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“Professor Kevin G.
Cai’s cogent, systematic and theoretically well

grounded assessment of driving forces and salient features of Chinese for-
eign relations over the past 70 years goes beyond the headlines to assist
audiences all over the world seeking deeper understanding of the historical
roots and recent determinants of China’s rise. History matters and Cai’s
well written volume illustrates twists and turns involved in China’s overall
tortuous quest for evolving international ambitions.”
Robert Sutter, Professor of Practice of International Affairs,
George Washington University
“Kevin G. Cai’s China’s Foreign Policy since 1949: Continuity and Change is a
timely and valuable contribution at a critical juncture of relations between
the country and the outside world. Especially valuable are Cai’s illumina-
tions of the process of foreign policy making in China, the evolution of its
national security strategy, and Beijing’s exercise of its multi-dimensional
power to advance and expand its global interests. Students and analysts
of contemporary China will benefit immensely from Cai’s insights and
knowledge.”
Minxin Pei, Claremont McKenna College
“Understanding the origins, content and future of China’s foreign policy

has never been more important. In this important book, Kevin G. Cai
provides us with not just the conceptual building blocks, but also the sub-
stantive content to allow us to understand China’s relations with the world
as they unfold over the next decades. It serves as an invaluable tool for
scholars, students and policy-makers alike.”
Margaret M. Pearson, Dr. Horace V. and Wilma E. Harrison
Distinguished Professor, University of Maryland
9780367203290_FM.indd 1 27/01/22 9:42 AM

CHINA’S FOREIGN POLICY
SINCE 1949
– Continuity and Change
This book provides a systematic and comprehensive analysis and overview of

China’s foreign policy since 1949. It starts with constructing an analytical frame-
work for explaining Chinese foreign policy and then, on the basis of that, outlines
and analyzes developments in different areas of foreign policy – such as secu-
rity policy, international economic policy and policy toward multilateralism –
and foreign policy toward different areas of the world – such as the United
States, East Asia, Europe and developing countries. The book also examines
decision-making in Chinese foreign policy, discusses issues of current concern,
including maritime disputes, Xi Jinping’s more assertive approach to foreign pol-
icy, the One Belt One Road initiative and the trade war with the United States.
The book concludes with a comparative analysis of the three phases of China’s
foreign policy since 1949 and provides a brief assessment of how China’s foreign
policy is likely to develop going forward.
Kevin G. Cai is an Associate Professor at Renison University College of the Uni-

versity of Waterloo, Canada.
9780367203290_FM.indd 3 27/01/22 9:42 AM

Routledge Contemporary China Series
224 Local Clan Communities in Rural China

Revolution and Urbanisation since the Late Qing Dynasty
Zongli Tang
225 China’s Energy Security and Relations With Petrostates

Oil as an Idea
Anna Kuteleva
226 Ethnic Identity of the Kam People in Contemporary China

Government versus Local Perspectives
Wei Wang and Lisong Jiang
227 China’s Globalization from Below

Chinese Entrepreneurial Migrants and the Belt and Road Initiative
Theodor Tudoroiu
228 Civil Society in China

How Society Speaks to the State
Runya Qiaoan
229 China’s Foreign Policy since 1949

Kevin G Cai
For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.routledge.com/

Routledge-Contemporary-China-Series/book-series/SE0768
CHINA’S FOREIGN
POLICY SINCE 1949
– Continuity and Change
Kevin G. Cai
First published 2022
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2022 Kevin G Cai
The right of Kevin G Cai to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book
ISBN: 978-0-367-20329-0 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-14070-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-26092-6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9780429260926
Typeset in Bembo
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
For My Family
BRIEF CONTENTS
List of figures xiii

List of tables xiv
Abbreviations xv
Prefacexxi
1 Introduction 1
2 Constructing an analytical framework for explaining

