History of

Christianity

The history of Christianity follows the Christian religion from the first century to the twenty-first
as it developed from its earliest beliefs and practices, and spread geographically in the Roman
Empire, across the European continent, the British Isles and into the Americas, before becoming
a global religion.

Funerary stele of Licinia Amias on marble, in

the National Roman Museum. One of the
earliest Christian inscriptions found, it comes
from the early 3rd century Vatican necropolis
area in Rome. It contains the text ΙΧΘΥϹ
ΖΩΝΤΩΝ ("fish of the living"), a predecessor of
the Ichthys symbol.
Christianity originated with the ministry of Jesus, a Jewish teacher and healer who proclaimed
the imminent Kingdom of God and was crucified c. AD 30–33 in Jerusalem in the Roman
province of Judea. The earliest followers of Jesus were apocalyptic Jewish Christians.
Christianity remained a Jewish sect for centuries in some locations, diverging gradually from
Judaism over doctrinal, social and historical differences.

In spite of occasional persecution in the Roman Empire, the faith spread as a grassroots
movement that became established by the third century both in and outside the empire. New
Testament texts were written, and church government was loosely organized, in its first
centuries, though the biblical canon did not become official until 382. The Roman Emperor
Constantine I became the first Christian emperor in 313. He issued the Edict of Milan, expressing
tolerance for all religions and thereby legalizing Christian worship. He did not make Christianity
the state religion, but did provide crucial support. Constantine called the first of seven
ecumenical councils needed to resolve disagreements over defining Jesus' divinity.

Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization in Europe. In the
Early Middle Ages, missionary activities spread Christianity west and north. During the High
Middle Ages, Eastern and Western Christianity grew apart, leading to the East–West Schism of
1054. Western Christianity reached a kind of peak, influencing every aspect of medieval life in
the 1200s, then it began a decline. Growing criticism of the Roman Catholic church in the 1300–
1500s led to the Protestant Reformation and its related reform movements, which concluded
with the European wars of religion, the return of tolerance as a theological and political option,
and the Age of Enlightenment. Christianity also heavily influenced the New World through its
connection to colonialism, its part in the American Revolution, the dissolution of slavery in the
west, and the long-term impact of Protestant missions.

In the twenty-first century, traditional Christianity has declined in the West, while new forms have
developed and expanded throughout the world. Today, there are more than two billion Christians
worldwide and Christianity has become the world's largest, and most widespread religion.[1][2]
Within the last century, the center of growth has shifted from West to East and from the North to
the Global South.[3][4][5][6]
Origins to 312
Little is fully known of Christianity in its first 150 years. Sources are few.[7] This and other
complications have limited scholars to probable rather than provable conclusions, based largely
on the biblical book of Acts, whose historicity is debated as much as it is accepted.[8][9]

According to the Gospels, Christianity began with the itinerant preaching and teaching of a
deeply pious young Jewish man, Jesus of Nazareth.[10][11] His followers came to believe Jesus
was the Son of God, the Christ, a title in Greek for the Hebrew term meshiah (Messiah) meaning
“the anointed one.” Jesus was crucified c. AD 30–33 in Jerusalem, and after his death and burial,
his disciples proclaimed they had seen him alive and raised from the dead. He was thereafter
proclaimed exalted by God heralding the future Kingdom of God.[12][10][12]

Virtually all scholars of antiquity accept that Jesus was a historical figure.[13][14] However, in the
twenty-first century, tensions surround the figure of Jesus and the supernatural features of the
gospels, creating, for many, a distinction between the 'Jesus of history' and the 'Christ of
faith'.[15] In early Christianity, this was not yet a question. The belief that Christ had two natures,
one divine and one human, provided the foundation for Christianity.[16]

It was amongst a small group of Second Temple Jews, looking for an "anointed" leader (messiah
or king) from the ancestral line of King David, that Christianity first formed in relative
obscurity.[17][12] Led by James the Just, brother of Jesus, they described themselves as
"disciples of the Lord" and followers "of the Way".[18][19] According to Acts 9[20] and 11,[21] a
settled community of disciples at Antioch were the first to be called "Christians".[22][23][24]

While there is evidence in the New Testament (Acts 10) suggesting the presence of Gentile
Christians from the beginning, most early Christians were actively Jewish.[25] Jewish Christianity
was influential in the beginning, and it remained so in Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor into the
second and third centuries.[26][27] Judaism and Christianity eventually diverged over
disagreements about Jewish law, Jewish insurrections against Rome which Christians did not
support, and the development of Rabbinic Judaism by the Pharisees, the sect which had rejected
Jesus from the start.[28]
 St. Lawrence (martyred 258) standing
before Emperor Valerianus

Geographically, Christianity began in Jerusalem in first-century Judea, a province of the Roman

Empire. The religious, social, and political climate of the area was diverse and often
characterized by turmoil.[12][29] The Roman Empire had only recently emerged from a long series
of civil wars, and would experience two more major periods of civil war over the next
centuries.[30] Romans of this era feared civil disorder, giving their highest regard to peace,
harmony and order.[31] Piety equaled loyalty to family, class, city and emperor, and it was
demonstrated by loyalty to the practices and rituals of the old religious ways.[32]

Christianity was largely tolerated, but some also saw it as a threat to "Romanness" which
produced localized persecution by mobs and governors.[33][34] The first reference to persecution
by a Roman Emperor is under Nero, probably in 64 AD, in the city of Rome. Scholars conjecture
that Peter and Paul were killed then.[35] In 250, the emperor Decius made it a capital offence to
refuse to make sacrifices to Roman gods, resulting in widespread persecution of
Christians.[36][37] Valerian pursued similar policies later that decade. The last and most severe
official persecution, the Diocletianic Persecution, took place in 303–311.[38] During these early
centuries, Christianity spread into the Jewish diaspora communities, establishing itself beyond
the Empire's borders as well as within it.[39][40][41][42]
Mission in primitive Christianity

The Oxford and Cambridge Acts of the Apostles – Paul

the Apostle's missionary journeys

From its beginnings, the Christian church has seen itself as having a double mission: first, to
fully live out its faith, and second, to pass it on, making Christianity a 'missionary' religion from
its inception.[43] Driven by a universalist logic, missions are a multi-cultural, often complex,
historical process.[44]

Evangelism began immediately through the twelve Apostles, and the Apostle Paul making
multiple trips to found new churches.[45] Christianity quickly spread geographically and
numerically, with interaction sometimes producing conflict, and other times producing converts
and accommodation.[46][47]
Early geographical spread

Map of the Roman empire with distribution of Christian

congregations of the first three centuries displayed for
each century[48]

Beginning with less than 1000 people, by the year 100, Christianity had grown to perhaps one
hundred small household churches consisting of an average of around seventy (12–200)
members each.[49] It achieved critical mass in the hundred years between 150 and 250 when it
moved from fewer than 50,000 adherents to over a million.[50] This provided enough adopters for
its growth rate to be self-sustaining.[50][51]

In Asia Minor, (Athens, Corinth, Ephesus, and Pergamum), conflicts over the nature of Christ's
divinity first emerged in the second century, and were resolved by referencing apostolic
teaching.[52]

There is no archaeological evidence of Christianity in Egypt before the fourth century, though the
literary evidence for it is immense.[53][note 1] Egyptian Christianity probably began in the first
century in Alexandria.[61] As it spread, Coptic Christianity developed.[62] Both Gnosticism and
Marcionite Christianity appeared in the second century.[63] Egyptian Christians produced
religious literature more abundantly than any other region during the second and third centuries.
The church in Alexandria became as influential as the church in Rome.[64]

Christianity in Antioch is mentioned in Paul's epistles written before AD 60, and scholars
generally see Antioch as a primary center of early Christianity.[65]
Early Christianity was also present in Gaul, however, most of what is known comes from a letter,
most likely written by Irenaeus, which theologically interprets the detailed suffering and
martyrdom of Christians from Vienne and Lyons during the reign of Marcus Aurelius.[66] There is
no other evidence of Christianity in Gaul, beyond one inscription on a gravestone, until the
beginning of the fourth century.[67]

The origins of Christianity in North Africa are unknown, but most scholars connect it to the
Jewish communities of Carthage.[68] Christians were persecuted in Africa intermittently from
180 until 305.[69] Persecution under Emperors Decius and Valerian created long-lasting problems
for the African church when those who had recanted tried to rejoin the Church.[70]

It is likely the Christian message arrived in the city of Rome very early, though it is unknown how
or by whom.[71] Tradition, and some evidence, supports Peter as the organizer and founder of the
Church in Rome which already existed by 57 AD when Paul arrived there.[72] The city was a
melting pot of ideas, and according to Markus Vinzent, the Church in Rome was "fragmented and
subject to repeated internal upheavals ... [from] controversies imported by immigrants from
around the empire".[73] Walter Bauer's thesis that heretical forms of Christianity were brought
into line by a powerful, united, Roman church forcing its will on others is not supportable, writes
Vinzent, since such unity and power did not exist in Rome before the eighth century.[74][75][76]

Christianity spread in the Germanic world during the latter part of the third century, beginning
among the Goths. It did not originate with the ruling classes.[77] Christianity probably reached
Roman Britain by the third century at the latest.[77]

From the earliest days of Christianity, there was a Christian presence in Edessa (ancient and
modern Urfa). It developed in Adiabene, Armenia, Georgia, Persia (modern Iran), Ethiopia, Central
Asia, India, Nubia, South Arabia, Soqotra, Central Asia and China. Christianity's development
followed the trade routes as it was spread east of Antioch and south of Alexandria by merchants
and soldiers moving into eastern Turkey, Azerbaijan, Syria, Afghanistan, Pakistan, the Arabian
peninsula, and the Persian Gulf in the fourth century.[78][79] By the sixth century, there is evidence
for Christian communities in Sri Lanka and Tibet.[80]
Early beliefs and practices

One of the oldest representation of

Jesus as the Good Shepherd from the
catacombs of Rome, made around
300 AD

Early Christianity's system of beliefs and morality have been cited as a major factor in its growth
from relative obscurity.[11]

Early Christian communities were highly inclusive in terms of social categories, being open to
men and women, rich and poor, slave and free, in contrast to traditional Roman social
stratification.[81][82] In groups formed by Paul the Apostle, the role of women was greater than in
other religious movements.[83][84] Intellectual egalitarianism made philosophy and ethics
available to ordinary people otherwise deemed incapable of ethical reflection.[85][86] Christian
conceptions of sexual morality and free will produced dramatic change from a system where
social and political status, power, and social reproduction had long scripted the terms of sexual
morality.[87][88][89]

Christians distributed bread to the hungry, nurtured the sick, and showed the poor great
generosity.[90][91] Family had previously determined where and how the dead could be buried, but
Christians gathered those not related by blood into a common burial space, used the same
memorials, and expanded the audience to include others of their community, thereby redefining
the meaning of family.[92][93]

Christianity in its first 300 years was also highly exclusive.[94] Believing was the crucial and
defining characteristic that set a "high boundary" that strongly excluded non-believers.[94] The
exclusivity of Christian monotheism has been cited as a crucial factor in maintaining Christian
independence in the syncretizing Roman religious culture.[95] Many scholars interpreted this
exclusivity as an intolerance inherent in Christian belief, though this view has been challenged by
modern scholarship.[96]

In the mid-second century, Christian writers such as Justin Martyr (100–165 CE), began using
the term "heresy."[97][98] The concept developed as a means of defining theological error,
ensuring correct belief and establishing identity.[98] Tension from universality and diversity made
the establishment of boundaries necessary.[99] In the early centuries, doctrinal variations were
gradually regulated by literature that established a consensus of common beliefs thereby
creating "unified diversity."[100]

