The difference between test and measurement is;;;;

 Measurement is the act of measuring the quantity, size, weight, distance or

capacity of a substance compared to a designated standard.
 Test is a trial or a cupel or cupelling hearth in which precious metals are melted
for trial and refinement.
 Test can also mean a witness, or to make a testament or will.
 Measurement and test are related concepts, but measurement is more general
and refers to the act of measuring, while test is more specific and refers to a trial
or a cupel.
Behavioural objectives are important because they
 Provide a clear focus for instruction, which can help educators to create lesson
plans and scenarios that guide students toward the objective . 2

 Provide a sound basis for the selection or design of instructional content,

methods, and materials . 1

 Provide learners with the means to organize their efforts and activities toward
accomplishing the intent of instruction .1

 Allow for a determination as to whether an objective has, in fact, been

accomplished . 1

 Are widely accepted as a necessary component of the instructional design

process .
3

Factors affecting the reliability of a test include;

 Test length: Longer tests have adequate content hence reliable.
 Group homogeneity: The more the heterogeneity in a group, the more the
reliability.
 Speed test: Speed tests are the ones in which the examinees do not have time to
respond to some questions for which they know the answers.
 Consistency in instructions, testing conditions, equipment, timing, and
environment of the assessment.
 Changes in any of these may skew the reliability

Statistics are used in the field of education for the following purposes : 123

 To summarize results of student performance and evaluation using descriptive

statistics .
12

 To make accurate predictions based on data from previous events and

experiences . 1

 To study the underlying factors and events that affect the behavioural outcome of
students . 1
 To spot trends in student performance using data visualizations . 2

 To evaluate the effectiveness and impact of different teaching methods,

interventions, and curricula using statistical analysis .
3

Evaluation Effect of test

The testing effect, also known as retrieval practice, active recall, practice testing, or
test-enhanced learning, suggests that long-term memory is increased when part
of the learning period is devoted to retrieving information from memory . The 1

APA Dictionary of Psychology defines the testing effect as “the finding that taking a
test on previously studied material leads to better retention than does restudying
that material for an equivalent amount of time” . Testing provides feedback on the
2

effectiveness of the learning and studying processes, identifies areas of strength and
weakness, and helps to promote deeper encoding for faster, more accurate recall . 3

Data. The;
 Nominal or categorical: used to measure variables that can be broken down into
groups with distinct attributes, such as gender, race, or religion.
 Ordinal: used to measure variables that signify the order or rank of the different
groups, such as education level, income level, or satisfaction level.
 Interval: used to measure variables that have equal intervals or distances between
the values, such as temperature, IQ score, or year.
 Ratio: used to measure variables that have a meaningful zero point and can be
compared using ratios, such as height, weight, or age.

A standard score, also known as a z score, is a measure of how many standard

deviations a raw score is above or below the mean of a distribution. A standard
score can be used to compare scores from different distributions or to find the
probability of a score occurring in a normal distribution . A standard score has a
3

mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

Standard scores are used to:

 Transform individual raw scores into a standard form that provides a more
meaningful description of the individual scores within the distribution .
2

 Indicate how far above or below the average (the "mean") an individual score falls,
using a common scale, such as one with an "average" of 100 . 1

 Calculate the probability of a score occurring within our normal distribution . 3

 Compare two or more distributions . 4

 Compare the level of performance of an individual at different times .
4

Common Item Types

Multiple-Choice

A multiple-choice item is a question where a candidate is asked to select the

correct response from a choice of four (or more) options.

Multiple Response

A multiple response item is an item where a candidate is asked to select more

than one response from a select pool of options (i.e., “choose two,” “choose 3,”
etc.)

Short Answer

Short answer items ask a test taker to synthesize, analyse, and evaluate
information, and then to present it coherently in written form.

Matching

A matching item requires test takers to connect a definition/description/scenario

to its associated correct keyword or response.

Build List

A build list item challenges a candidate’s ability to identify and order the
steps/tasks needed to perform a process or procedure.

Discrete Option Multiple Choice™ (DOMC)

DOMC™ is known as the “multiple-choice item makeover.” Instead of showing

all the answer options, DOMC options are randomly presented one at a time.
For each option, the test taker chooses “yes” or “no.” When the question is
answered correctly or incorrectly, the next question is presented. DOMC has
been used by award-winning testing programs to prevent cheating and test theft.
You can learn more about the DOMC item type in this white paper .
What Are the General Guidelines for Constructing
Test Items?
Regardless of the exam type and item types you choose, focusing on some best
practice guidelines can set up your exam for success in the long run.

There are many guidelines for creating tests (see this handy guide, for
example), but this list sticks to the most important points. Little things can really
make a difference when developing a valid and reliable exam!

1. Institute Fairness
Although you want to ensure that your items are difficult enough that not
everyone gets them correct, you never want to trick your test takers! Keeping
your wording clear and making sure your questions are direct and not
ambiguous is very important. For example, asking a question such as “What is
the most important ingredient to include when baking chocolate chip cookies?”
does not set your test taker up for success. One person may argue that sugar is
the most important, while another test taker may say that the chocolate chips
are the most necessary ingredient. A better way to ask this question would be
“What is an ingredient found in chocolate chip cookies?” or “Place the following
steps in the proper order when baking chocolate chip cookies.”

2. Stick to the Topic at Hand

When creating your items, ensuring that each item aligns with the objective
being tested is very important. If the objective asks the test taker to identify
genres of music from the 1990s, and your item is asking the test taker to identify
different wind instruments, your item is not aligning with the objective.

3. Ensure Item Relevancy

Your items should be relevant to the task that you are trying to test. Coming up
with ideas to write on can be difficult, but avoid asking your test takers to identify
trivial facts about your objective just to find something to write about. If your
objective asks the test taker to know the main female characters in the popular
TV show Friends, asking the test taker what colour Rachel’s skirt was in episode
3 is not an essential fact that anyone would need to recall to fully understand the
objective.

4. Gauge Item Difficulty

As discussed above, remembering your audience when writing your test items
can make or break your exam. To put it into perspective, if you are writing a
math exam for a fourth-grade class, but you write all of your items on advanced
trigonometry, you have clearly not met the difficulty level for the test taker.