Chinese foreign policy 5
3 Chinese foreign policy making 28
4 The evolution of Chinese foreign policy since 1949 60
5 Chinese national security strategy 93
6 Chinese international security policy 116
7 Chinese foreign economic policy 145
8 Chinese multilateralism policy 195
9 Conclusion 213
References219
Index242
CONTENTS
List of figures xiii

List of tables xiv
Abbreviations xv
Preface xxi
1 Introduction 1
2 Constructing an analytical framework for explaining

Chinese foreign policy 5
Constructing an analytical framework 5
Conditioning factors 7
Determining factors 16
3 Chinese foreign policy making 28

The process of foreign policy making: From the Mao era to the post-
Mao era 29
The institutional structure of foreign policy making in post-Mao
China 31
Think tanks in Chinese foreign policy making 39
Interest groups in Chinese foreign policy making 49
Media and public opinion in Chinese foreign policy making 52
xii Contents
4 The evolution of Chinese foreign policy since 1949 60

Period 1: Security as a dominant theme in Chinese foreign policy
(1949–1979) 61
Period 2: Economic-oriented Chinese foreign policy
(1979–2009) 68
Period 3: Chinese foreign policy of great-power ambition
(2009–present) 76
5 Chinese national security strategy 93

China’s evolving assessment of external threats 93
The sources of China’s national security strategy 95
China’s approach to national security:Twin pillars 98
The persisting basic principles of China’s national security
strategy 110
6 Chinese international security policy 116

Chinese policy on weapons of mass destruction (WMD) 116
Chinese policy on confidence-building measures (CBMs) 122
China undertaking unilateral CBMs – Military transparency 136
7 Chinese foreign economic policy 145

Chinese foreign economic policy: From the Mao era to the
reform era 145
China’s trade policy since 1978 148
China’s FDI policy since 1978 160
China’s RMB policy since 1978 170
China’s free trade agreement (FTA) policy since 2002 180
8 Chinese multilateralism policy 195

The logic of the evolution of China’s multilateralism policy since
1949 195
The motivations of China’s pursuit of multilateralism 201
The major features of China’s multilateralism policy 204
The impact of China’s rising influence on the multilateral
system 208
9 Conclusion 213
References219
Index242
FIGURES
2.1 Analytical framework for explaining Chinese foreign policy – a

neorealist–constructivist approach 6
3.1 The organizational structure of Chinese foreign policy making 33
TABLES
3.1 The journals published by institutes of the ADIS, the CASS41

3.2 Research institutes of the CICIR42
3.3 Research institutes and research centers of the SIIS45
3.4 Research centers of the institute of international studies, Fudan
University48
5.1 Chinese population: rural versus urban (1949–2019)97
6.1 List of arms control, disarmament and non-proliferation treaties
that China has joined119
6.2 China’s defense white papers (1995–2019)137
7.1 China: MFN simple average tariff rates and MFN weighted
average tariff rates in % (1992–2018)152
7.2 Currency internationalization: RMB in comparison with other
major currencies (2019)179
7.3 China’s bilateral and mega-regional free trade arrangements181
8.1 Comparison of IMF voting rights change: China and major
developed countries, 2010/2016 (%)209
ABBREVIATIONS
ABC Agricultural Bank of China

ADB Asian Development Bank
ADIS Academic Division of International Studies (CASS)
ADIZ Air Defense Identification Zone
ADMM-Plus ASEAN Defense Ministers’ Meeting Plus
AIIB Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
AMS Academy of Military Science
APC ASEAN Plus China
APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
APT ASEAN Plus Three
APTA Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement
ARF ASEAN Regional Forum
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
ASEM Asia-Europe Meetings
BECZ border economic cooperation zone
BIS Bank for International Settlements
BOC Bank of China
BRGG Institute of Belt and Road & Global Governance (Fudan
University)
BRICS Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa
BWC Biological Weapons Convention
C34 UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations
C4ISR Command, Control, Communications, Computers,
Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance
CAATSA Countering America’s Adversaries Through Sanctions Act
CAC Cyberspace Administration of China
CAI Comprehensive Agreement on Investment
xvi Abbreviations
CAMS China Association of Military Science