The modern understanding of freedom of conscience has been cited by some as beginning with
Christianity's understanding of freedom to choose one's own religion. Starting with Justin Martyr,
freedom of religious conscience is affirmed in the Milan edict of 313.[101] Early Christians were
told to love others, even enemies, and Christians of all classes and sorts called each other
"brother" and "sister". These concepts and practices were foundational to early Christian
thought, have remained central, and can be seen as early precursors to later modern concepts of
tolerance.[102]

Church hierarchy
The Church as an institution began its formation quickly and with some flexibility. The New
Testament mentions bishops (or episkopoi), as overseers and presbyters as elders or priests,
with deacons as 'servants', sometimes using the terms interchangeably.[103] According to Gerd
Theissen, institutionalization began when itinerant preaching transformed into resident
leadership (those living in a particular community over which they exercised leadership).[104] A
fully organized church system had evolved prior to Constantine and the Council of Nicaea in
325.[105]
New Testament

A folio from Papyrus 46,

an early-3rd-century
collection of Pauline
epistles

In the first century, new scriptures were written in Koine Greek. For Christians, these became the
"New Testament", and the Hebrew Scriptures became the "Old Testament".[106] Even in the
formative period, these texts had considerable authority, and those seen as "scriptural" were
generally agreed upon.[107][108]

When discussion of canonization began, there were disputes over whether or not to include
some books.[109][110] A list of accepted books was established by the Council of Rome in 382,
followed by those of Hippo in 393 and Carthage in 397.[111] Spanning two millennia, the Bible
has become one of the most influential works ever written, having contributed to the formation
of Western law, art, literature, literacy and education.[112][113]

Church fathers
The earliest orthodox writers of the first and second centuries, outside the writers of the New
Testament itself, were first called the Apostolic Fathers in the sixth century.[114] The title is used
by the Church to describe the intellectual and spiritual teachers, leaders and philosophers of
early Christianity.[115] Writing from the first century to the close of the eighth, they defended their
faith, wrote commentaries and sermons, recorded the Creeds and church history, and lived lives
that were exemplars of their faith.[116]

Late Antiquity to Early

Middle Ages (313–600)
Increasing diversity led to the formation of competing orthodoxies.[117] Various Germanic
peoples—many of whom had already converted to Christianity—sacked Rome, invaded Britain,
France, and Spain, seized land, and disrupted economies.[118][119] After 476 AD, the Christian
church became the European continent's unifying influence.[120]

Political conflict between church and state over control of the church began in Antiquity.[117][121]
Roman Empire before Constantine was built with caesar as priest over all religions.[122]
Christianity distinguished between God and Emperor holding to the belief that God must come
first.[123] Constantine and his successors attempted to fit the Church into their political
program.[124] Freedom from State control was asserted by church leaders like Ambrose and
Pope Gelasius I, but intersection with the secular state in Antiquity also boosted the church's
authority and wealth.[125] By the early Middle Ages, church and state had merged.[126] Over the
next 800 years, struggle for the autonomy of the church from the state went back and forth.
Eventually, the Catholic Church was changed from a politically independent institution into one
circumscribed by secular governments.[127][128]
Influence of Constantine in Late
Antiquity

Icon depicting the Emperor

Constantine (centre) and the bishops
of the First Council of Nicaea (325)
holding the Niceno–
Constantinopolitan Creed of 381

The Roman Emperor Constantine the Great became the emperor in the West and the first
Christian emperor in 313. He became sole emperor when he defeated Licinius, the emperor in
the East, in 324.[129] In 313, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, expressing tolerance for all
religions, thereby legalizing Christian worship.[129] Christianity did not become the official religion
of the empire under Constantine, but the steps he took to support and protect it were vitally
important in the history of Christianity.[130]

Constantine established equal footing for Christian clergy by granting them the same
immunities pagan priests had long enjoyed.[130] He gave bishops judicial power.[131] By
intervening in church disputes, he initiated a precedent.[132][133] He wrote laws that favored
Christianity,[134][132] and he personally endowed Christians with gifts of money, land and
government positions.[135][136] Instead of rejecting state authority, bishops were grateful, and this
change in attitude proved to be critical to the further growth of the Church.[131]
Constantine's church building was influential in the spread of Christianity.[131] He devoted
imperial and public funds, endowed his churches with wealth and lands, and provided revenue
for their clergy and upkeep.[137] This led to similar efforts on a local level, leading to the presence
of churches in essentially all Roman cities by the late fourth century.[137]

Regional developments (300–600)

Christianity had no central government, and differences developed in different locations.[74][75][76]
Donatism developed in North Africa. Some Germanic people adopted Arian Christianity while
others, such as the Frankish King Clovis I, (who was the first to unite the Frankish tribes under
one ruler), converted to Catholicism.[138][139][140][141]

Pope Celestine I sent Patrick, a former slave, back to the Irish who had enslaved him, to be a
missionary to them in the early fifth century. Irish Christianity embraced syncretization with prior
beliefs, and spread dramatically without the use of force.[142]

Pope Gregory the Great sent a long-distance mission to Anglo-Saxon England.[77] The Gregorian
mission landed in 596, and converted the Kingdom of Kent and the court of Anglo-Saxon
Northumbria.[143] However, archaeology indicates Christianity had become an established
minority faith in some parts of Britain in the second century. Irish missionaries went to Iona
(from 563) and converted many Picts.[144][145]

A "seismic moment" in Christian history took place in 612 when the Visigothic King Sisebut
declared the obligatory conversion of all Jews in Spain, overriding Pope Gregory who had
reiterated the traditional ban against forced conversion of the Jews in 591.[146]

The East
There is no consensus on the origins of Christianity beyond Byzantium in Asia or East Africa.
Though it is scattered throughout these areas by the fourth century, there is little documentation
and no complete record of it from this period.[147][note 2] In general, Asian and African Christians
did not have access to structures of power, and their institutions developed without state
support.[149] Practicing the Christian faith sometimes brought opposition and persecution.[78]
Asian Christianity never developed the social, intellectual and political power of Byzantium or the
Latin West.[78] Armenia adopted Christianity as their state religion in the fourth century,[150] as
did Georgia, Ethiopia and Eritrea.[151][152][153] In an environment where the religious group was
without cultural or political power, the merging of church and state is thought to instead
represent survival of the ethnic group.[154]

The extent of the Byzantine Empire

under Justin I is shown in the darker
color. The lighter color shows the
conquests of Justinian I

Events in the Western Roman Empire in 476 had little direct impact on the Eastern Roman
Empire centered in Constantinople.[155] By the time of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I (527–
565), Constantinople was the largest, most prosperous and powerful city in the Mediterranean
and the Middle East.[156] Justinian attempted to reunite the empire by taking over both territory
and the Church. From 537 to 752, this resulted in Roman Popes having to be approved by the
Eastern emperor before they could be installed. This required consistency with Eastern policies,
such as forcing conversion of pagans, that had not previously been policies in the west.[157][158]

Intense missionary activity between the fifth and eighth centuries led to eastern Iran, Arabia,
central Asia, China, the coasts of India and Indonesia adopting Nestorian Christianity. Syrian
Nestorians also settled in the Persian Empire.[159] The Church of the East within the
Persian/Sasanian Empire spread over modern Iraq, Iran, and parts of Central Asia.[160] The
shattering of the Sassanian Empire in the early 600s led upper-class refugees to move further
east to China, entering Hsian-fu in 635.[161]
Heresy and the Ecumenical councils
(325–681)

Imagined portrait of Arius; detail of a

Cretan School icon, c. 1591, depicting
the First Council of Nicaea

From the fourth century on, theological controversies were public and often lengthy, and lasting
consensus was slow to achieve.[162] Seven ecumenical councils were convened to resolve these
often heated disagreements.[163] The first major disagreement was between Arianism, which
said the divine nature of Jesus was not equal to the Father's, and orthodox trinitarianism which
says it is equal. Arianism spread throughout most of the Roman Empire from the fourth century
onwards.[164] The First Council of Nicaea was called by Constantine in (325) to address it and
other disagreements. Representatives of some 150 episcopal sees in Asia Minor attended along
with many others.[165] Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople (381) resulted in a
condemnation of Arian teachings and produced the Nicene Creed.[164][166]

The Church of the East during the

Middle Ages

The Third (431), Fourth (451), Fifth (583) and Sixth ecumenical councils (680–681) are
characterized by attempts to explain Jesus' human and divine natures.[167] The category of
‘schism’ developed as a middle ground, so as not to exclude all who disagreed as ‘heretic’.[168]
Schisms within the churches of the Nicene tradition broke out after the Council of Chalcedon in
451.[117] The Armenian, Assyrian, and Egyptian churches combined into what is today known as
Oriental Orthodoxy, one of three major branches of Eastern Christianity these controversies
produced, along with the Church of the East in Persia and Eastern Orthodoxy in
Byzantium.[169][170][171]

Synthesis
Late Roman culture accommodated both Christian and Greco-Roman heritage. Christian
intellectuals adapted Greek philosophy and Roman traditions to Christian use.[172] Substantial
growth in the third and fourth centuries had made Christianity the majority religion by the mid-
fourth century, and all Roman emperors after Constantine, except Julian, were Christian.
Christian Emperors wanted the empire to become a Christian empire.[173][174] Whether or not the
Roman Empire of this period officially made Christianity its state religion continues to be
debated.[175] No legislation forcing the conversion of pagans existed until the reign of Justinian
in A.D. 529.[158][note 3]

Attitudes toward pagans

Christians of the fourth century believed Constantine's conversion was evidence the Christian
God had conquered the pagan gods in Heaven.[190][191][192] This "triumph of Christianity" became
the primary Christian narrative in writings of the late antique age in spite of the fact that
Christians represented only ten to fifteen percent of the population in 313. As a minority, triumph
did not generally involve an increase in violence aimed at polytheists – with some
exceptions.[193][194][195] In general, there was more violent rhetoric than actual violence.[196]

Constantine wrote the first laws against sacrifice which, thereafter, largely disappeared by the
mid fourth century.[197][198][199] Peter Brown notes that the language of these anti-sacrifice laws
"was uniformly vehement", and the "penalties they proposed were frequently horrifying",
evidencing the intent of "terrorizing" the populace into accepting removal of this tradition.[200]
Even so, polytheistic religions continued.[201]
The fourth century historian Eusebius also attributes to Constantine widespread temple
destruction, however, while the destruction of temples is in 43 written sources, only four have
been confirmed archaeologically.[202][note 4] What is known with some certainty is that
Constantine was vigorous in reclaiming confiscated properties for the Church, and he used
reclamation to justify the destruction of some Greco-Roman temples such as Aphrodite's temple
in Jerusalem. For the most part, Constantine simply neglected them.[214][215][216] By the eighth
century, temples were being converted into churches.[217]

Attitudes toward Jews

In the fourth century, Augustine of Hippo argued against the persecution of the Jewish people. A
relative peace existed between Jews and Christians until the thirteenth century.[218][219] Jews
and Christians were both religious minorities claiming the same inheritance, and competing in a
direct and sometimes violent clash.[220] Significant Jewish communities existed throughout the
Christian Roman empire, and attitudes varied in different areas.[220] Although anti-Semitic
violence erupted occasionally, attacks on Jews by mobs, local leaders and lower level clergy
were carried out without the support of church leaders who generally followed Augustine's
teachings.[221][222]