5. Inspect Your Options

When writing your options, keep these points in mind:

o Always make sure your correct option is 100% correct, and your
incorrect options are 100% incorrect. By using partially correct or
partially incorrect options, you will confuse your candidate. Doing
this could keep a truly qualified candidate from answering the item
correctly.
o Make sure your distractors are plausible. If you’re correct response
logically answers the question being asked, but your distractors are
made up or even silly, it will be very easy for any test taker to figure
out which option is correct. Thus, your exam will not properly
discriminate between qualified and unqualified candidates.
o Try to make your options parallel to one another. Ensuring that your
options are all worded similarly and are approximately the same
length will keep one from standing out from another, helping to
remove that testwiseness effect.

Explain purposes of objective of measurement

Objective measurement refers to the repetition of a unit amount that maintains its size,
within an allowable range of error, no matter which instrument is used . Measurement
1

objectives document the purposes for which measurement and analysis are done and specify
the kinds of actions that can be taken based on results of data analyses . Objective
2

measurement is something that is measured consistently, without any factors that can alter
the data gathered . Measurable objectives are objectives that can be tracked with the help of
3

units, numbers, and

Factors leading to performance appraisal

Distorting Factors of Performance

Appraisal
Performance Appraisal is the methodical assessment of the performance of employees and to
understand the abilities of a person for further development and progress. It is also known as
performance rating, performance evaluation, employee assessment, performance review, merit
rating, etc.

Distorting factors for performance appraisal: The factors that distort can be described are
as follows –

Evaluator’s marks high, while others mark low. The former is referred ‘to as positive
leniency error, Leniency error: Relative to the true or actual performance an
individual exhibits, some and the latter as negative leniency error.
Halo error: The halo error of effect is a tendency to rate high or low on all factors
due to the impression of a high or low rating on some specific factor.
Similarity error: When evaluators rate other people in the same way that the
evaluators perceive themselves, they are making a similarity error.
Low appraisal motivation: The evaluator may be reluctant to give a realistic
appraisal. The tendency is more harmful than other pitfalls.
Central tendency: It is possible that regardless of whom the appraiser evaluates and
what traits are used, the pattern of evaluation remains the same.
Inappropriate substitutes for performance: It is the usual job where the definition
of performance is absolutely clear and direct measures are available for appraising the
incumbent.
Attribution theory: According to this theory, employee evaluations are directly
affected by a supervisor’s perceptions of who is believed to be in control of the
employee’s performance – the employer or the manager.

The functions of measurement and evaluation are as follows : 12

 Measures student’s achievement. Students’ achievement can be determined

whether they have reached the goals of the learning tasks or not through
measurement and evaluation.
 Evaluates instruction. The effectiveness or ineffectiveness of instruction is
ascertained through measurement and evaluation.
 Motivates learning.
 Predicts success.
 Diagnoses the nature of difficulties. Evaluation results enable the teacher to
accumulate the experiences and to follow-up diagnosed results. The weaknesses
of the pupils in the class can be identified and remedied, thus pupils’ performance
is enhanced

Explain four variables that should be taken into account in any good
accountability in evaluation in education

Evaluation is a process of assessing the effectiveness, efficiency, and impact of a

project or program. There are different ways to categorize types of evaluation
according to their purpose, method, or who conducts them. The most common types
of evaluation are formative, summative, and diagnostic 1.
Formative evaluation. is done during a project or program to improve performance
and quality. It is a continuous process that helps identify areas of improvement and
provides feedback to make necessary changes 1.

Summative evaluation. is done at the end of a project or program to assess what

was achieved and how. It is used to determine the overall effectiveness of a project
or program and whether it met its objectives 1.
Both formative and summative evaluations are important in their own
right. Formative evaluation helps to identify areas of improvement and provides
feedback to make necessary changes, while summative evaluation helps to
determine the overall effectiveness of a project or program and whether it met its
objectives 1.
In conclusion, the success of formative and summative evaluations depends on the
context and objectives of the project or program being evaluated. Both types of
evaluations are important and should be used in conjunction with each other to
ensure the best possible outcomes 1.

Explain four variables that should be taken into account in any good accountability in evaluation in
education

Accountability in education is a complex process that involves various stakeholders,

including students, teachers, parents, policymakers, and the community. It is a way of
ensuring that educational institutions are responsible for the quality of education
they provide and that they are held accountable for their performance 1.
According to UNESCO, there are three main types of accountability systems in
education:
compliance with regulations,
adherence to professional norms,
results-driven 2. Compliance with regulations refers to the extent to which
educational institutions comply with legal and regulatory requirements. Adherence to
professional norms refers to the extent to which educational institutions adhere to
professional standards and practices. Results-driven accountability systems
emphasize student mastery of specified content and rely more on criterion-
referenced assessments than on norm-referenced ones to determine how well
students are learning 2.
In addition, educational effectiveness research suggests that student 1. Socio-
economic status, 2. Intelligence, 3. ethnic background, and gender are important
covariates that should be taken into account when evaluating schools and
teachers 13.
 Types of Learning Objectives
 Knowledge-based Objectives Knowledge-based objectives are used to measure
the learner’s understanding of a particular concept. ...
 Skill-based Objectives Skill-based objectives are used to assess the learner’s
ability to apply their understanding of a concept. ...
 Attitude-based Objectives Attitude-based objectives are used to assess the
learner’s attitude towards the concept. ...

Formative evaluations provide the following:

 Insight on pedagogical strengths and challenges in relation to specific course
concepts
 Guidance to improve teaching strategies
 A means of monitoring progress or growth in teaching effectiveness
 Diagnostic information concerning the impact of instructional practices
 A nonthreatening environment to identify and correct challenges in instruction
(Chatterjee, 2003)

Formative evaluation is a process of gathering and analysing feedback during the

development or implementation of a program, project, or product. It identifies
strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement, with the aim of making
adjustments to improve the quality and effectiveness of the program or product 1.
Here are five functions of formative evaluation:

1. Feedback for teachers: Formative evaluation provides feedback to teachers on how to

modify subsequent learning activities and experiences 1.
2. Identifying and remedying group or individual deficiencies: Formative evaluation helps
identify and remediate group or individual deficiencies 1.
3. Moving focus away from grades: Formative evaluation moves focus away from achieving
grades and onto learning processes, in order to increase self-efficacy and reduce the
negative impact of extrinsic motivation 1.
4. Improving metacognitive awareness: Formative evaluation improves students’
metacognitive awareness of how they learn 1.
5. Improving program effectiveness: Formative evaluation improves program effectiveness
by identifying areas for improvement and making adjustments to improve the quality of the
program 1

The six levels of learning in the cognitive domain according to Benjamin Bloom are :
12345

 Knowledge: The recall of facts, terms, concepts, or procedures.

