Propositions and Related Concepts
Math 173: Mathematical Logic
Robert Kofi Acquah
January 2021
Robert Kofi Acquah Math 173: Mathematical Logic 1 / 11
Propositions and Related Concepts Propositions and Quantifiers
Propositions and Quantifiers
Definition (Predicate)
A predicate is an expression involving one or more variables defined
on some domain, called the domain of discourse. Substitution of a
particular value for the variable(s) produces a proposition which is
either true or false.
Example
P(n) : n is prime is a predicate on the natural numbers. Observe
that P(1) is false, P(2) is true.
In the expression P(x), x is called a free variable. As x varies the
truth value of P(x) varies as well. The set of true values of a
predicate P(x) is called the truth set and will be denoted by TP .
Robert Kofi Acquah Math 173: Mathematical Logic 2 / 11
Propositions and Related Concepts Propositions and Quantifiers
Predicate
Example
Let Q(x, y ) : x = y + 3 with domain the collection of natural
numbers. What are the truth values of the propositions Q(1, 2)
and Q(4, 1)?
If P(x) and Q(x) are two predicates with a common domain D
then the notation P(x) ⇒ Q(x) means that every element in the
truth set of P(x) is also an element in the truth set of Q(x).
Example
Consider the two predicates P(x) : x is a factor of 4 and Q(x) : x
is a factor of 8. Show that P(x) ⇒ Q(x).
Robert Kofi Acquah Math 173: Mathematical Logic 3 / 11
Propositions and Related Concepts Propositions and Quantifiers
Predicate
If two predicates P(x) and Q(x) with a common domain D are
such that TP = TQ then we use the notation P(x) ⇔ Q(x).
Robert Kofi Acquah Math 173: Mathematical Logic 4 / 11
Propositions and Related Concepts Propositions and Quantifiers
Universal Quantifier
Another way to generate propositions is by means of quantifiers.
For example ∀x ∈ D, P(x) is a proposition which is true if P(x) is
true for all values of x in the domain D of P. For example, if k is
an non-negative integer, then the predicate P(k) : 2k is even is
true for all k ∈ N. We write,
∀k ∈ N, (2k is even)
The symbol ∀ is called the universal quantifier.
The proposition ∀x ∈ D, P(x) is false if P(x) is false for at least
one value of x. In this case x is called a counterexample.
Robert Kofi Acquah Math 173: Mathematical Logic 5 / 11
Propositions and Related Concepts Propositions and Quantifiers
Universal Quantifier: Examples
Example
1
Show that the proposition ∀x ∈ R, x > x is false.
Example
Write in the form ∀x ∈ D, P(x) the proposition : “every real
number is either positive, negative or 0.”
Robert Kofi Acquah Math 173: Mathematical Logic 6 / 11
Propositions and Related Concepts Propositions and Quantifiers
Existential Quantifier
The notation ∃x ∈ D, P(x) is a proposition that is true if there is
at least one value of x ∈ D where P(x) is true; otherwise it is
false. The symbol ∃ is called the existential quantifier.
Example
Let P(x) denote the statement “x > 3.” What is the truth value
of the proposition ∃x ∈ R, P(x).
Robert Kofi Acquah Math 173: Mathematical Logic 7 / 11
Propositions and Related Concepts Propositions and Quantifiers
Negation of Quantifiers
1 What is the negation of the proposition ∀x ∈ D, P(x)?
2 What is the negation of the proposition ∃x ∈ D, P(x)?
Example
Write the negation of each of the following propositions:
1 ∀x ∈ R, x > 3 → x 2 > 9.
2 Every polynomial function is continuous.
Robert Kofi Acquah Math 173: Mathematical Logic 8 / 11
Propositions and Related Concepts Propositions and Quantifiers
Examples
Example
1 Let P(x, y ) denote the statement “x + y = y + x.” What is
the truth value of the proposition (∀x ∈ R)(∀y ∈ R), P(x, y )?
2 Let Q(x, y ) denote the statement “x + y = 0.” What is the
truth value of the proposition (∃y ∈ R)(∀x ∈ R), Q(x, y )?
Example
Find the negation of the following propositions:
1 ∀x∃y , P(x, y )?
2 ∃x∀y , P(x, y )?
Robert Kofi Acquah Math 173: Mathematical Logic 9 / 11
Propositions and Related Concepts Propositions and Quantifiers
Existential Quantifier
The symbol ∃! stands for the phrase “there exists a unique”.
Example
Which of the following statements are true and which are false.
1 ∃!x ∈ R, ∀y ∈ R, xy = y .
1
2 ∃! integer x such that x is an integer.
Robert Kofi Acquah Math 173: Mathematical Logic 10 / 11
Propositions and Related Concepts Propositions and Quantifiers
Arguments with Quantified Premises
Research on it
Robert Kofi Acquah Math 173: Mathematical Logic 11 / 11