Sometime before the fifth century, the theology of supersessionism emerged, claiming that
Christianity had displaced Judaism as God's chosen people.[223] Supersessionism was not an
official or universally held doctrine, but replacement theology has been part of Christian thought
through much of history.[224][225] Many attribute the emergence of antisemitism to this doctrine
while others make a distinction between supersessionism and modern anti-Semitism.[226][227]
 Coptic icon of St. Anthony the
Great, father of Christian
monasticism and early
anchorite. The Coptic
inscription reads Ⲡⲓⲛⲓϣϯ Ⲁⲃⲃⲁ
Ⲁⲛⲧⲱⲛⲓ ('the Great Father
Anthony')

Monasticism and public hospitals

Christian monasticism emerged in the third century, and by the fifth century, was a dominant
force in all areas of late antique culture.[228][229] Basil the Great was the central figure in the East,
founding the first public hospital (the Basiliad) in 369.[230] In the West, Benedict wrote the Rule of
Saint Benedict which would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages and the
starting point for other monastic rules.[231]

Monastics developed an unprecedented health care system which allowed the sick to remain
within the monastery as a special class afforded special benefits and care by those dedicated to
that care.[232] This destigmatized illness, transformed health care in Antiquity, formed the basis
of public health care in the Middle Ages, and led to the development of the hospital.[233]
Early Middle Ages (600–1100)
A new kind of civilization began forming in Europe that merged Graeco-Roman, German and
Christian.[234][235] Christianization was crucial to the formation and flowering of medieval culture,
but recent scholarship has shifted away from seeing religion in the Middle Ages as unified and
piously Christian.[236] Christianity and old beliefs existed side-by-side in this emerging world.[237]
The church of this period made room for the "simple folk" who held an "implicit faith" without
complete understanding.[238][239]

The Middle Ages were complex, with diverse elements, but the concept of Christendom was
pervasive and unifying.[240] Medieval writers and ordinary folk used the term to identify
themselves, their religious culture, and even their civilization.[241][242][note 5] From the ninth to the
eleventh century, Christendom encompassed a loose federation of churches across the
European continent under the spiritual headship of the Pope.[244] At this time, the Pope had no
clearly established authority over those churches. He gave little general direction, and the few
councils that occur in this period were called by kings not popes. Churches were dependent
upon lay rulers.[244] The ruling kings, dukes and counts made all appointments to ecclesiastical
offices on their land.[126]
Communication and education

Copper engraving by David Gee (1793-

1872) that recreates a 15th-century
Passion play. Details are based on
written accounts, including pageant
wagon design and the people in the
street.

As early as the fifth century, the means and methods of teaching an illiterate populace included
mystery plays (which had developed out of the mass), wall paintings, vernacular sermons and
treatises, and saints' lives in epic form.[245] Rituals, art, literature, and cosmology were shaped by
Christian norms but also contained some pre-Christian elements.[246] Christian motifs could
function in non-Christian ways, while practices of non-Christian origin became endowed with
Christian meaning.[247] In the synthesis of old and new, influence cut both ways, but the cultural
dynamic lay with Christianization.[248]

Literacy spread, and western universities, the first institutions of higher education since the sixth
century, began as cathedral schools, or were directly formed into self-governing corporations
chartered by popes and kings.[249][250][251] Divided into faculties which specialized in law,
medicine, theology or liberal arts, each held quodlibeta (free-for-all) theological debates amongst
faculty and students and awarded degrees.[252][253] The earliest were the University of Bologna
(1088), the University of Oxford (1096), and the University of Paris where the faculty was of
international renown (c. 1150).
Regional developments (600–1000)
From 600 to 1517, a series of Arab military campaigns conquered Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt
and Persia by 650, and North Africa and most of Spain by 740. The Franks and Constantinople
were able to withstand this medieval juggernaut, but Spain and Sicily and some of Eastern
Europe experienced Islamic conquest.[254][255]

Andalusi Christians,[256] from the Iberian Peninsula lived under Muslim rule from 711 to 1492.[257]
The martyrdoms of forty-eight Christians for defending their Christian faith took place in
Córdoba between 850 and 859.[258][259][257][260] Executed under Abd al-Rahman II and
Muhammad I, the record shows the executions were for capital violations of Islamic law,
including apostasy and blasphemy.[259][257][260]

In the 720s, the Byzantine Emperor Leo III the Isaurian banned the pictorial representation of
Christ, saints, and biblical scenes, destroying much early artistic history. The West condemned
Leo's iconoclasm.[261] By the nine hundreds, and for the next century, the Byzantine Empire
began to recover some of its glory in art, scholarship, monastic revival, missions and the
emergence of Orthodoxy.[262]

Many differences between East and West had existed since Antiquity. There were disagreements
over whether Pope or Patriarch should lead the Church, whether mass should be conducted in
Latin or Greek, whether priests must remain celibate, and other points of doctrine such as the
Filioque Clause which was added to the Nicene creed by the west. These were intensified by
cultural, geographical, geopolitical, and linguistic differences.[163][263][264] Eventually, this
produced the East–West Schism, also known as the "Great Schism" of 1054, which separated
the Church into Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.[263]
 Palatine Chapel in Aachen was
part of Charlemagne's palace.
It remains a central monument
of the Carolingian
Renaissance.

Charlemagne began the Carolingian Renaissance in the 800s. Sometimes called a Christian
renaissance, it was a period of intellectual and cultural revival of literature, arts, and scriptural
studies, a renovation of law and the courts, and the promotion of literacy.[265]

Gregorian Reform (1050–1080) established new canon law. That included laws requiring the
consent of both parties for marriage, a minimum age, and laws making it a sacrament.[266][267]
This made the union a binding contract, making abandonment prosecutable with dissolution of
marriage overseen by Church authorities.[268] Although the Church abandoned tradition to allow
women the same rights as men to dissolve a marriage, in practice men were granted
dissolutions more frequently than women.[269][270]
 The Virgin in Prayer, 17th century by
Sassoferrato

The veneration of the Virgin Mary grew dramatically in the Middle Ages within the monasteries in
western medieval Europe. It spread through society and flourished in the late eleventh and
twelfth centuries with the emergence of affective piety, which grew from empathy with the
human Christ and his suffering, and exhibited itself in compassion toward the suffering of
others. People of the time praised Mary for making God tangible.[271][272]

Throughout the Middle Ages, abbesses and female superiors of monastic houses were powerful
figures whose influence could rival that of male bishops and abbots.[273][274]

Having begun in Christianity's first 500 years, Christian mysticism came to its full flowering in
the Middle Ages.[275][276] This period included a longing for the genuine "apostolic life" with
particular sensitivity to the practice of voluntary holy poverty.[277]

In what would become Eastern Europe, Christianization and political centralization went hand in
hand in creating the nation-states of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo,
Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Poland, Hungary, and Russia.[278][279]
Local elites wanted to convert because they gained prestige and power through matrimonial
alliances and participation in imperial rituals.[280]
 St. Cyril and St. Methodius monument
on Mt. Radhošť

Saints Cyril and Methodius played the key missionary roles in spreading Christianity to the Slavic
people beginning in 863.[281] For three and a half years, they translated the Gospels into the Old
Church Slavonic language, developing the first Slavic alphabet, and with their disciples, the
Cyrillic script.[282][283] It became the first literary language of the Slavs and, eventually, the
educational foundation for all Slavic nations.[282]

Investiture and papal primacy

Henry IV, the Holy Roman Emperor at

the gate of Canossa Castle in 1077,
during the Investiture controversy.

The Investiture controversy began in the Holy Roman Empire in 1078. Specifically a dispute
between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085) concerning who
would appoint, invest, bishops, more generally, it was a conflict between king and pope over
control of the church.[284][285][286][287]

The Church had become committed to the doctrine of papal supremacy by the end of the ninth
century, but it wasn't until the eleventh century that Gregory recorded a series of formal
statements strongly asserting papal supremacy: the church could no longer be servant to the
state. [288][289][290] Disobedience became equated with heresy.[291]
Before Gregory, kings were largely exempt from obedience to the Pope because they occupied a
special position of their own based on divine right.[292] Kingship, church and nobility dominated
the world through deeply embedded customs; the new papal claims invalidated these
customs.[293] Ending lay investiture would undercut the power of the Holy Roman Emperor and
the ambitions of the European nobility; allowing lay investiture meant the Pope's authority over
his own people was almost non-existent.[294][note 6]

It took "five decades of excommunications, denunciations and mutual depositions...spanning

the reign of two emperors and six popes" only to end inconclusively in 1122.[297][298] A similar
controversy occurred in England.[299]

Crusade

The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the

Crusader states with their
strongholds in the Holy Land at their
height, between the First and the
Second Crusade (1135)

After 1071, when the Seljuk Turks closed access for Christian pilgrimages and defeated the
Byzantines at Manzikert, the Emperor Alexius I asked for aid from Pope Urban II. Historian
Jaroslav Folda writes that Urban II responded by calling upon the knights of Christendom at the
Council of Clermont on 27 November 1095, to "go to the aid of their brethren in the Holy Land",
an appeal aimed largely at those with sufficient wealth and position to subsidize their own
journey.[300][301] The First Crusade captured Antioch in 1099, then Jerusalem, establishing the
Kingdom of Jerusalem.[302]

The Second Crusade began after Edessa was taken by Islamic forces in 1144.[303] Christians lost
Jerusalem in 1187 through the catastrophic defeat of the Franks at the Horns of Hattin.[304] The
Third Crusade did not regain the major Holy sites even though Richard the Lionheart defeated
the significantly larger army of the Ayyubid Sultanate led by Saladin in 1191.[304]

The Fourth Crusade, begun by Innocent III in 1202 was subverted by the Venetians. They funded
it, then ran out of money and instructed the crusaders to go to Constantinople and get money
there. Crusaders sacked the city and other parts of Asia Minor, established the Latin Empire of
Constantinople in Greece and Asia Minor, and contributed to the downfall of the Byzantine
Empire. Five numbered crusades to the Holy Land culminated in the siege of Acre in 1291,
essentially ending Western presence in the Holy Land.[305] Crusades led to the development of
national identities in European nations, increased division with the East, and produced cultural
change for all involved.[306][307]

Monks, mission and reform

Throughout this period, the Church functioned like an early version of a welfare state sponsoring
public hospitals, orphanages, hospices, and hostels (inns).[308][309] The steadily increasing
number of monasteries and convents supplied food during famine and distributed food to the
poor.[310] Monasteries actively preserved ancient texts, classical craft and artistic skills, while
maintaining an intellectual and spiritual culture. They supported literacy within their schools,
scriptoria and libraries.[311][312] They were models of productivity and economic resourcefulness,
teaching their local communities animal husbandry, cheese making, wine making, and various
other skills.[313] Medical practice was highly important and medieval monasteries are best
known for their contributions to medical tradition. They also made advances in sciences such as
astronomy, and St. Benedict's Rule (480–543) impacted politics and law.[309][314] The formation
of these organized bodies of believers gradually carved out a series of social spaces with some
amount of independence, distinct from political and familial authority, thereby revolutionizing
social history.[315]
 The spread of Cistercians from their
original sites in Western-Central
Europe during the Middle Ages

By the ninth and tenth centuries, crisis over control of the church arose between the laity and
clergy.[316] Nobles were overstepping in church affairs. Many clergy were untrained, church posts
were being bought and sold (simony), and there was a general sexual laxity. This led to reform
and renewal in the eleventh century.[316] Owing to its stricter adherence to the reformed
Benedictine rule, the Abbey of Cluny, first established in 910, became the leading center of
Western monasticism into the early twelfth century.[317][318] The Cistercian movement was a
second wave of reform. After 1098, they became a primary force of technological advancement
and diffusion in medieval Europe.[319]

Beginning in the twelfth century, the pastoral Franciscan Order was instituted by the followers of
Francis of Assisi; later, the Dominican Order was begun by St. Dominic. Called Mendicant orders,
they represented a change in understanding a monk's calling as contemplative, instead seeing it
as a call to actively reform the world through preaching, missionary activity, and
education.[320][321] This new calling to reform the world led the Dominicans to dominate the new
universities, travel about preaching against heresy, participate in the Medieval Inquisition, the
Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, and to challenge Christian policy on
witches.[322][323][324]
High Middle Ages (1100–
1300)
Between 1150 and 1200, intrepid Christian scholars traveled to formerly Muslim locations in
Sicily and Spain.[325] Fleeing Muslims had abandoned their libraries, and among the treasure
trove of books, the searchers found the works of Aristotle, Euclid and more. Reconciling
Christian theology and Aristotle created a paradigm shift, High Scholasticism, the works of
Thomas Aquinas on law, politics, reason and faith, and the Renaissance of the 12th
century.[326][327][328]

Clerks studying astronomy and

geometry. Early 15th century
painting, France.