 Comprehension: The understanding of the meaning, interpretation, or explanation of
information.
 Application: The use of knowledge or skills in different situations or contexts.
  Analysis: The breakdown of information into parts, relationships, or principles.
 Synthesis: The combination of information or ideas to form a new or original product or
solution.

A Table of Specifications (TOS) is a tool used to ensure that a test or assessment measures
the content and thinking skills that the test intends to measure . It can provide response
12

content and construct validity evidence . The TOS can also improve the validity of teacher-
1

made tests and student learning . Additionally, the specification can provide clear
2

instructions on project intent, performance, and construction 3

The importance of TOS is to:

1. Achieve balance in the test and to identify the achievement domains being measured.
2. Ensure that the test has a fair and representative sample of questions appeared on the test.
3. Provide evidence that a test has content validity, that it covers what should be covered.
4. Improve long-term recall for students.
5. Inform instruction or curriculum.
6. Provide the opportunity to reduce test anxiety in students and help build content mastery.

In summary, a TOS is an essential tool that can help ensure that a test or assessment
measures the content and thinking skills that the test intends to measure. It can also
improve the validity of teacher-made tests and student learning. The TOS can
provide clear instructions on project intent, performance, and construction, and can
help reduce test anxiety in students and build content mastery 1.

Here are some ways to improve test validity : 1234

 Use an appropriate questionnaire to measure the competency level.

 Ensure a consistent environment for participants.
 Make the participants familiar with the criteria of assessment.
 Train the participants appropriately.
 Analyse the research items regularly to avoid poor performance.

Here are some ways to improve test validity : 1234

 Use an appropriate questionnaire to measure the competency level.

 Ensure a consistent environment for participants.
 Make the participants familiar with the criteria of assessment.
 Train the participants appropriately.
 Analyse the research items regularly to avoid poor performance.

The table of specifications (TOS) is a tool used to ensure that a test or assessment measures
the content and thinking skills that the test intends to measure 1. It is a two-way chart that
describes the topics to be covered by a test and the number of items or points that will be
 associated with each topic 2. The TOS helps the examiner to construct a test that focuses on
the key areas and weights those different areas based on their importance 2. It also provides
the examiner with evidence that a test has content validity, that it covers what should be
covered 3.
In summary, the TOS is an essential tool for examiners as it ensures that the test measures the
content and thinking skills that it intends to measure, and it provides evidence that the test has
content validity 13.

The table of specifications (TOS) is a tool used to ensure that a test or assessment
measures the content and thinking skills that the test intends to measure 1. It is a
two-way chart that describes the topics to be covered by a test and the number of
items or points that will be associated with each topic 2. The TOS helps the examiner
to construct a test that focuses on the key areas and weights those different areas
based on their importance 2. It also provides the examiner with evidence that a test
has content validity, that it covers what should be covered 3.

Here are six reasons why the TOS is important to an examiner:

1. Ensures content validity: The TOS helps the examiner to ensure that the test measures the
content and thinking skills that it intends to measure 13.
2. Helps to focus on key areas: The TOS helps the examiner to construct a test that focuses on
the key areas and weights those different areas based on their importance 2.
3. Provides evidence of content validity: The TOS provides the examiner with evidence that a
test has content validity, that it covers what should be covered 3.
4. Helps to avoid bias: The TOS helps the examiner to avoid bias by ensuring that the test is
not skewed towards any particular area 1.
5. Helps to ensure fairness: The TOS helps the examiner to ensure that the test is fair to all
students by covering all the topics that should be covered 1.
6. Helps to improve test quality: The TOS helps the examiner to improve the quality of the
test by ensuring that it measures the content and thinking skills that it intends to measure 1

Importance of cats to teachers and learners

Continuous assessment is a form of assessment that occurs throughout the learning

process, rather than just at the end of a course or term. It is important to both the
learner and the teacher for several reasons 1:
1. Providing day-to-day feedback about the learning and teaching process:
Continuous assessment provides teachers with the opportunity to give feedback to
students on their progress and areas that need improvement. This feedback can help
students to identify their strengths and weaknesses and make necessary adjustments
to their learning strategies.
2. Reinforcing the efficacy of teaching and learning: Continuous assessment helps
teachers to evaluate the effectiveness of their teaching methods and materials. By
analysing the results of continuous assessments, teachers can identify areas where
students are struggling and adjust their teaching strategies accordingly.
3. Encouraging the understanding of teaching as a formative process that evolves
over time with feedback and input from students: Continuous assessment
encourages teachers to view teaching as a dynamic process that evolves over time.
By incorporating feedback from students into their teaching strategies, teachers can
improve the quality of their instruction and help students to achieve better learning
outcomes.
4. Enhancing the student’s learning: Continuous assessment provides students with
the opportunity to reflect on their learning and identify areas where they need to
improve. This self-reflection can help students to develop a deeper understanding of
the material and improve their overall learning outcomes.
5. Improving the faculty’s teaching skills: Continuous assessment can help teachers
to identify areas where they need to improve their teaching skills. By analysing the
results of continuous assessments, teachers can identify areas where they need to
improve their teaching methods or materials.
6. Improving the education and institutional assessment system: Continuous
assessment can help to improve the overall quality of education by providing
teachers and administrators with data on student performance. This data can be used
to identify areas where improvements are needed and to develop strategies for
improving the quality of education.
7. Providing information about the learner’s status and progress: Continuous
assessment provides teachers with information on the progress of individual
students. This information can be used to identify students who are struggling and to
provide them with additional support.
8. Helping teachers to know, plan, and redesign teaching in accordance with the
needs of the students: Continuous assessment provides teachers with information
on the needs of individual students. This information can be used to develop
teaching strategies that are tailored to the needs of individual students.
9. Providing diagnostic information on strengths and weaknesses of the students’
learning: Continuous assessment provides teachers with information on the
strengths and weaknesses of individual students. This information can be used to
develop teaching strategies that are tailored to the needs of individual students.
10. Providing feedback to the learner, which can be used to identify strengths and
weakness and hence improve future performance: Continuous assessment
provides students with feedback on their performance. This feedback can be used to
identify areas where they need to improve and to develop strategies for improving
their performance in the future.

For example, in a language class, continuous assessment can be used to evaluate

students’ speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills. By providing feedback to
students on their performance in each of these areas, teachers can help students to
identify areas where they need to improve and develop strategies for improving their
language skills.
 In conclusion, continuous assessment is an important tool for both teachers and
learners. It provides teachers with valuable feedback on their teaching methods and
materials, and it provides students with feedback on their performance and areas
where they need to improve. By incorporating continuous assessment into the
learning process, teachers can help students to achieve better learning outcomes and
improve the overall quality of education.

