environmental factors also influence intelligence. The ancestors of people living in developed Western nations came from all over the world, genetic variability is likely to be much higher there than in an isolated tribe of people in a remote part of the world. Therefore, if a person’s IQ score is at all affected by genetic factors, the measured heritability of 1Q will be higher in, say, Western European culture than in an isolated tribe. The relative importance of environmental factors in intelligence depends on the amount of environmental variability (EV) that occurs in the population. If environmental variability is low, then environmental factors will appear to be unimportant. In a society with a low variability in environmental factors relevant to intellectual development — one in which all children are raised in the same way by equally skilled and conscientious careers, all schools are equally good, all teachers have equally effective personalities and teaching skills, and no one isgood, all teachers have equally effective personalities and teaching skills, and no one is discriminated against — the effects of EV would be small and those of GV (genetic variability) would be large. In contrast, in a society in which only a few privileged people receive a good education, environmental factors would be responsible for much of the variability in intelligence: the effects of EV would be large relative to those of GV. Sources of environmental and genetic effects during development Biological and environmental factors can affect intellectual abilities prenatally and postnatally. Newborn infants cannot be said to possess any substantial intellectual abilities; rather, they can develop these abilities during their lives. Therefore, prenatal influences can be said to affect a child’s potential intelligence by affecting the development of the brain. Factors that impair brain development will necessarily also impair the child's potential intelligence. For example, if a woman contracts German measles during early pregnancy, toxic chemicalsFor example, if a woman contracts German measles during early pregnancy, toxic chemicals produced by the virus may adversely affect the development of the foetus. Sometimes, these chemicals can misdirect the interconnections of brain cells and produce mental retardation. Thus, although development of a human organism is programmed genetically, environmental factors can affect development even before a person is born. A pregnant woman's intake of various drugs can have detrimental effects on foetal development. Alcohol, opiates, cocaine, and the chemicals present in cigarettes are harmful to foetuses. One of the most common drug-induced abnormalities, foetal alcohol syndrome, is seen in many offspring of women who are chronic alcoholics. Children with foetal alcohol syndrome are much smaller than average, have characteristic facial abnormalities, and, more significantly, are mentally retarded. Although Down syndrome is a genetic disorder, it is not hereditary; it results from imperfect division of the 23 pairs of chromosomes during theof the 23 pairs of chromosomes during the development of an ovum or (rarely) a sperm. From birth onwards, a child’s brain continues to develop. Environmental factors can either promote or impede that development. Post-natal factors such as birth trauma, diseases that affect the brain, or toxic chemicals can prevent optimum development and thereby affect the child’s potential intelligence. For example, encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), when contracted during childhood, can result in mental retardation, as can the ingestion of poisons such as mercury or lead. Educational influences in the environment, including (but not limited to) schooling, enable a child to attain their potential intelligence. By contrast, a less than optimum environment prevents the fullest possible realisation of intelligence. Experience with mentally retarded people demonstrates this point. However, environmental causes (such as poor nutrition or the presence of environ- mental toxins) can produce brain damage in members of the same family; thus, not all cases of familial mental retardation are necessarily hereditary.Held UdUUH die HeCeSsal ily lereuitaly. The influence of nature (heredity or genes) and nurture (environment) on personality traits has long been debated in the field of human development, and intelligence is one of the traits that has been examined closely. This effect has been investigated by different sociologists and psychologists, and their studies have concluded that intelligence is the product of heredity and environment. Both are necessary for the intellectual growth of an individual. The studies of twin children have also proved the same. TWIN STUDIES The problem with trying to separate the role of genes from that of environment is that controlled, perfect experiments are neither practical nor ethical. Instead, researchers find out what they can from natural experiments, circumstances existing in nature that can be examined to understand some phenomenon. Twin studies are an example of such circumstances. Identical twins are those who originally came from one fertilized egg and, therefore, share the same genetic inheritance. Any differencessame genetic inheritance. Any differences between them on a certain trait, then, should be caused by environmental factors. Fraternal twins come from two different