Renaissance included revival of the scientific study of natural phenomena. Robert Grosseteste
(1175–1253) devised a step-by-step scientific method; William of Ockham (1300–1349)
developed a principle of economy; Roger Bacon (1220–1292) advocated for an experimental
method in his study of optics.[329] Historians of science credit these and other medieval
Christians with the beginnings of what became modern science that led to the scientific
revolution in the West.[330][331][332][333]

Hospitals, almshouses, and schools continued to be founded by the church of this era.[334]
Between the eleventh and the thirteenth centuries, the church also built cathedrals using
architectural innovations.[335]

Under Pope Gregory VII, the Roman Church became what John Witte Jr. calls "an autonomous
legal and political corporation" that functioned as a "state" with a strong sense of its own
socioeconomic and political interests.[336] Following the era of Innocent III (1198–1216), the
Papacy stood as the highest authority in the West for nearly two centuries.[337]

Beliefs and practices of the Middle

Ages
Medieval folk invoked Christian norms and practices as the ideal toward which they strove, but
medieval religious life included a constant struggle to maintain those norms.[338] Purgatory was
officially adopted in 1215.[339] Most medieval people believed that access to Heaven was
available only through participating in the Church's sacraments, and living morally as defined by
a list of seven virtues and seven vices.[340][341][342]

Between 1150 and 1350, the scope of how one could transgress began to widen.[343] Heresy,
which previously had applied only to bishops and church leaders who knew theology, began
being applied to ordinary people.[344][345][346] Heresy thus became a religious, political, and social
issue because it was believed to affect the stability of society. Prosecuting it included both
church and state.[347] The courts that prosecuted heresy and other moral or religious crimes
(such as witchcraft or sexual immorality) are jointly referred to as the Medieval Inquisition. This
includes the Episcopal Inquisition (1184–1230) and the Papal Inquisition (1230s–1240s),
though these courts had no joint leadership or organization. Created as needed, they were not
permanent but were limited to a specific time and place.[348][349][350]

Inquisition was a change in church juridical procedure initially directed toward policing sexual
sin among the clergy. Sin became aligned with crime. Crime applied to everyone. Crime justified
the use of coercion.[351] Torture was an aspect of civic law. Its use by secular authorities
associated with inquisition was supported but also limited by canon law before the fifteenth
century.[352] The Medieval Inquisition brought somewhere between 8,000 and 40,000 people to
interrogation and sentence.[348] Death sentences were a relatively rare occurrence.[353] Medieval
Inquisitorial courts most often imposed penance which could include public confession.[354]
Between 1478 and 1542, inquisition was transformed into permanently established State
controlled bureaucracies. These modern inquisitions were political institutions with a much
broader reach.[355][356][357]
By the late eleventh and twelfth centuries, the parish church emerged as one of the fundamental
institutions of medieval and Old Europe.[358] Most country parishes were formed out of the
needs and interests of their local communities and became the center of medieval village
life.[358] By the thirteenth century, "parish" could refer indiscriminately to both village and
church.[341]

Private confession originated in the monastery, but became a routine event required annually of
every Christian after 1215.[341] In the High Middle Ages, confession and penance were the chief
means of personal religious formation.[359]

Preaching in general became increasingly directed at reforming a lay audience.[346] After their
creation in 1216, Dominican preaching specifically aimed at bringing souls to confession.[341] In
sermon collections and polemical texts of the twelfth-century, clerics preached a theory of
Christian dominion that claimed universal governance.[360]

Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229)

Medieval churchmen understood that Christianity's hold was tenuous. They believed people's
eternal fate hung in the balance, and they acted forcefully to repress dissent and
superstition.[338] Pope Innocent III and the king of France, Philip Augustus, joined in 1209 in a
military campaign that was promulgated as necessary for eliminating the Albigensian heresy
also known as Catharism.[361][362] Once begun, the campaign quickly took a political turn.[363]
The king's army seized and occupied strategic lands of nobles who had not supported the
heretics, but had been in the good graces of the Church. Throughout the campaign, Innocent
vacillated, sometimes taking the side favoring crusade, then siding against it and calling for its
end.[364] It did not end until 1229 when the campaign no longer had crusade status. The entire
region was brought under the rule of the French king, thereby creating southern France, and
Catharism continued for another hundred years (until 1350).[365][366]

Baltic wars (1147–1316)

When the Second Crusade was called after Edessa fell, the nobles in Eastern Europe refused to
go to the Near East.[303] The Balts, the last major polytheistic population in Europe, had raided
surrounding countries for several centuries, and subduing them was more important to the
Eastern-European nobles.[367] These rulers saw crusade as a tool for territorial expansion,
alliance building, and the empowerment of their own church and state.[368] In 1147, Eugenius'
Divina dispensatione gave eastern nobility indulgences for crusades in the Baltic area.[303][369][370]
The Northern Crusades followed intermittently, with and without papal support, from 1147 to
1316.[371][372][373] Priests and clerics developed a pragmatic acceptance of the forced
conversions perpetrated by the nobles, despite the continued theological emphasis on voluntary
conversion.[374]

In the East (1000–1500)

The Copts, Melkites, Nestorians, and the Monophysites sometimes called Jacobites in Syria,
continued to exist in lands that came under Muslim rule.[375] Islam set the social norm as
Christians were dhimma. This cultural status guaranteed Christians rights of protection, but
discriminated against them through legal inferiority.[375] Christianity declined demographically,
culturally and socially.[376] By the end of the eleventh century, Christianity was in full retreat in
Mesopotamia and inner Iran, but the Christian communities further to the east continued to
exist.[159]

Hagia Sophia was the religious and

spiritual centre of the Eastern
Orthodox Church for nearly one
thousand years. The Hagia Sophia
and the Parthenon were converted
into mosques. Violent persecutions of
Christians were common and reached
their climax in the Armenian, Assyrian,
and Greek genocides.[377][378]
Many differences between East and West had existed since Antiquity. There were disagreements
over whether Pope or Patriarch should lead the Church, whether mass should be conducted in
Latin or Greek, whether priests must remain celibate, and other points of doctrine such as the
Filioque Clause which was added to the Nicene creed by the west. These were intensified by
cultural, geographical, geopolitical, and linguistic differences.[163][263][264] Eventually, this
produced the East–West Schism, also known as the "Great Schism" of 1054, which separated
the Church into Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.[263]

The Russian church

A coalition of Russian polities headed by the Principality of Moscow defeated the Turkic and
Mongol Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikovo. This began a period of transformation fusing
state power and religious mission, transforming the Kievan Rus from a series of small statelets
into a unified Russian state.[379]

Pre-Reformation anti-clericalism
The period from around 1100 to 1349 can be identified as an era of “anticlerical revolution". It
describes developing attitudes and behaviors against the clergy.[380][note 7] Hostility was usually
targeted at bad priests, ineffective incumbents or inadequate curates.[384]

The Fourth Lateran Council had allowed clerics to search out moral and religious "crimes" even
when there was no accuser.[385] In theory, this granted inquisitors extraordinary powers, but in
practice, without local secular support, their task became so overwhelmingly difficult that
inquisitors themselves became endangered. In the worst cases, some inquisitors were
murdered. The Medieval Inquisition became stridently contested both in and outside the
Church.[348][386] Inquisitors did not possess absolute power, nor were they universally
supported.[387][note 8] The belief held by Dominicans that only they could correctly discern good
and evil has been cited as a contributing factor to the riots and public opposition that formed
against their order.[390][391]
Late Middle Ages (1300–1500)
The Late Middle Ages was an age of transition that Cynthia Wood describes as a "time of
change and development, murder, mayhem and crisis".[392][393] People experienced plague,
famine and wars that ravaged most of the continent and Britain.[394] There was social unrest,
urban riots, peasant revolts and renegade feudal armies.[395] The feudal system declined,
parliaments and general literacy grew, and written records multiplied.[396]

Kings began centralizing power into the State in the twelfth century, but it wasn't until the 1300s
that Papal power stopped increasing, and French kings substantively gained and consolidated
power.[396][397] In the midst of political centralization, ecclesiastical reform was attempted and
failed. Popular church reform was also attempted and failed, while the intellectual revolution of
the Renaissance effectively began.[398] Governments defined minorities as a threat to the social
order, then used stereotyping, propaganda and inquisition to prosecute them.[399][400]
Persecution and discrimination grew, becoming core elements of society and accepted tools of
the powerful.[401][402][note 9]

Michelangelo's Pietà (1498–99) in St.