There are five main types of validity : 12

 Construct validity: This type of validity focuses on whether a test measures what it is
supposed to measure.
 Content validity: This type of validity focuses on whether a test covers all aspects of what
it is supposed to measure.
 Face validity: This type of validity focuses on whether a test appears to measure what it is
supposed to measure.
 Criterion-related validity: This type of validity focuses on whether a test can predict future
outcomes.
 Test validity: This type of validity focuses on whether a test is measuring what it is
supposed to measure.

Advantages and disadvantages of essay tests

Essay tests are a popular form of assessment that can evaluate higher cognitive
processes. They are relatively valid assessments of learning outcomes such as
summarizing, integrating ideas, and expressing oneself in one’s own way 12. However,
essay tests are harder to score reliably and are not amenable to objective scoring as
they give scope for halo-effect, inter-examiner variability, and intra-examiner
variability in scoring 123.
One of the most well-known disadvantages of essay testing is time. Instructors must
read every essay, grading the content and composition, while making a judgment on
how thorough the answer is 4. Additionally, only a small part of the material covered
in class is reinforced on the test, which can be a disadvantage for some students 4.

In summary, essay tests are useful for evaluating higher cognitive processes, but they
are harder to score reliably and can be time-consuming for instructors. Students
must study all of the material covered in class, but only a small part of it is reinforced
on the test.

Here are six advantages and disadvantages of essay tests:

Advantages:

1. Assesses higher-order thinking: Essay tests are designed to evaluate higher-order thinking
skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation 1.
2. Allows for creativity: Essay tests allow students to express themselves in their own words
and demonstrate their understanding of the material in a unique way 1.
3. Evaluates writing skills: Essay tests are an effective way to evaluate a student’s writing skills,
including grammar, spelling, and punctuation 1.
4. Measures depth of knowledge: Essay tests can measure the depth of a student’s
knowledge on a particular topic 5.
5. Encourages critical thinking: Essay tests encourage students to think critically about the
material and develop their own ideas and opinions 5.
6. Provides feedback: Essay tests provide students with feedback on their writing and
understanding of the material 5.

Disadvantages:

1. Subjectivity: Essay tests are subjective and can be influenced by the grader’s personal
biases 1.
2. Time-consuming: Essay tests are time-consuming to grade, which can be a disadvantage for
instructors who have many students 4.
3. Limited scope: Essay tests only cover a small part of the material covered in class, which can
be a disadvantage for some students 4.
4. Inter-examiner variability: Essay tests are not amenable to objective scoring and can be
influenced by inter-examiner variability 23.
5. Intra-examiner variability: Essay tests can also be influenced by intra-examiner variability,
where the same grader may assign different scores to the same essay at different times 23.
6. Halo-effect: Essay tests can be influenced by the halo-effect, where the grader assigns a
higher score to an essay based on a single positive attribute 23.

Analyse the causes of low reliable coefficient for test retest method

The test-retest method is a popular way of measuring the reliability of an

instrument. It involves administering the same test to the same group of participants
on two separate occasions, and then correlating the scores obtained from the two
administrations to determine the extent of agreement or consistency between
them 12.

A low reliability coefficient for the test-retest method could be caused by several
factors, including:

1. Test taker: The subject may be having a bad day, or their mood may have changed between
the two administrations of the test.
2. Test itself: The questions on the instrument may be unclear, or the test may not be
measuring what it is intended to measure.
3. Testing conditions: There may be distractions during the testing that detract the subject, or
the testing environment may be different between the two administrations of the test 13.
 It is important to note that a less-than-perfect test-retest reliability causes test-retest
variability. Such variability can be caused by, for example, intra-individual variability
and inter-observer variability 4.

Explain five factors that should be put into consideration when constructing a test

When constructing a test, there are several factors to consider. Here are some of the
most important ones:
1. Appropriateness of test items: Test items should be appropriate for the learning
outcome to be measured. They should measure all types of instructional objectives
and the whole content area. The test items should be free from ambiguity and of
appropriate difficulty level 1.
2. Validity: Validity is the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to
measure. It is the most important criterion of a good examination. The test should
measure the abilities, skills, and information it is supposed to measure 2.
3. Reliability: Reliability is the consistency of test scores across different
administrations or different ratters. A reliable test should produce consistent results
over time and across different ratters 3.
4. Objectivity: Objectivity refers to the degree to which a test is free from subjective
judgment. It is important to minimize the influence of the examiner’s personal bias
on the test results 4.
5. Practicality: Practicality refers to the ease of test administration, scoring, and
interpretation. A test should be easy to administer, score, and interpret, and should
not be too time-consuming or expensive 1.

To increase validity and reliability in a test, you can :

12345

 Identify the test purpose by setting SMART goals

 Measure the right skills
 Prioritize accessibility, equity, and objectivity
 Encourage students to perform their best
 Match the assessment difficulty to the students’ ability levels

To increase the validity of a test in the classroom, you can consider the following six
ways:
1. Identify the test purpose by setting SMART goals: Clearly define the purpose of
the test by setting Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound
(SMART) goals. This will help you to design a test that measures what it is intended
to measure 1.
2. Measure the right skills: Ensure that the test measures the skills that you want to
assess. This can be achieved by aligning the test with the learning objectives and
course content 1.
3. Prioritize accessibility, equity, and objectivity: Ensure that the test is accessible to
all students, regardless of their background or abilities. The test should be fair and
objective, and should not disadvantage any particular group of students 1.
4. Encourage students to perform their best: Encourage students to perform their
best by providing clear instructions, and by creating a supportive and positive
learning environment. This will help to reduce test anxiety and improve student
performance 1.
5. Match the assessment difficulty to the students’ ability levels: Ensure that the
test is neither too easy nor too difficult for the students. The test should be
challenging enough to assess the students’ knowledge and skills, but not so difficult
that it discourages them 1.
6. Have scoring criteria that are available and well understood by students before
they start the assignment: Clearly communicate the scoring criteria to the students
before they start the assignment. This will help them to understand what is expected
of them, and will reduce confusion and anxiety 1.
Advantages of marking schemes and teacher made questions

Asking questions is an important tool for teachers . Effective questioning can help
1234

teachers diagnose student understanding of material, ascertain where children are with their
learning, and reveal evidence of existing knowledge, gaps in knowledge, and
misconceptions . Good questioning reinforces and revisits learning objectives/goals, shows
2

connections between previous and new learning, and gives the teacher immediate feedback
on students’ understanding, which they can then use to modify their teaching . 3