eggs, each fertilized by a different sperm, and share only the amount of genetic material that any two siblings would share. By comparing the IQs of these two types of twins reared together (similar environments) and reared apart (different environments), as well as persons of other degrees of relatedness, researchers can get a general, if not exact, idea of how much influence heredity has over the trait of intelligence. The greater the degree of genetic relatedness, the stronger the correlation is between the IQ scores of those persons. The fact that genetically identical twins show a correlation of 0.86 means that the environment must play a part in determining some aspects of intelligence as measured by IQ tests. If heredity alone were responsible, the correlation between genetically identical twins should be 1.00. Furthermore, the impact of genetic factors increases with increasing age, but the set of genes or genetic factors remain the same. The effects of the same set of genes becomes larger with increasing agefactors remain the same. The effects of the same set of genes becomes larger with increasing age if identical twins have a correlation of 0.86, wouldn't that mean that intelligence is 86 percent inherited? Although the correlation between identical twins is higher than the estimated heritability of 0.50, that similarity is not entirely due to the twin’s genetic similarity. Twins who are raised in the same household obviously share very similar environments as well. Even twins who are reared apart are usually placed in homes that are similar in socioeconomic and ethnic background—more similar than one might think. So, when twins who are genetically similar are raised in similar environments, their IQ scores are also going to be similar. The other contributing factors of intelligence are: i)Distribution of intelligence: This is not uniform in all individuals. It is totally based on the normal distribution curve which states that most of the people are at the average, a few are very bright, and a few are very dull.iii) Intelligence changes with age: As the child grows in age, so does the intelligence which is shown through several intelligence tests. One of the things that people need to understand about heritability is that estimates of heritability apply only to changes in IQ within a group of people, not to the individual people themselves. Everyone is far too different in experiences, education, and other non genetic factors to predict exactly how a particular set of genes will interact with those factors in that one person. Heredity- biologically determined characteristics passed from parents to their offsprings. Chromosomes: Threadlike structures containing genetic material found in nearly every cell of the body. Genes: segments of DNA that serve as biological blueprints, shaping development and all basic bodily process. Basic principles of genetics: Every cell of one’s body contains a set of biological blueprints that enable it to perform itsBasic principles of genetics: Every cell of one’s body contains a set of biological blueprints that enable it to perform its essential functions. This informations is contained in chromosomes, thread like structures found in the nuclei of nearly all cells. Chromosomes are composed of a substance known as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and this is made up of several simpler components arranged in the form of a double helix. Chromosomes contains thousands of genes- segments of DNA that serve as basic units of heredity. Our genes, working in complex combinations and together with forces in the environment, ultimately determine may aspects of our biological map. Genetic and Environmental effects: Twin studies are helpful in disentangling the relative roles of genetic and environmental factors in a given form of behaviour.Identical twins share all the asme genes, while fraternal twins do not. Under normal conditions, however both kinds of twins are raised in environments that, if not identical are very similar. They arethat, if not identical are very similar. They are raised in the same house, attend the same school and so on. Thus, if a given aspect of behaviour is strongly influenced by genetic factors, one would expect identical twins to have the same behaviour in this respect than fraternal twins. If an aspect of behaviour is not influenced by genetic factors, however we would not anticipate such differences. There is a major issue with twin studies,the environement and the interests of the twins are not precsely identical. This is also true for fraternal twins, who may differ in gender and might experience different treatment by parents and other persons. For this reason, twin studies while suggestive cannot provide conclusive evidence on the relative role of genetic and environmental factors. The adoption studies focuses on identical twins who are adopted into different homes and show a marked diffence in their behaviour which can be reasonably attributed to environmental factors. The nature vs nurture or heredity vs environment debate within psychology is concerned with thedebate within psychology is concerned with the extent to which particular aspects of behavior are a product of either inherited (i.e. genetic) or acquired (i.e. learned) characteristics. Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors. Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception e.g. the product of exposure, experience and learning on an individual. The nature-nurture debate is concerned with the relative contribution that both influences make to human behavior. It has long been known that certain physical characteristics are biologically determined by genetic inheritance. Color of eyes, straight or curly hair, pigmentation of the skin and certain diseases (such as Huntingdon’s chorea) are all a function of the genes we inherit. Other physical characteristics, if not determined, appear to be at least strongly influenced by the genetic make-up of our biological parents. Height, weight, hair loss (in men), life expectancy and vulnerability to specific illnesses (e.g. breast cancer in women) are positively correlatedand vulnerability to specific illnesses (e.g. breast cancer in women) are positively correlated between genetically related individuals. These facts have led many to speculate as to whether psychological characteristics such as behavioral tendencies, personality attributes and mental abilities are also “wired in” before we are even born. Those who adopt an extreme hereditary position are known as nativists. Their basic assumption is that the characteristics of the human species as a whole are a product of evolution and that individual differences are due to each person's unique genetic code. In general, the earlier a particular ability appears, the more likely it is to be under the influence of genetic factors. The classic example of the way this affects our physical development are the bodily changes that occur in early adolescence at puberty. However nativists also argue that maturation governs the emergence of attachment in infancy, language acquisition and even cognitive development as a whole.At the other end of the spectrum are the environmentalists — also known as empiricists (not to be confused with the other empirical / scientific approach). Their basic assumption is that at birth the human mind is a like a blank slate and that this is gradually “filled” as a result of experience (e.g. behaviorism). From this point of view psychological characteristics and behavioral differences that emerge through infancy and childhood are the result of learning. It is how you are brought up (nurture) that governs the psychologically significant aspects of child development and the concept of maturation applies only to the biological. For example, when an infant forms an attachment it is responding to the love and attention it has received, language comes from imitating the speech of others and cognitive development depends on the degree of stimulation in the environment and, more broadly, on the civilization within which the child is reared. However, if reviewed, exclusive emphasis on heredity or on environment is partial andHowever, if reviewed, exclusive emphasis on heredity or on environment is partial and unscientific. If an individual's abilities, efficiency and traits of personality would have been exclusively influenced by genetic factors, environment, training and learning would have no value. Heredity is more important in determining the physical traits like height and weight, colours and texture of hair, body strength etc , although to some extent the effect on environment on these traits cannot be ruled out.Similarly environment has the upper hand in the development of personality traits like sociability, honesty, dominance, introversion-extroversion interests and several other socially desirable, undesirable traits. The influence of heredity and environment on the child’s behavioural development is very wide and extensive as well as intensive.By manipulating the environmental variables tremendous changes can be made in behaviour. But it is difficult and rather next to impossible to manipulate the heredity.It is widely accepted now that heredity and the environment do not act independently. Both nature and nurture are essential for any behaviour, and it cannot be said that a particular behaviour is genetic and another is environmental. Heredity and environment cooperatively help in the growth and development of the human behaviour and personality. The different factors of heredity and environment are so much interwoven and their influences are so much related that it is practically imposible to segregate them and study their effect on human behaviour. Human behaviour is therefore undoubtedly the result of interaction between genetically determined traits and environmentally determined qualities. Evolutionary perspectives suggests that we definitely do not inherit specific patterns of behaviour; rather we inherit tendencies or predispositions that may or may not be translated into reality, depending on the environment in which we live.Evolutionary perspectives suggests that we definitely do not inherit specific patterns of behaviour; rather we inherit tendencies or predispositions that may or may not be translated into reality, depending on the environment in which we live. Finally, it can be concluded that for the development of human behaviour, hereditary and environment variables interact, but heredity imposes the relevant ceiling on the level of knowledge and skill which one can achieve. Environment as a general force makes definite influence on behaviour having its effects on what is gifted by heredity. Thus variation among individuals as function of the interaction of heredity and environment and the effect of one on behaviour may be insignificant without the other.