Peter's Basilica, Vatican City

The later Middle Ages produced a series of formal and informal groups composed of laymen
and secular clerics seeking a more apostolic life.[382] Inside and outside the church, women were
central to these movements. A vernacular religious culture for the laity rose.[277]
The Byzantine Empire had reached its greatest territorial extension in the sixth century under
Justinian I. For the next 800 years, it steadily contracted under the onslaught of its hostile
neighbors in both East and West.[155] By 1330, the Ottomans had largely conquered Anatolia,
much of the Balkans by the end of the century, and Constantinople, the last vestige of the Roman
Empire, in 1453.[405] The flight of Eastern Christians from Constantinople, and the manuscripts
they carried with them, is one of the factors that prompted the literary renaissance in the
West.[406]

The Church became a leading patron of art and architecture and commissioned and supported
many such as Michelangelo, Brunelleschi, Bramante, Raphael, Fra Angelico, Donatello, and
Leonardo da Vinci.[407] Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern Western musical
notation leading to the development of classical music and all its derivatives.[408] Scholars of the
Renaissance created textual criticism revealing the Donation of Constantine as a forgery.[409]

Avignon

Portrait of Pope John XXII (1316–

1334) (by Giuseppe Franchi) who was
referred to as "the banker of Avignon"

In 1309, Pope Clement V moved to Avignon in southern France in search of relief from Rome's
factional politics.[411] Seven popes resided there in the Avignon Papacy, but the move to Avignon
caused great indignation. Writers of the period speak of wealth and power taken to excess,
French influence, and separation from the symbolic "seat of Peter in Rome" that had originally
brought the popes their power.[412] The move to Avignon cost popes prestige and power.[413][298]

Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome in 1377.[414][415][416] After Gregory's death, the papal conclave
met in 1378, in Rome, and elected an Italian Urban VI to succeed Gregory.[411] The French
cardinals did not approve, so they held a second conclave electing Robert of Geneva instead.
This began the Western Schism.[417][411]

For thirty years the Church had two popes, then in 1409, the Pisan council called for the
resignation of both popes, electing a third to replace them. Both Popes refused to resign, giving
the Church three popes. The pious became disgusted.[411][418] Five years later, the Holy Roman
Emperor called the Council of Constance (1414–1418), deposed all three popes, and in 1417, the
council elected Pope Martin V in their place.[411]

Jan Hus defending his theses at the

Council of Constance (1415), painting
by the Czech artist Václav Brožík

John Wycliffe (1320–1384), an English scholastic philosopher and theologian, attended the
Council of Constance and urged the Church to give up its property (which produced much of the
Church's wealth), and to once again embrace poverty and simplicity, to stop being subservient to
the state and its politics, and to deny papal authority.[419][420] He was accused of heresy,
convicted and sentenced to death, but died before implementation. The Lollards followed his
teachings, played a role in the English Reformation, and were persecuted for heresy after
Wycliffe's death.[420][421]

Jan Hus (1369–1415), a Czech based in Prague, was influenced by Wycliffe and spoke out
against the abuses and corruption he saw in the Catholic Church there.[422] He was also accused
of heresy and condemned to death.[421][422][420] After his death, Hus became a powerful symbol
of Czech nationalism and the impetus for the Bohemian/Czech and German
Reformations.[423][424][422][420]
Criticism and blame
The many great calamities of the "long fourteenth century" led folk to believe Armageddon was
immanent.[416] This sentiment ran throughout society and became intertwined with anticlerical
and anti-papal sentiments.[425] Some claimed the clergy did little to help the suffering, although
the high mortality rate amongst clerics indicates many continued to care for the sick.[426] Other
medieval folk claimed it was the "corrupted" and "vice-ridden" clergy that had caused the many
calamities that people believed were punishments from God.[426]

Multiple strands of criticism of the clergy between 1100 and 1520 were voiced by clerics
themselves.[427] Such criticism condemned abuses and sought a more spiritual, less worldly,
clergy.[428] However, there is a constancy of complaints in the historical record that indicates
most attempts at reform failed. The church's entanglement with the secular and lay exploitation
were too deeply rooted. [428][note 10] Power within the church tipped away from the monastics
toward bishops, but this didn't help with the problems since many kings and noblemen drafted
competent bishops to improve their own governments leaving many diocese without spiritual
leadership.[431]

Relations with the Jewish people

Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600

A turning point in Jewish-Christian relations took place in the early 1200s when contents of the
Talmud mocking the central figures of Christianity became public.[432][433] The medieval Catholic
church never advocated the expulsion of all the Jews from Christendom, nor did the Church ever
repudiate Augustine's doctrine of Jewish witness, but they also did not intervene as secular
rulers repeatedly confiscated Jewish property and evicted Jews from their lands.[434]

The Spanish inquisition was authorized by the Pope in answer to royal fears that Conversos or
Marranos (Jewish converts) were spying and conspiring with the Muslims to sabotage the new
state.[435][436] Early inquisitors proved so severe that the Pope soon opposed it and wanted to
shut it down.[437] Ferdinand is said to have threatened the Pope to prevent that. In October 1483,
a papal bull conceded control to the Spanish crown.[438][439] The inquisition became the first
national, unified and centralized institution of the nascent Spanish state.[440]

Anti-Judaism had become part of the Inquisition in Portugal before the end of the fifteenth
century, and forced conversion led many Jewish converts to India where they suffered as targets
of the Goa Inquisition.[441]

Frankfurt's Jews flourished between 1453 and 1613 despite harsh discrimination. They were
restricted to one street, subject to strict rules if they wished to leave this territory and forced to
wear a yellow patch as a sign of their identity. Within the community they maintained some self-
governance. They had their own laws, leaders and a Rabbinical school that functioned as a
religious and cultural center.[434]

Papal supremacy and decline

By the 1300s nations were becoming more formidable opponents than they had been in the
1100s when the struggle over papal superiority to the State truly began.[442][443] Evidence of
decline in papal power can be found by 1302.[444] After a disagreement, Pope Boniface VIII
issued the bull Unam Sanctam asserting again that, since "one sword must be under the other,"
the church must be supreme.[444] This was followed in 1303 by the excommunication of Philip
the Fair of France. Philip responded by sending his men to arrest the Pope.[445]

After the "long fourteenth century", civilization itself was changing its character. The Old order
was being challenged. The influence of educated and wealthy lay people increased as the
influence of clergy waned.[446] Practices meant to Christianize people had become
"burdensome" and contributed to discontent.[447] Franciscans provided evidence against Pope
John XXII (1316-1334) as the failings of a succession of popes contributed to criticism.[448][449]
The combination of catastrophic events, both within the church and those events beyond its
control, undermined the moral authority and constitutional legitimacy of the church opening it to
local fights of authority and control.[450][413][298]

Early modern (1500–1750)

Following the geographic discoveries of the 1400s and 1500s, increasing population and
inflation led the emerging nation-states of Portugal, Spain, and France, the Dutch Republic, and
England to explore, conquer, colonize and exploit the newly discovered territories and their
indigenous peoples.[451] Different state actors created colonies that varied widely.[452] Some
colonies had institutions that allowed native populations to reap some benefits. Others became
extractive colonies with predatory rule that produced an autocracy with a dismal record.[453]

Colonialism opened the door for Christian missionaries who accompanied the early explorers, or
soon followed them.[454][455] Although most missionaries avoided politics, they also generally
identified themselves with the indigenous people amongst whom they worked and lived.[456] On
the one hand, vocal missionaries challenged colonial oppression and defended human rights,
even opposing their own governments in matters of social justice for 500 years.[456] On the other
hand, there are as many examples of missionaries cooperating with colonial governments as
there are of missionaries opposing colonialism.[457]

Historians and political scientists see the establishment of unified, sovereign, nation-states,
which led directly to the development of modern Europe, as a singularly important political
development of the sixteenth century. However, while sovereign states were unifying,
Christendom was coming apart.[458][459][460][461] The era of absolutist states followed the
breakdown of Christian universalism.[462]
Reformation and response (1517–
1700)

Martin Luther initiated the Reformation with his Ninety-five Theses in 1517.

The break up of Christendom culminates in the Protestant Reformation (1517–1648).[463]

Beginning with Martin Luther nailing his Ninety-five Theses to the church door in Wittenburg in
1517, there was no actual schism until 1521 when edicts handed down by the Diet of Worms
condemned Luther and officially banned citizens of the Holy Roman Empire from defending or
propagating his ideas.[464]

Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, and many others protested against corruptions such as simony (the
buying and selling of church offices), the holding of multiple church offices by one person at the
same time, and the sale of indulgences. The Protestant position later included the Five solae
(sola scriptura, sola fide, sola gratia, solus Christus, soli Deo gloria), the priesthood of all believers,
Law and Gospel, and the two kingdoms doctrine.

Three important traditions to emerge directly from the Reformation were the Lutheran,
Reformed, and the Anglican traditions.[465] Beginning in 1519, Huldrych Zwingli spread John
Calvin's teachings in Switzerland leading to the Swiss Reformation.[466]
At the same time, a collection of loosely related groups that included Anabaptists, Spiritualists,
and Evangelical Rationalists, began the Radical Reformation in Germany and Switzerland.[467]
They opposed Lutheran, Reformed and Anglican church-state theories, supporting instead a full
separation from the state.[468]

Counter-reformation
The Roman Catholic Church soon struck back, launching its own Counter-Reformation beginning
with Pope Paul III (1534–1549), the first in a series of 10 reforming popes from 1534 to
1605.[469] A list of books detrimental to faith or morals was established, the Index Librorum
Prohibitorum, which included the works of Luther, Calvin and other Protestants along with
writings condemned as obscene.[470]

The Index Librorum Prohibitorum

listed books forbidden by the Catholic
Church.

New monastic orders arose including the Jesuits.[471] Resembling a military company in its
hierarchy, discipline, and obedience, their vow of loyalty to the Pope set them apart from other
monastic orders, leading them to be called "the shock troops of the papacy". Jesuits soon
became the Church's chief weapon against Protestantism.[471]
Monastic reform also led to the development of new, yet orthodox forms of spirituality, such as
that of the Spanish mystics and the French school of spirituality.[472]

The Council of Trent (1545–1563) denied each Protestant claim, and laid the foundation of
Roman Catholic policies up to the twenty-first century.[473]

War
Reforming zeal and Catholic denial spread through much of Europe and became entangled with
local politics. Already involved in dynastic wars, the quarreling royal houses became polarized
into the two religious camps.[474] "Religious" wars, ranging from international wars to internal
conflicts, began in the Holy Roman Empire with the minor Knights' Revolt in 1522, then
intensified in the First Schmalkaldic War (1546–1547) and the Second Schmalkaldic War (1552–
1555).[475][476] In 1562, France became the centre of religious wars.[477] The involvement of
foreign powers made the Thirty Years War (1618–1648) the largest and most disastrous.[478]

The causes of these wars were mixed. Many scholars see them as fought to obtain security and
freedom for differing religious confessions, however, most have interpreted these wars as
struggles for political independence that coincided with the break up of medieval empires into
the modern nation states.[479][477][note 11]

Tolerance
Debate on whether peace required allowing only one faith and punishing heretics, or if ancient
opinions defending leniency, (based on the parable of the tares), should be revived, began to
occupy every version of the Christian faith.[484] Radical Protestants steadfastly sought toleration
for heresy, blasphemy, Catholicism, non-Christian religions, and even atheism.[485] Anglicans and
other Christian moderates also wrote and argued for toleration.[486] Deism emerged, and in the
1690s, following debates that started in the 1640s, a non-Christian third group also advocated
for religious toleration.[487][488] It became necessary to rethink on a political level, all of the
State's reasons for persecution.[484] Over the next two and a half centuries, many treaties and
political declarations of tolerance followed, until concepts of freedom of religion, freedom of
speech and freedom of thought became established in most western countries.[489][490][491]
Science and the Galileo Affair (1610)

Galileo before the Holy Office, a 19th-century

painting by Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury

The condemnation of Galileo Galilei for his vocal defense of Heliocentrism caused an internal
uproar in scientific circles on whether the judges were condemning Galileo alone, or the "new
science" and anyone who attempted to displace Aristotle.[492] This led to significant tensions
between the scientific community and the church, which have waxed and waned into the modern
day.[493][494][495][496]

Witch trials (c. 1450–1750)

Until the 1300s, the official position of the Roman Catholic Church was that witches did not
exist.[497] While historians have been unable to pinpoint a single cause of what became known
as the "witch frenzy", scholars have noted that, without changing church doctrine, a new but
common stream of thought developed at every level of society that witches were both real and
malevolent.[498] Records show the belief in magic had remained so widespread among the rural
people, it has convinced some historians that Christianization had not been as successful as
previously supposed.[499] The main pressure to prosecute witches came from the common
people, and trials were mostly civil trials.[500][501] There is broad agreement that approximately
100,000 people were prosecuted, of which 80% were women, and 40,000 to 50,000 people were
executed between 1561 and 1670.[502][498]
The Enlightenment
Critique of Christianity began among the more extreme Protestant reformers who were enraged
by fear, tyranny and persecution.[503][504] Abuses inherent in political absolutism, practiced by
kings and supported by Catholicism, gave rise to a virulent anti-clerical, anti-Catholic, and anti-
Christian sentiment that emerged in the 1680s.[505] However, twenty-first century scholars tend
to see the relationship between Christianity and the Enlightenment as complex with many
regional and national variations.[506][507]