Marking schemes have several advantages. They promote fairness and consistency in
marking assessments, develop shared understandings around assessment of formative and
summative work related to, for example, an assignment or exam answers, help judge the
quality of discursive work like an argument in an essay or an open-ended text response to an
exam question, allow you to see common errors made by candidates, improve the ways you
support pupils in their development of exam technique, enable you to more easily develop
exam style questions and create model answers, enable the marking of your pupils work to
become more focused on the requirements of the specification and mark scheme, state the
correct answer or a range of possible answers, although these may not be exhaustive, indicate
how a second mark is awarded for a second point or developed idea, and give an indication of
unacceptable answers 1.
I hope this helps!
Learn more:
1. Lo.unisa.edu.au2. bing.com3. examining.jcq.org.uk4. cambridgeinternational.org5.
cambridgeinternational.org6. papers.gceguide.com7. cambridgeinternational.org+5 more

1of30
What is a marking scheme? How do I create an effective marking scheme? Can you give me some
examples of good and bad answers to exam questions?

Recent activity Plugins

Advantages of Marking Scheme

Increasing validity of a test in classroom
11:36 am
Factors to consider when constructing a test
11:33 am
Causes of low reliable coefficient for test retest method
11:30 am
Advantages and Disadvantages of Essay Tests
11:28 am
See all recent chats

Response stopped

New topic

New topic

0/2000

Feedback

Describe two common methods of interpreting test scores

There are four frames of references for interpreting test scores: 1 Ability-referenced
interpretation 2 Growth-referenced interpretation 3 Norm-referenced interpretation
4 Criterion-referenced interpretation. Norm-referenced test interpretation compares
the scores that the applicant receives with the test performance of a particular
reference group. Criterion-referenced test interpretation indicates the amount of skill
or knowledge the test taker possesses in a particular subject or content area 1.
The two most common methods of interpreting test scores are norm-
referenced and criterion-referenced interpretations 23. In norm-referenced test
interpretation, the scores that the applicant receives are compared with the test
performance of a particular reference group. In this case, the reference group is the
norm group. Criterion-referenced test interpretation indicates the amount of skill or
knowledge the test taker possesses in a particular subject or content area. This
method of interpretation is based on the assumption that there is a specific set of
skills or knowledge that the test taker should possess 3.

Analyse the modern methods of reporting test scores

 Modern cognitive assessments, including the new Common Core tests, produce test scores
based on sophisticated statistical models rather than the simple percent of items a student
answers correctly1. The test scores depend on many decisions made by test designers, some
of which have important implications for education policy 1. There are two major approaches
to reporting test scores: criterion-referenced approach and norm-referenced approach 2. The
criterion-referenced approach is particularly appropriate for absolute decisions, while the
norm-referenced approach is more appropriate for relative decisions 2. The need for useful
test scores can be seen from two perspectives: that of the test developer who needs to
report meaningful information on test results and to provide guidance for their use, and that
of the test user who needs to be able to interpret and use scores from tests 2. Reporting test
scores requires evidence from four sources: content alignment, users’ correct interpretation,
users’ appropriate actions, and users’ perception 3. Possible methods of collecting these
different kinds of evidence are also suggested 3.

The functions of grading and reporting are to assess and communicate students'
academic progress and achievement . Grading and reporting systems can help improve
123

students' learning by clarifying instructional objectives, showing strengths and weaknesses,

providing feedback, enhancing motivation, and indicating where teaching might be
modified . Grading and reporting systems can also help distinguish between learning needs
1

and behavioural or work-habit needs .3

According to the University of Delaware’s School of Education, grading and reporting

systems serve the following five functions:

1. Assessing and communicating academic progress and achievement: Grading and

reporting systems help teachers and students understand how well they are meeting
instructional objectives and where they need to improve 1.
2. Clarifying instructional objectives: Grading and reporting systems help teachers and
students understand what is expected of them in terms of learning outcomes 1.
3. Providing feedback: Grading and reporting systems provide students with feedback on
their performance, which can help them identify areas of strength and weakness and adjust
their learning strategies accordingly 1.
4. Enhancing motivation: Grading and reporting systems can motivate students to learn by
providing them with a sense of accomplishment and recognition for their hard work 1.
5. Indicating where teaching might be modified: Grading and reporting systems can help
teachers identify areas where they need to modify their teaching methods or instructional
materials to better meet the needs of their students 1.

The hierarchy of affective domain is a hierarchical structure of learning that is arranged

from simpler feelings to those that are more complex . There are five levels in the
1

affective domain moving from the lowest order to the highest :12
 Receiving: Refers to the student’s willingness to attend to particular phenomena or stimuli
(classroom activities, textbook, music, etc.).
 Responding: Refers to active participation on the part of the student.
 Valuing: Refers to the worth or value a student attaches to a particular object,
phenomenon, or behaviour.
 Organizing: Refers to the student’s ability to organize values into priorities by contrasting
different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating a unique value system.
 Characterization by Value or Value-Set: Refers to the student’s ability to internalize values
and beliefs that will guide their behaviour.

Objective tests are a popular form of testing that have several advantages. They are
objective, efficient, reliable, and comprehensive 1. Objective tests are also engaging and can
be used to test a wide range of knowledge 12. However, they have some disadvantages. One
of the main disadvantages is that objective tests can only assess a limited range of
knowledge 3. Another disadvantage is that objective tests have the potential for guessing,
which can lead to inaccurate results 1. Additionally, objective tests are unable to distinguish
between students with deep and superficial understanding 1. Despite these limitations,
objective tests are widely used in modern education systems 4.

Justify the moderation of examinational results

Moderation of examinational results is a process that ensures that the marks or

grades awarded are fair, valid, and reliable. It involves checking and reviewing
assessment schemes, items, and assessor judgments to ensure that assessment
criteria have been applied consistently and that any differences in academic
judgment between individual markers can be acknowledged and
addressed12. Moderation is required for all components of summative assessment,
irrespective of the level of the work or the credit weighting of the assessments 2. The
Board of Examiners is responsible for determining the form of moderation for each
component of assessment, and for ensuring the appropriate operation of
moderation processes. Course Organizers are responsible for organizing and
supervising the moderation processes for the assessments for their courses. The
moderator should not be a first marker for the assessment 2. Moderation occurs
before External Examiners review the operation of the marking and internal
moderation process2.
In a wider perspective, moderation of examinational results is a crucial aspect of the
education system. It ensures that the assessment process is transparent, fair, and
reliable, and that the results obtained are valid and comparable across different
institutions and regions. Moderation also helps to identify and address any systemic
biases or inconsistencies in the assessment process, which can have a significant
impact on the educational outcomes of students 1. Moreover, it provides an
opportunity for teachers and assessors to reflect on their practice and to improve the
quality of their assessments over time. By ensuring that the assessment process is
rigorous and consistent, moderation helps to maintain the integrity of the education
system and to promote the development of knowledgeable and skilled individuals
who can contribute to society in meaningful ways.