Revolution and modernity

(1750–1945)
After 1750, secularization at every level of European society can be observed.[508] Enlightenment
had shifted the paradigm, and various ground-breaking discoveries such as Galileo's, led to the
Scientific revolution (1600–1750) and an upsurge in skepticism. Virtually everything in western
culture was subjected to systematic doubt including religious beliefs.[509] Biblical criticism
emerged using scientific historical and literary criteria, and human reason, to understand the
Bible.[510] This new approach made study of the Bible secularized and scholarly, and more
democratic, as scholars began writing in their native languages making their works available to a
larger public.[511] During the Age of Revolution, the cultural center of Christianity shifted to the
New World.[512][513][514] The American Revolution and its aftermath included legal assurances of
religious freedom and a general turn to religious plurality in the new country.[515]

In the decades following the American revolution, France also experienced revolution, and by
1794, radical revolutionaries had attempted to violently ‘de-Christianize’ France. For the next
twenty years, French leaders pursued anticlerical or de-Christianizing policies. When Napoleon
came to power, he re-established Catholicism as the majority view, and tried to make it
dependent upon the state. The Cambridge History of Christianity has that Napoleon also
practiced and exported the policies of "appropriating church lands, streamlining worship,
increasing state surveillance of religion, and instituting religious toleration."[516]
Awakenings (1730s–1850s)
Revival, known as the First Great Awakening, swept through the American colonies between the
1730s and the 1770s. Both religious and political in nature, it had roots in German Pietism and
British Evangelicalism, and was a response to the extreme rationalism of biblical criticism, the
anti-Christian tenets of the Enlightenment, and its threat of assimilation by the modern
state.[517][518][519][520]

Beginning among the Presbyterians, revival quickly spread to Congregationalists (Puritans) and
Baptists, creating American Evangelicalism and Wesleyan Methodism.[521] Battles over the
movement and its dramatic style raged at both the congregational and denominational levels.
This caused the division of American Protestantism into political 'Parties', for the first time,
which eventually led to critical support for the American Revolution.[522]

In places like Connecticut and Massachusetts, where one denomination received state funding,
churches now began to lobby local legislatures to end that inequity by applying the Reformation
principle separating church and state.[518] Theological pluralism became the new norm.[523]

The Second Great Awakening (1800–1830s) extolled moral reform as the Christian alternative to
armed revolution. They established societies, separate from any church, to begin social reform
movements concerning abolition, women's rights, temperance and to "teach the poor to
read".[524] These were pioneers in developing nationally integrated forms of organization, a
practice which businesses adopted that led to the consolidations and mergers that reshaped the
American economy.[525] Here lie the beginnings of the Latter Day Saint movement, the
Restoration Movement and the Holiness movement. The Third Great Awakening began from
1857 and was most notable for taking the movement throughout the world, especially in English
speaking countries.[526]

Restorationists were prevalent in America, but they have not described themselves as a reform
movement but have, instead, described themselves as restoring the Church to its original form
as found in the book of Acts. It gave rise to the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement,
Adventism, and the Jehovah's Witnesses.[527][528]
 An example of an anti-slavery tract

Born into slavery, Sojourner Truth

escaped with her infant daughter in
1826, became an abolitionist and
activist for African-American civil
rights, women's rights, and alcohol
temperance. This photograph was
taken in Swartekill, New York, 1870
(cropped, restored)

For over 300 years, Christians in Europe and North America participated in the Trans-Atlantic
slave trade.[529] Moral objections had surfaced very soon after the establishment of the
trade.[note 12] The Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), followed by Methodists, Presbyterians
and Baptists, campaigned, wrote, and spread pamphlets against the Atlantic slave trade and
organized the first anti-slavery societies.[532] Those impacted by the Second Great Awakening
continued this.[533][534] In the years after the American Revolution, black congregations led by
black preachers brought revival, promoted communal and cultural autonomy, and provided the
institutional base for keeping abolitionism alive.[535]
Abolitionism did not flourish in absolutist states, and slavery and human-trafficking remain
common in twenty-first century Islamic states.[536][537] It was the Protestant revivalists in both
England and America, the Quaker example, African Americans themselves, and the new
American republic that produced the "gradual but comprehensive abolition of slavery" in the
West.[538]

Church, state and society

Revolution broke the power of the Old World aristocracy, offered hope to the disenfranchised,
and enabled the middle class to reap the economic benefits of the Industrial Revolution.[539]
Scholars have since identified a positive correlation between the rise of Protestantism and
human capital formation,[540] work ethic,[541] economic development,[542] and the development of
the state system.[543] Weber says this contributed to economic growth and the development of
banking across Northern Europe.[544][545][note 13]

Protestant Missions (1800s–1945)

While the sixteenth century is generally seen as the "great age of Catholic expansion", the
nineteenth century was that for Protestantism.[549] Missionaries had a significant role in shaping
multiple nations, cultures and societies.[44] A missionary's first job was to get to know the
indigenous people and work with them to translate the Bible into their local language.
Approximately 90% were completed, and the process also generated a written grammar, a
lexicon of native traditions, and a dictionary of the local language. This was used to teach in
missionary schools resulting in the spread of literacy.[550][551][552]

Lamin Sanneh writes that native cultures responded with "movements of indigenization and
cultural liberation" that developed national literatures, mass printing, and voluntary organizations
which have been instrumental in generating a democratic legacy.[550][553] On the one hand, the
political legacies of colonialism include political instability, violence and ethnic exclusion, which
is also linked to civil strife and civil war.[554] On the other hand, the legacy of Protestant missions
is one of beneficial long-term effects on human capital, political participation, and
democratization.[555]

In America, missionaries played a crucial role in the acculturation of the American

Indians.[556][557][558] The history of boarding schools for the indigenous populations in Canada
and the US shows a continuum of experiences ranging from happiness and refuge to suffering,
forced assimilation, and abuse. The majority of native children did not attend boarding school at
all. Of those that did, many did so in response to requests sent by native families to the Federal
government, while many others were forcibly taken from their homes.[559] Over time,
missionaries came to respect the virtues of native culture, and spoke against national
policies.[556]

Twentieth century
Liberal Christianity, sometimes called liberal theology, is an umbrella term for religious
movements within late 18th, 19th and 20th-century Christianity. According to theologian Theo
Hobson, liberal Christianity has two traditions. Before the Enlightenment of the eighteenth
century, liberalism was synonymous with Christian Idealism in that it imagined a liberal State
with political and cultural liberty.[560]

The second tradition was from seventeenth century rationalism's efforts to wean Christianity
from its "irrational cultic" roots.[561] Lacking any grounding in Christian "practice, ritual,
sacramentalism, church and worship", liberal Christianity lost touch with the fundamental
necessity of faith and ritual in maintaining Christianity.[562] This led to the birth of
fundamentalism and liberalism's decline.[563]

Fundamentalist Christianity is a movement that arose mainly within British and American
Protestantism in the late 19th century and early 20th century in reaction to modernism.[564]
Before 1919, fundamentalism was loosely organized and undisciplined. Its most significant early
movements were the holiness movement and the millenarian movement with its premillennial
expectations of the second coming.[565]
In 1925, fundamentalists participated in the Scopes trial, and by 1930, the movement appeared
to be dying.[566] Then in the 1930s, Neo-orthodoxy, a theology against liberalism combined with a
reevaluation of Reformation teachings, began uniting moderates of both sides.[567] In the 1940s,
"new-evangelicalism" established itself as separate from fundamentalism.[568] Today,
fundamentalism is less about doctrine than political activism.[569]

Christianity and Nazism

Pope Pius XI

Pope Pius XI declared in Mit brennender Sorge (English: "With rising anxiety") that fascist
governments had hidden "pagan intentions" and expressed the irreconcilability of the Catholic
position with totalitarian fascist state worship which placed the nation above God, fundamental
human rights, and dignity.[570]

Catholic priests were executed in concentration camps alongside Jews; 2,600 Catholic priests
were imprisoned in Dachau, and 2,000 of them were executed (cf. Priesterblock). A further 2,700
Polish priests were executed (a quarter of all Polish priests), and 5,350 Polish nuns were either
displaced, imprisoned, or executed.[571] Many Catholic laymen and clergy played notable roles in
sheltering Jews during the Holocaust, including Pope Pius XII. The head rabbi of Rome became
a Catholic in 1945 and, in honour of the actions the pope undertook to save Jewish lives, he took
the name Eugenio (the pope's first name).[572]

Most leaders and members of the largest Protestant church in Germany, the German Evangelical
Church, which had a long tradition of nationalism and support of the state, supported the Nazis
when they came to power.[573] A smaller contingent, about a third of German Protestants, formed
the Confessing Church which opposed Nazism. In a study of sermon content, William Skiles
says "Confessing Church pastors opposed the Nazi regime on three fronts... first, they expressed
harsh criticism of Nazi persecution of Christians and the German churches; second, they
condemned National Socialism as a false ideology that worships false gods; and third, they
challenged Nazi anti-Semitic ideology by supporting Jews as the chosen people of God and
Judaism as a historic foundation of Christianity".[574]

Nazis interfered in The Confessing Church's affairs, harassed its members, executed mass
arrests and targeted well known pastors like Martin Niemöller and Dietrich
Bonhoeffer.[575][576][note 14] Bonhoeffer, a pacifist, was arrested, found guilty in the conspiracy to
assassinate Hitler and executed.[578]

Russian Orthodoxy
The Russian Orthodox Church held a privileged position in the Russian Empire, expressed in the
motto of the late empire from 1833: Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Populism. Nevertheless, the
Church reform of Peter I in the early 18th century had placed the Orthodox authorities under the
control of the tsar. An ober-procurator appointed by the tsar ran the committee which governed
the Church between 1721 and 1918: the Most Holy Synod. The Church became involved in the
various campaigns of russification and contributed to antisemitism.[579][580]

Demolition of the Cathedral of Christ

the Saviour in Moscow on the orders
of Joseph Stalin, 5 December 1931,
consistent with the doctrine of state
atheism in the USSR

The Bolsheviks and other Russian revolutionaries saw the Church, like the tsarist state, as an
enemy of the people. Criticism of atheism was strictly forbidden and sometimes led to
imprisonment.[582][583] Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers included torture,
being sent to prison camps, labour camps or mental hospitals, as well as execution.[584][585]

In the first five years after the October Revolution, one journalist reported 28 bishops and 1,200
priests were executed.[586] This included former nobility like the Grand Duchess Elizabeth
Fyodorovna, at this point a nun, the Grand Duke Sergei Mikhailovich, the Princes Ioann
Konstantinvich, Konstantin Konstantinovich, Igor Konstantinovich and Vladimir Pavlovich Paley,
Grand Duke Sergei's secretary, Fyodor Remez; and Varvara Yakovleva, a sister from the Grand
Duchess Elizabeth's convent. Other scholarship reports that 8,000 were killed in 1922 during the
conflict over church valuables.[587] Under the state atheism of the Soviet Union and the Eastern
Bloc, the League of Militant Atheists aided in the persecution of many Christian denominations,
with many churches and monasteries being destroyed, as well as clergy being executed.[note 15]