Test and assessment are two different terms that are often used interchangeably . Here 12

are the differences between the two:

 Testing is the process of putting something through a series of trials to determine its
value .
32

 Assessment is the process of documenting knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs, usually
in measurable terms . 3

 Testing measures the level of skill or knowledge that has been reached .
3

 Evaluation is the process of making judgments based on criteria and evidence . 3

 The goal of assessment is to make improvements, as opposed to simply being judged . 3

Differentiate between portfolio and assessment portfolio

Portfolios and assessments are two different ways of evaluating student learning .The 1234

main differences between portfolios and assessments are : 1234

 Portfolios allow students to assemble a selection of sustained pieces of academic,

professional and personal work, while assessments often involve students completing
proxy tasks .
1

 Portfolios give students the opportunity to direct their own learning, while assessments
assess students across a limited range of reading and writing assignments which may not
match what students do . 2

 Portfolios allow students a more creative way to showcase their experiences and
academic progress, while assessments typically involve students verbally presenting their
work and arguing persuasively what they have learned in a unit or subject .3

 Assessment portfolios are used to evidence what a student has learned and achieved
against the intended learning outcomes, while portfolios are simply a selection from the
working portfolio . 4

Differentiate between rubric and rating scale

Rubrics and rating scales are both used to evaluate student work, but they differ in the
following ways : 1234

 Rating scales provide three or four response selections to describe the quality or
frequency of student work, while rubrics can be summative and often associated with
skills assessment.
  Checklists ask for dichotomous decisions (typically has/doesn't have or yes/no) for each
criterion, while rating scales ask for decisions across a scale that does not describe the
performance.
 Rubrics demarcate different levels of performance (typically four) in relation to a standard,
while scoring guides illustrate how students can earn a certain amount of points for
specific questions and responses.

Explain differences between learning objectives and learning activities

Learning objectives are the end goal of a learning experience, while learning activities are
the means by which the goals are achieved . Learning goals describe general outcomes for
1

an entire course or program, while learning objectives are more focused outcomes for
specific lessons or activities . Activity objectives help young people understand what they
2

will be learning and why, and keep you focused when developing your activity . Unlike3

learning goals, learning objectives are more specific, defined, and measurable . 4

Explain differences between learning objectives and learning activities

Learning objectives and learning activities are two different concepts that are
crucial to the learning process. Learning objectives are the desired outcomes of a
learning experience, while learning activities are the means by which the objectives
are achieved 1. Here are six differences between learning objectives and learning
activities:

1. Focus: Learning objectives are focused on the desired outcomes of a learning experience,
while learning activities are focused on the means by which the objectives are achieved 1.
2. Specificity: Learning objectives are more specific and measurable than learning activities 1 .
3. Scope: Learning objectives are focused on specific lessons or activities, while learning goals
describe general outcomes for an entire course or program 12.
4. Purpose: Activity objectives help learners understand what they will be learning and why,
and they keep instructors focused when developing their activities 3.
5. Design: Learning objectives are developed before learning activities, and they guide the
design of the activities 1.
6. Assessment: Learning objectives are used to assess whether the desired outcomes have
been achieved, while learning activities are used to facilitate the achievement of the
outcomes 1.

Describe two roles of the mean value in educational assessment

The mean value is a summary statistic that is commonly used in educational

assessment. Here are two roles of the mean value in educational assessment:
1. Measuring central tendency: The mean value is used to measure the central
tendency of a set of scores. It provides a single value that represents the average
performance of a group of students. This can be useful for comparing the
 performance of different groups of students or for tracking the progress of individual
students over time 1.
2. Identifying outliers: The mean value can also be used to identify outliers in a set of
scores. Outliers are scores that are significantly higher or lower than the rest of the
scores in the set. By calculating the mean value, it is possible to identify scores that
are more than two standard deviations away from the mean. These scores can be
flagged for further investigation to determine if they are the result of measurement
error or if they represent a true difference in performance 1.

Describe five characteristics of an effective assessment tool

An effective assessment is one that : 123

 is appropriate to its purpose and congruent with instruction

 is based on authentic tasks and criteria that students know and understand
 uses a wide range of tools and methods to measure learning
 is inclusive, objective, reliable, and valid
 is a collaborative process involving students and practitioners

An effective assessment tool should have the following five characteristics 1:

1. Content validity: The assessment should measure what it is intended to measure for
its intended purpose, and nothing more. For example, if an assessment is designed
to measure Algebra I performance, then reading comprehension issues should not
interfere with a student’s ability to demonstrate what they know, understand, and
can do in Algebra I.
2. Reliability: The assessment should be consistent and stable over time, regardless of
who is administering it or when it is administered.
3. Fairness: The assessment should be free from bias and discrimination, and should
not disadvantage any particular group of students.
4. Student engagement and motivation: The assessment should be designed in a way
that motivates students to engage with the material and perform to the best of their
abilities.
5. Consequential relevance: The assessment should have meaningful consequences
for students, teachers, and schools, and should be used to inform instruction and
improve learning outcomes.

How to ascertain validity of teacher made tests

To ensure the validity of a teacher-made test, educators can maintain reliability by :

1

 Creating clear instructions for each assignment

 Writing questions that capture the material taught
  Seeking feedback regarding the clarity and thoroughness of the assessment from
students and colleagues.
Using item-writing checklists can also help ensure that the assessments created are reliable
and valid .
2

To ensure the validity of a teacher-made test, educators can maintain reliability by:

1. Creating clear instructions for each assignment

2. Writing questions that capture the material taught
3. Seeking feedback regarding the clarity and thoroughness of the assessment from students
and colleagues. Using item-writing checklists can also help ensure that the assessments
created are reliable and valid 1.

In addition, it is important to understand the difference

between validity and reliability. Validity refers to the extent to which a test
measures what it is intended to measure, while reliability refers to the consistency of
the test results 1.
It is also recommended that teachers undergo training on test construction and
analysis to enhance the validity and reliability of their tests 2.

Describe ways in which the school administration can use the results of assessment in school

Assessment results can be used by school administration in several ways to improve

the quality of education. Here are some ways in which the school administration can
use the results of assessment in school:
1. Evaluate curricula and intervention programs: Assessment data can be used to
evaluate the effectiveness of curricula and intervention programs. This can help the
school administration identify areas that need improvement and make necessary
changes to improve student learning outcomes 1.
2. Inform changes in instructional practice: Assessment data can be used to inform
changes in instructional practice. By analysing the data, school administration can
identify areas where students are struggling and provide targeted support to help
them improve 1.
3. Target professional development: Assessment data can be used to identify areas
where teachers need additional training and support. This can help the school
administration provide targeted professional development opportunities to teachers,
which can improve the quality of instruction and student learning outcomes 1.
It is important to note that assessment data should be used in a responsible and
ethical manner. The data should be used to support student learning and growth, not
to punish or stigmatize students or teachers. Additionally, the data should be used in
conjunction with other sources of information, such as classroom observations and
student work samples, to provide a more complete picture of student learning 1.
 Factors to consider when selecting a test format

When selecting a test format, it is important to consider the following factors :

12

 Reliability
 Validity
 Technology
 Legal context
 Face validity/applicant reactions
When selecting a test format, it is important to consider the following factors 1:

1. Reliability: The consistency of the test scores over time and across different evaluators.
2. Validity: The extent to which the test measures what it is intended to measure.
3. Technology: The availability of technology to administer the test and score the results.
4. Legal context: The legal requirements and restrictions that apply to the test.
5. Face validity/applicant reactions: The extent to which the test appears to measure what it
is intended to measure and the reactions of the test-takers to the test.
6. Objectivity: The extent to which the test is free from subjective judgment.
7. Economy: The cost-effectiveness of the test.

These factors are crucial in selecting an appropriate test format that meets the needs
of the test-takers and the test administrators.

State four demerits of matching test items

Matching test items are a type of assessment question that present learners with two
items separated into two columns and ask them to match items from the first column
to the corresponding items in the second 1. Here are four demerits of matching test
items:

1. Matching test items are not suitable for measuring learning objectives that require more
than simple recall of information 1.
2. They are difficult to construct due to the problem of selecting a common set of stimuli and
responses 1.
3. Matching test items are time-consuming for learners to answer 2.
4. They are ill-suited for gauging the learners’ higher understanding (analysis and synthesis
levels) 3.

When constructing matching test items, it is important to take the time to construct
items that are valid and reliable. Here are some guidelines for this 3:

1. Two-part directions. Your clear directions at the start of each question need two parts: 1)
how to make the match and 2) the basis for matching the response with the premise.
2. Keep questions short and straightforward. Avoid unnecessary words.
3. Do not get carried away adding additional items. Having 10-12 items between both columns
(5-6 “question - answer” pairs) is the sweet spot.
4. It is best to arrange the items in the left column according to some criterion (alphabetically,
chronologically, etc.).
5. Make sure that no items in the right column can be matched to more than one item in the
left one. However, having an item in the left column serves as the key for more than one
item in the right column is all right.
6. Avoid positioning matching test questions in such a way that the list is separated in two by a
page break. Learners should not have to go back and forth trying to match questions on one
page to answers on the other.
7. When constructing answers, try to keep them interconnected by theme and the manner of
presentation.

Explain the purpose of educational evaluation

The function of evaluation in education is to : 12

 Diagnose gaps in students learning and determine remedial steps 1

 Collect relevant data on students' performance, development, and interests 12

 Provide feedback to the students and help them improve their learning 12

 Prepare instructional objectives and programmed materials 2

 Help in curriculum development and revision 2

Types of evaluation used in classroom

There are three general types of assessments in the classroom: diagnostic, formative, and
summative .The three types of evaluation are :
1 12

 Diagnostic: This type of evaluation is used to identify students' strengths and weaknesses
before instruction begins.
 Formative: This type of evaluation is used to monitor student progress during instruction.
 Summative: This type of evaluation is used to evaluate student learning at the end of an
instructional unit by comparing it against some standard or benchmark

Explain meaning of discrimination index and difficulty index

Difficulty index and discrimination index are two parameters that help evaluate the
quality of test items . Difficulty index measures how easy a question is by determining
12345

the proportion of students who got it right . Discrimination index measures how well a
125

question can differentiate between high and low scoring students . The standard range
1245

for difficulty index is 0.25 to 0.75, and the standard for discrimination index is 0.20 or
higher .
45

Outline the three domains in which instructional objectives can be stated

The three domains of educational activities are cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor .The cognitive domain deals with the intellectual side of learning .The
123 123

affective domain includes objectives relating to interest, attitude, and values relating to
learning the information .The psychomotor domain focuses on motor skills and actions that
3

require physical coordination . 3

Describe five steps in writing instructional objectives

Here are five steps to writing instructional objectives : 12

1. Identify the level of knowledge necessary to achieve your objective.

2. Select an action verb.
3. Create your very own objective.
4. Check your objective.
5. Repeat, repeat, repeat.

Explain four methods of establishing test reliability

Reliability testing methods are ways to estimate the reliability of a test or an

application .Some examples of reliability testing methods are :
12345 12345

 Test-retest reliability: giving the same test more than once to the same group of people
and comparing the results.
 Parallel forms reliability: giving different types of tests to the same group of people and
comparing the results.
 Inter-ratter reliability: having different ratters evaluate the same test or application and
comparing their ratings.
 Internal consistency reliability: measuring how well the items or components of a test or
application are related to each other.

Outline the advantages and disadvantages of objective test

Objective tests have a number of advantages, including objectivity,

efficiency, reliability, comprehensive coverage, and
engagement. However, they also have some disadvantages, such
as the potential for guessing and the inability to distinguish between
students with deep and superficial understanding.

Objective tests are a popular form of assessment that have several advantages and
disadvantages. Here are six of them:

Advantages:
1. Objectivity: Objective tests are scored using a predetermined answer key, which reduces the
potential for subjective grading and increases the objectivity of the assessment 12.
2. Efficiency: Objective tests can be graded quickly and efficiently, which makes them a useful
tool for large-scale assessments 12.
3. Reliability: Objective tests are generally reliable, meaning that they produce consistent
results over time and across different graders 12.
4. Comprehensive coverage: Objective tests can cover a wide range of topics and can assess a
large amount of material in a relatively short amount of time 12.
5. Engagement: Objective tests can be engaging for students, as they provide immediate
feedback and can help students identify areas where they need to improve 12.
6. Standardization: Objective tests are standardized, meaning that all students receive the
same questions and are assessed using the same criteria, which helps ensure fairness and
equity in the assessment process 12.