Christianity since 1945

Beginning in the late twentieth century, the traditional church has been declining in the West.[591]
Characterized by Roman Catholicism and mainstream Protestantism, a church functions within
society, engaging it directly through preaching, teaching ministries and service programs like
local food banks. Theologically, churches seek to embrace secular method and rationality while
refusing the secular worldview.[592]

Christian sects, such as the Amish and Mennonites, traditionally withdraw from, and minimize
interaction with, society at large; however, the Old Order Amish have become the fastest growing
subpopulation in the U.S.[593]

The 1960s saw the rise of Pentecostalism and charismatic Christianity, emphasizing the inward
experience of personal piety and spirituality.[594][595] In 2000, approximately one quarter of all
Christians worldwide were part of Pentecostalism and its associated movements.[596] By 2025,
Pentecostals are expected to constitute one-third of the nearly three billion Christians
worldwide.[597] Deininger writes that Pentecostalism is the fastest growing religious movement
in global Christianity.[598]

Christianity has been challenged in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries by modern
secularism.[599][600] New forms of religion which embrace the sacred as a deeper understanding
of the self have begun.[591][601] This spirituality is private and individualistic, and differs radically
from Christian tradition, dogma and ritual, taking various separate directions in its
implementation.[602][603]

New forms

Laying on of hands during a service in

a neo-charismatic church in Ghana

In the early twentieth century, the study of two highly influential religious movements, the social
gospel movement (1870s–1920s) and the global ecumenical movement (beginning in 1910),
provided the context for the rise of American sociology as an academic discipline.[604] Later, the
Social Gospel and liberation theology, which tend to be highly critical of traditional Christian
ethics, made the "kingdom ideals" of Jesus their goal. First focusing on the community's sins,
rather than the individual's failings, they sought to foster social justice, expose institutionalized
sin, and redeem the institutions of society.[605][606] Ethicist Philip Wogaman says the social
gospel and liberation theology redefined justice in the process.[607]

Originating in America in 1966, Black theology developed a combined social gospel and
liberation theology that mixes Christianity with questions of civil rights, aspects of the Black
Power movement, and responses to black Muslims claiming Christianity was a "White man's"
religion.[608] Spreading to the United Kingdom, then parts of Africa, confronting apartheid in
South Africa, Black theology explains Christianity as liberation for this life not just the next.[608]

Racial violence around the world over the last several decades demonstrates how troubled
issues of race remain in the twenty-first century.[609] The historian of race and religion, Paul
Harvey, says that, in 1960s America, "The religious power of the civil rights movement
transformed the American conception of race."[610] Then the social power of the religious right
responded in the 1970s by recasting evangelical concepts in political terms that included racial
separation.[610] The Prosperity Gospel promotes racial reconciliation and has become a powerful
force in American religious life.[611]

The Prosperity gospel is a flexible adaptation of the ‘Neo-Pentecostalism’ that began in the
twentieth century's last decades.[612] While globally, Prosperity discourse may represent a
cultural invasion of American-ism, and may even muddy the waters between the religious, and
the economic and political, it has still become a trans-national movement.[613] Prosperity ideas
have diffused in countries such as Brazil and other parts of South America, Nigeria, South Africa,
Ghana and other parts of West Africa, China, India, South Korea, and the Philippines.[614] It
represents a shift from the Reformation view of biblical authority to the authority of charisma. It
has suffered from accusations of financial fraud and sex scandals around the world, but it is
critiqued most heavily by Christian evangelicals who question how genuinely Christian the
Prosperity Gospel is.[615]

Feminist theology began in 1960.[616] In the last years of the twentieth century, the re-
examination of old religious texts through diversity, otherness, and difference developed
womanist theology of African-American women, the "mujerista" theology of Hispanic women,
and insights from Asian feminist theology.[617]

Post-colonial decolonization after 1945

After World War II, Christian missionaries played a transformative role for many colonial
societies moving them toward independence through the development of
decolonization.[618][619] In the mid to late 1990s, postcolonial theology emerged globally from
multiple sources.[620] Biblical scholars Fernando F. Segovia and Stephen D. Moore write that it
analyzes structures of power and ideology in order to recover what colonialism erased or
suppressed in indigenous cultures.[621]

Missions
The missionary movement of the twenty-first century has transformed into a multi-cultural, multi-
faceted global network of NGO's, short term amateurs, and traditional long-term bi-lingual, bi-
cultural professionals who focus on evangelism and local development and not on 'civilizing'
native people.[622][623]
Second Vatican Council (1962–1965)

Pope Francis

On 11 October 1962, Pope John XXIII opened the Second Vatican Council, the 21st ecumenical
council of the Catholic Church. The council is perhaps best known for its instructions that the
Mass may be celebrated in the vernacular as well as in Latin.[624]

Ecumenism (1964)
On 21 November 1964, the Second Vatican Council published Unitatis Redintegratio, stating that
Roman Catholic ecumenical goals are to establish full communion amongst all the various
Christian churches.[625][626] Amongst Evangelicals, there is no agreed upon definition, strategy or
goal.[627] Different theologies on the nature of the Church have produced some hostility toward
the formalism of the World Council of Churches.[628][629] In the twenty-first century, sentiment is
widespread that ecumenism has stalled.[630]
Christianity in the Global South and
East

Africa (19th–21st centuries)

Countries by percentage of
Protestants, 1938

Christian distribution globally based

on PEW research in 2011[631]

Western missionaries began the "largest, most diverse and most vigorous movement of cultural
renewal in [the] history" of Africa writes historian Lammin Sanneh.[632][633] In 1900 under colonial
rule there were just under 9 million Christians in Africa. By 1960, and the end of colonialism
there were about 60 million. By 2005, African Christians had increased to 393 million, about half
of the continent's total population at that time.[551] Population in Africa has continued to grow
with the percentage of Christians remaining at about half in 2022.[631] This expansion has been
labeled a "fourth great age of Christian expansion".[634][note 16]
Asia
Christianity is growing rapidly in China, Korea, and Southeast Asia.[639][640] A rapid expansion of
charismatic Christianity began in the 1980s, leading Asia to rival Latin America in the population
of Charismatic and Pentecostal Christians.[641][642]

Increasing numbers of young people in China are becoming Christians. Council on Foreign
Relations data shows a 10% yearly growth in Chinese Christian populations since 1979.[643][644]

According to a 2021 study by the Pew Research Center, Christianity has grown in India in recent
years.[645][646]

Persecution
Anti-Christian persecution has become a consistent human rights concern.[647] In 2013, 17
Middle Eastern Muslim majority states reported 28 of the 29 types of religious discrimination
against 45 of the 47 religious minorities, including Christianity.[648]

See also

Christianization Bible
portal
Criticism of Christianity
Christianity
portal
History
History of Christian portal
Religion
theology portal
Saints
History of Christian portal
universalism
History of the Eastern
Orthodox Church
History of Oriental
Orthodoxy
History of Protestantism
History of the Catholic
Church
Rise of Christianity during
the Fall of Rome
 Role of the Christian Church in
civilization
Timeline of Christian missions
Timeline of Christianity
Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church

Notes

1. New Testament manuscripts, datable to the

second century, consist of papyrus
fragments of Matthew, Mark, John, Titus
and Revelation... Other early Christian
literature introduced into Egypt and
attested in second-century Greek
manuscripts include the Egerton Gospel
(probably from Syria), The Shepherd of
Hermas (from Rome), Papyrus
Oxyrhynchus 1 (Gos. Thom. 26–8, from
Syria), and Irenaeus’ Adversus haereses
(‘Against heresies’, composed in Gaul and
probably introduced into Egypt from
Rome)."[54]
The Gospel of the Hebrews, Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit, The Gospel of the
Egyptians – The Gospel of the Egyptians, the Secret Gospel of Mark, the Gospel of the
Saviour, Kerygma Petri [‘Preaching of Peter’], the Apocalypse of Peter, Traditions of
Matthias, the Gospel of Eve, Jannes and Jambres, some Christian Sibylline oracles, and
the Apocalypse of Elijah are all of Egyptian provenance.[55]

Works that were probably written in Egypt include the Epistle of Barnabas, the Epistle to
Diognetus, Second Clement, The Sentences of Sextus, Agrippa, Castor, Pseudo-Justin,
Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Dionysius of Alexandria, Theognostus, Pierius and
Theonas.[55]

Gnostic writings include Basilides works such as Basilidians, Carpocrates and the
Carpocratians, the writings of Valentinus, Theodotus Heracleon, and Julius Cassianus.
All written in Egypt. The list includes the Gospel of Truth (NHC i,3; xii,2), Interpretation of
Knowledge (NHC xi, 1), Treatise on the Resurrection (NHC i,4), A Valentinian Exposition
(NHC xi, 2), Tripartite Tractate (NHC i,5), Apocryphon of James (NHC i,2), On the Origin of
the World (NHC ii,5; xiii,2), Exegesis on the Soul (NHC ii,6), Sophia of Jesus Christ (NHC
iii,4; BG,3) Apocalypse of Paul (NHC v,2), The Thunder, Perfect Mind (NHC vi,2), Concept
of Our Great Power(NHC vi,4), Second Treatise of the Great Seth (NHC vii,2), Apocalypse
of Peter (NHC vii,3)17), Letter of Peter to Philip (NHC viii,2), Testimony of Truth (NHC
ix,3), Hypsiphrone (NHC xi,4), the Gospel of Mary (BG,1), the Books of Jeu (Bruce codex),
and [the collection of Coptic Gnostic fragments found at Bala’izah.[56]

Pearson writes that the literary evidence

also includes "works translated into Coptic
and preserved in Coptic manuscripts:
twelve codices plus loose leaves from a
thirteenth found near Nag Hammadi, Egypt:
the Gnostic Berlin Codex (Papyrus
Berolinensis 8502), the Askew Codex
(Pistis sophia), the Bruce Codex, and
fragments from another codex found at
Deir el Bala’izah.[55] The Apocryphon of
John (NHC ii,1; iii,1; iv,1; BG,2), Hypostasis
of the Archons (NHC ii,4), Gospel of the
Egyptians (NHC iii,2; iv,2)15, Three Steles of
Seth (NHC vii,5), Zostrianos (NHC viii,1)
Melchizedek (NHC ix,1), Thought of Norea
(NHC ix,2) Allogenes (NHC xi,3), and
Trimorphic Protennoia (NHC xiii,1).[57]

Papyrologist Colin Roberts concludes that

the earliest Egyptian ‘Christians’ were not a
separate community but were instead part
of the Jewish community of Alexandria.[58]
Jewish immigration into Egypt from
Palestine had begun as early as the sixth
century BC, and by the first century AD, the
Jewish population in Alexandria numbered
in hundreds of thousands.[59] With the
coming of Roman rule in 30 BC, the
situation of the Jews declined, leading to a
pogrom against the Jews in 38 AD. In 115,
diaspora Jews in Alexandria revolted. Under
Trajan, this led to the virtual annihilation of
the Alexandrian Jewish community in 117
AD.[60]
The revolt was also a crucial event for Christians.[58] Much of the literary legacy of the
lost Jewish community was saved by Christians who treasured and preserved it, and this
legacy heavily impacted their literary production.[58]
2. There are some good sources from Syria,
Armenia and Georgia, a few "suggestive"
ones from Soghdia, China and India, while
Coptic and Ethiopic sources tend to be
recent, and in other places only a few
sources survive at all.[148]
3. In the centuries following his death, Roman
Emperor Theodosius I (347–395) was
acclaimed, by the Christian literary tradition,
as the emperor who destroyed paganism
and established Nicene Christianity as the
official religion of the empire. According to
Ramsay MacMullen, Alan Cameron and
most twenty-first century scholars, this is a
distortion created by orthodox Christian
authors as part of their war with the
Arians.[176][177][178][179][180]
Some previous scholars interpreted the Edict of Thessalonica (380) as establishing
Christianity as the state religion, but that earlier view has since been undermined by later
scholarship.[181] German ancient historian Karl Leo Noethlichs and Hungarian legal
scholar Pál Sáry say the Edict made no requirement for pagans or Jews to convert to
Christianity, since in the years after 380, Theodosius said "the sect of the Jews was
forbidden by no law."[182]

The Edict was addressed to the people of

the city of Constantinople, applied only to
Christians, since only Christians could be
heretics, and was addressed to Arians,
since it is opposition to the Nicene religion
of Pontiff Damasus and Peter, Bishop of
Alexandria which is specifically
referenced.[183]

R. Malcolm Errington studied responses to

imperial law by Christian and non-Christian
historians and commentators who wrote
during and following the publication of the
Theodosian Code of 438.[184] Errington
writes that these authors were almost
universally unaware of the existence of
these laws, "even about rulings such as
Cunctos Populos or Episcopis Tradi which
in modern times have been stylized into
turning points in the history of
Christianity".[185]
Ehrman says these laws lacked empire wide enforcement clauses.[186] According to S. L.
Greenslade, Theodosius's immediate concern was heresy. The Episcopis tradi uses
communion with named orthodox bishops to reveal heretics, not convert pagans against
their will.[187]

Errington concludes that none of the imperial laws made a noticeable contribution to
establishing Christian Orthodoxy in the west.[185] Nor did Theodosius ever see himself, or
advertise himself, "as a destroyer of the old cults" writes Mark Hebblewhite in his 2020
biography of Theodosius.[188][189]
4. At the sacred oak and spring at Mamre, a
site venerated and occupied by Jews,
Christians, and pagans alike, the literature
says Constantine ordered the burning of the
idols, the destruction of the altar, and
erection of a church on the spot of the
temple.[203] The archaeology of the site
shows that Constantine's church, along
with its attendant buildings, occupied a
peripheral sector of the precinct leaving the
rest unhindered.[204]

Sources on what happened to the temples

conflict. The ancient chronicler Malalas
claimed Constantine destroyed all the
temples; then he said Theodisius destroyed
them all; then he said Constantine
converted them all to churches.[205][206]
A number of elements coincided to end the
temples, but none of them were strictly
religious.[207] Earthquakes caused much of
the destruction of this era.[208] Civil conflict
and external invasions also destroyed many
temples and shrines.[209]
Neglect led to progressive decay that was accompanied by an increased trade in
salvaged building materials, as the practice of recycling became common in Late
Antiquity.[210] Economic struggles meant that necessity drove much of the destruction
and conversion of pagan religious monuments.[207][211][212] In many instances, such as in
Tripolitania, this happened before Constantine the Great became emperor.[213]
5. Membership in Christendom began with
baptism at birth. Participation included
rudimentary knowledge of the Apostles'
Creed and the Lord's Prayer. From peasant
to pope, all were required to rest on Sunday
and feast days, attend mass, fast at
specified times, confess once a year (after
1215), take communion at Easter, pay
various fees, tithes and alms for the needy,
and receive last rites at death. These were
overseen and enforced by the king and his
lords and bishops.[243]
6. Bishoprics being merely lifetime
appointments, a king could better control
their powers and revenues than those of
hereditary noblemen. Even better, he could
leave the post vacant and collect the
revenues, theoretically in trust for the new
bishop, or give a bishopric to pay a helpful
noble.[294] The Roman Catholic Church
wanted to end lay investiture to end this
and other abuses, to reform the episcopate
and provide better pastoral care and
separation of church and state.[295] Pope
Gregory VII issued the Dictatus Papae,
which declared that the pope alone could
appoint bishops.[295] Henry IV's rejection of
the decree led to his excommunication and
a ducal revolt. Eventually, Henry IV received
 absolution after a dramatic public penance,
though the Great Saxon Revolt and conflict
of investiture continued.[296]
7. From the twelfth century onward, the
duality between ordained priests and a
dependent laity leant itself to polarization
between them that sometimes produced
rivalry, opposition, and hostility.[381][382]
Scholars have generally referred to this
hostility as "anticlericalism" even though
the term is considered biased, and there is
a lack of consensus on its elements and
form in pre-Reformation Europe.[383]
8. The Franciscans in Basel defended the
beguine community from Dominican
attack.[388] Violence was inflicted by
Dominicans upon Dominicans who resisted
inquisition as intrusive and unjust.[389]
9. Before 1478, neither the medieval church
nor the secular kings possessed the kind of
social-political apparatus, sufficient
material resources, or the political support
needed for persecution to become truly
institutional or regularized.[403] There was
never a central institution of repression in
the church, not even the Inquisition, and
Christianity remained varied, at times
approving in one place what it opposed in
another, throughout the medieval
period.[404]
10. By the Late Middle Ages, Benedictine and
Cluniac had become so focused on
centralization and institutionalization that
they had become more like competing
enterprises than spiritual houses.[429]
Constitutional reform, such as the Conciliar
movement, was intended to unite the
Church; instead, it produced a 40-year
debate on what constituted legitimate
authority.[430]
11. Theorists such as John Kelsay and James
Turner Johnson argue that these religious
wars were varieties of the Just war tradition
for liberty and freedom.[480] William T.
Cavanaugh points out that many historians
argue these ‘‘wars of religion’’ were not
primarily religious, but were more about
state-building, nationalism, and
economics.[481] If they had been motivated
most deeply by religion, Catholics would
fight Protestants, whereas Catholics often
formed alliances with Protestants to fight
other Catholics and vice versa. Historian
Barbara Diefendorf argues that religious
motives were always mixed with other
motives, but the simple fact of Catholics
fighting Catholics and Protestants fighting
Protestants is not sufficient to prove the
absence of religious motives, since
religious conflict is often "familial".[482]
According to Marxist theorist Henry Heller,
there was "a rising tide of commoner
hostility to noble oppression and growing
perception of collusion between Protestant
and Catholic nobles".[483]
12. Thereafter, missions to the slaves
attempted, Brown says, to "civilize slavery,
to make slaveholding conform with the
ideal of Christian servitude, and to render
the institution more humane and more
just."[530] However, for many owners,
missionary work among the slaves was a
threat that would blur social boundaries
and encourage slaves to see themselves as
a Christian community equal to those who
held them in bondage. Masters often held
religion in contempt, and typically harassed
converts and forbade access to other
Christians.[531]
13. Max Weber in his book The Protestant Ethic
and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904–1905)
asserted that Protestant ethics and values
along with the Calvinist doctrine of
asceticism and predestination gave birth to
Capitalism.[546][547] It is one of the most
influential and cited books in sociology, yet
its thesis has been controversial since its
release. In opposition to Weber, historians
such as Fernand Braudel and Hugh Trevor-
Roper assert that capitalism developed in
pre-Reformation Catholic communities.
Joseph Schumpeter, an economist of the
twentieth century, has referred to the
Scholastics as "they who come nearer than
does any other group to having been the
'founders' of scientific economics".[548]
14. By October 1944, 45% of all pastors and
98% of non-ordained vicars and candidates
had been drafted into military service; 117
German pastors of Jewish descent served
at this time, and yet at least 43% fled Nazi
Germany because it became impossible for
them to continue in their ministries.[577]
15. "One of the first assignments of state
atheism was the eradication of religion. In
their attempt to destroy faith in God, Soviet
authorities used all means of persecution,
arrests and trials, imprisonment in
psychiatric hospitals, house raids and
searches, confiscations of Bibles and New
Testaments and other Christian literature,
disruption of worship services by the militia
and KGB, slander campaigns against
Christians in magazines and newspapers,
on TV and radio. Persecution of Evangelical
Baptists was intensified in the early 1960s
and continues to the present".[588]

"In the Soviet Union the Russian Orthodox

Church was suffering unprecedented
persecution. The closing and destruction of
churches and monasteries, the sate
atheism imposed on all aspects of life, the
arrest, imprisonment, exile and execution of
bishops, clergy, monastics, theologians and
tens of thousands of active members had
brought the Church to prostration. The
voice of the Church in society as silenced,
its teaching mocked, its extinction
predicted".[589]

"One of the main activities of the League of

Militant Atheists was the publication of
massive quantities of anti-religious
literature, comprising regular journals and
newspapers as well as books and
pamphlets. The number of printed pages
rose from 12 million in 1927 to 800 million
in 1930. All these legislative and publicistic
efforts were, however, only incidental to the
events of the 1930s. During this period
religion, was quite simply, to be eliminated
by means of violence. With the end of NEP
came the start of forced collectivisation in
1929, and with it the terror, which
encompassed kulaks and class enemies of
all kinds, including bishops, priests, and lay
believers, who were arrested, shot and sent
to labour camps. Churches were closed
down, destroyed, converted to other uses.
The League of Militant Atheists apparently
adopted a five-year plan in 1932 aimed at
the total eradication of religion by
1937".[590]
16. Multiple examples include Simon
Kimbangu's movement, the Kimbanguist
church, which had a radical reputation in its
early days in the Congo, was suppressed
for forty years, and has now become the
largest independent church in Africa with
upwards of 3 million members.[635] In 2019,
65% of Melillans in Northern Africa across
from Spain identify themselves as Roman
Catholic.[636] In the early twenty-first
century, Kenya has the largest yearly
meeting of Quakers outside the United
States. In Uganda, more Anglicans attend
church than do so in England. Ahafo, Ghana
is recognized as more vigorously Christian
than any place in the United Kingdom.[637]
There is revival in East Africa, and vigorous
 women's movements called Rukwadzano in
Zimbabwe and Manyano in South Africa.
The Apostles of John Maranke, which
began in Rhodesia, now have branches in
seven countries.[638]

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External links

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MacCulloch
stpillar.com/bd054
(2010). A History
7.htm) , A timeline
of Christianity (http with references to
s://www.bbc.co.u the descendants
k/programmes/b0 of the early
0ntrqh) church.
(Television Reformation
production). BBC Timeline (https://w
Four. Retrieved eb.archive.org/we
7 April 2022. b/2015092410140
History of 4/http://www.shol.
Christianity com/featheredpro
Reading Room: (ht p/Timeline.htm) ,
tp://www.tyndale.c A short timeline of
a/seminary/mtsm the Protestant
odular/reading-roo Reformation.
ms/history)
Extensive online Fourth-Century
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study of global s://web.archive.or
church history g/web/201301260
(Tyndale 10821/http://www.
Seminary). fourthcentury.co
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ttps://archive.toda
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ext.lib.virginia.ed
u/cgi-local/DHI/dh
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0%9350) Church
as an Institution
Sketches of
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dytools.com/histo
ry/sketches-of-chu
rch-history/) From
AD 33 to the
Reformation by
Rev. J. C
Robertson, M.A.,
Canon of
Canterbury
"Church History"
(https://en.wikisou
rce.org/wiki/1911_
Encyclop%C3%A6
dia_Britannica/Ch
urch_History) .
Encyclopædia
Britannica. Vol. 6
(11th ed.). 1911.
pp. 330–45.
A History of
Christianity in 15
Objects (https://w
eb.archive.org/we
b/2017042005090
8/http://historyofc
hristianity.org.u
k/) online series
in association with
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