Disadvantages:

1. Potential for guessing: Objective tests can be susceptible to guessing, as students may be
able to eliminate some answer choices or make educated guesses based on the structure of
the question 13 .
2. Inability to distinguish between deep and superficial understanding : Objective tests may
not be able to distinguish between students who have a deep understanding of the material
and those who have a superficial understanding 13 .
3. Limited assessment of higher-order thinking skills: Objective tests may not be able to
assess higher-order thinking skills, such as critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving,
as effectively as other forms of assessment, such as essays 3.
4. Limited feedback: Objective tests may not provide detailed feedback to students, which can
limit their ability to learn from their mistakes and improve their understanding of the
material 3.
5. Limited assessment of real-world skills: Objective tests may not be able to assess real-
world skills, such as communication, collaboration, and leadership, as effectively as other
forms of assessment, such as projects or presentations 3.
6. Limited assessment of student growth: Objective tests may not be able to assess student
growth over time, as they only provide a snapshot of a student’s understanding at a
particular point in time 3.

It is important to note that objective tests are not the only form of assessment, and
other forms of assessment, such as essays, may be better suited to evaluate certain
skills or knowledge 3. Overall, objective tests can be a useful tool for evaluating
student learning, but it is important to consider their limitations and use them in
conjunction with other forms of assessment to gain a more complete picture of
student understanding.

Explain the importance of instructional objectives

 Objectives communicate and guide development of assessment, instructional

methods, and content materials.
  Objectives communicate the focus of learning that enables instructors and
students to work toward a common goal.

Instructional objectives are statements that describe the anticipated learning

outcome or what learners can do after the instruction. They are specific, measurable,
observable, and student-oriented 1. They are the foundation and the tools of a lesson
plan or an educational program, and they help align the content, activities, and
assessments with the goals 1.

Instructional objectives are important because they:

 Help instructors select and organize course content 2.

 Determine the types of assessments and learning activities to build for a course 2.
 Guide students as they work through the course and assess their learning progress 2.
 Communicate specifically what students should be able to do 2.
 Tell students what is important 2.
 Benefit both students and instructors 2.

When written well, instructional objectives will assist instructors in identifying course
content, help structure lectures, and allow them to select activities and assessments
that are relevant and meaningful for learning 3. They illustrate the skills and
applicable knowledge students will master 2.

Explain factors that may affect test reliability

Factors that affect test reliability include :12

 Constancy of the speed of working

 Variability in accuracy
 Incentive or effort
 The obtrusion of competing ideas
 Illness
Other factors that affect reliability include the length of the test, moderate item difficulty,
objectivity, heterogeneity of the students’ group, and limited time . 2

Factors that may affect test reliability include:

1. Constancy of the speed of working: If the speed of working is not consistent, it can
lead to unreliable results.
2. Variability in accuracy: If the accuracy of the test-taker varies, it can lead to
unreliable results.
3. Incentive or effort: If the test-taker is not motivated or does not put in enough
effort, it can lead to unreliable results.
4. The obtrusion of competing ideas: If the test-taker is distracted by competing
ideas, it can lead to unreliable results.
5. Illness: If the test-taker is ill, it can lead to unreliable results.
6. Worry: If the test-taker is worried, it can lead to unreliable results.
7. Excitement: If the test-taker is excited, it can lead to unreliable results.
8. Accidents during examination: If accidents occur during the examination, it can
lead to unreliable results.
9. Cheating: If the test-taker cheats, it can lead to unreliable results.

Other factors that affect reliability include the length of the test, moderate item
difficulty, objectivity, heterogeneity of the students’ group, and limited time.

Give a comparison between assessment and evaluation

Assessment and evaluation are different ways of collecting and using information about
student learning 12345
. Assessment is about providing feedback and improving learning,
while evaluation is about making judgments and measuring outcomes . Assessment
125

focuses on specific learning objectives or competencies, while evaluation examines the

overall impact and effectiveness of an educational system . Assessment is used to inform
3

teaching and learning strategies, while evaluation is used to guide strategic planning and
resource allocation . Assessment is based on individual performance or achievement, while
3

evaluation is based on comparison with other students or standards .4

Give a comparison between assessment and evaluation

Assessment and evaluation are two distinct methods of collecting and utilizing
information about student learning. Assessment is the process of providing
feedback and improving learning, while evaluation is the process of making
judgments and measuring outcomes. Here are six differences between assessment
and evaluation:

1. Purpose: Assessment is used to inform teaching and learning strategies, while

evaluation is used to guide strategic planning and resource allocation.
2. Focus: Assessment focuses on specific learning objectives or competencies, while
evaluation examines the overall impact and effectiveness of an educational system.
3. Orientation: Assessment is process-oriented, while evaluation is product-oriented.
4. Nature: Assessment provides feedback for the improvement of teaching and
learning, while evaluation judges student achievement and understanding of the
material.
5. Basis: Assessment is based on individual performance or achievement, while
evaluation is based on comparison with other students or standards.
6. Scope: Assessment is used to evaluate student progress and provide feedback to
improve learning, while evaluation is used to judge the effectiveness of an
educational system as a whole.

Explain the meaning of correlation

Correlation is a statistical relationship between two or more variables or

phenomena . Correlation indicates how two variables tend to vary, be associated, or occur
12345

together in a way not expected on the basis of chance alone . Correlation can be causal or
124

not, and can be used for various data sets . Correlation is usually measured by the degree to
45

which a pair of variables are linearly related . 4

Correlation is a statistical term that refers to the degree or measure of how two or more
variables move in coordination or in the same or opposite direction 1. It is the state or
relation of being correlated, which means varying, being associated, or occurring together in
a way not expected by chance alone 1. Correlation is a mutual relationship or connection
between two or more things, and it can be established by the process of establishing a
relationship or connection between two or more things 1. Correlation is useful because it can
indicate a predictive relationship that can be exploited in practice 2. However, the presence of
a correlation is not sufficient to infer the presence of a causal relationship 2. There are several
correlation coefficients, often denoted or, measuring the degree of correlation 2. The most
common of these is the Pearson correlation coefficient, which is sensitive only to a linear
relationship between two variables 2. Other correlation coefficients, such as Spearman’s rank
correlation, have been developed to be more robust than Pearson’s, that is, more sensitive to
nonlinear relationships 2.