CASS Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
CBMs confidence-building measures
CCAF countercyclical adjustment factor
CCB China Construction Bank
CCG Center for China and Globalization
CCP Chinese Communist Party
CDB China Development Bank
CEBR Centre for Economics and Business Research
CEPA Closer Economic and Partnership Arrangement
CFETS China Foreign Exchange Trade System
CICIR China Institutes for Contemporary International Relations
CICSCSS Collaborative Innovation Center of South China Sea Studies
(Nanjing University)
CIDCA China International Development Cooperation Agency
CIIS China Institute of International Studies
CIISS China Institute for International Strategic Studies
CIPS Cross-Border Interbank Payment System
CISS Center for International Strategy and Security (Tsinghua
University)
CMC Central Military Commission (CCP & State)
CMCGO Central Military Commission General Office
CNOOC China National Offshore Oil Corporation
CNPC China National Petroleum Corporation
CPDS Center for Peace and Development Studies
CPTPP Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific
Partnership
CRCC China Railway Construction Corporation
CSCAP Security Cooperation in the Asia-Pacific
CSCE Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe
CSIS Center for Strategic and International Studies
CTBT Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty
CWC Chemical Weapons Convention
DCT Defense Consultative Talks
DPP Democratic Progressive Party (Taiwan)
DRC Development Research Center of the State Council
EAS East Asia Summit
ECFA Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement
EEZ exclusive economic zone
ENMOD Environmental Modification Convention
EPZ export processing zone
ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN)
ETDZ economic and technological development zone
ETF exchange-traded fund
Abbreviations xvii
EU European Union
Eximbank China’s Export–Import Bank of China
FAC Foreign Affairs Commission
FACO Foreign Affairs Commission Office
FALSG Foreign Affairs Leading Small Group
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FDI foreign direct investment
FPAG Foreign Policy Advisory Group
FTA free trade agreement
G8 Group of Eight
G20 Group of Twenty
GAC General Administration of Customs
GASC General Administration of Sport of China
GATS General Agreement on Trade in Services
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GCC Gulf Cooperation Council
GFC Great Firewall of China
GOCC General Office of the Central Committee
GPA Government Procurement Agreement
GPL Government Procurement Law
HCOC Hague Code of Conduct
HKMAO Hong Kong and Macau Affairs Office
HTIDZ high-tech industrial development zone
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
ICBC Industrial and Commercial Bank of China
ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights
ICJ International Court of Justice
ICOLD International Commission on Large Dams
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
IDP investment development path
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IGPP Institute for Global Public Policy (Fudan University)
IIS Institute of International Studies (Fudan University)
IISS International Institute for Strategic Studies
IJIS Diane and Guilford Glazer Institute for Jewish and Israel
Studies (Nanjing University)
ILDCC International Liaison Department of the Central Committee
ILO International Labor Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
IMI International Monetary Institute (Renmin University of China)
INTERPOL International Criminal Police Organization
xviii Abbreviations
IOC International Olympic Committee

IPR intellectual property rights
ISDP Institute for Security and Development Policy
ISO International Organization for Standardization
ITA Information Technology Agreement
ITU International Telecommunication Union
IWE Institute of World Economy (Fudan University)
JMSDF Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force
JSD Joint Staff Department
JSDF Japan Self-Defense Forces
KMT Kuomintang
LAC Line of Actual Control
MARA Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs
MCM maritime communication mechanism
MCT Ministry of Culture and Tourism
ME Ministry of Education
MF Ministry of Finance
MFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs
MFN Most Favored Nation
MMCA Military Maritime Consultative Agreement
MND Ministry of National Defense
MOFCOM Ministry of Commerce
MPS Ministry of Public Security
MSS Ministry of State Security
MTCR Missile Technology Control Regime
NDRC National Development and Reform Commission
New START New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty
NIE newly industrializing economy
NOI net outward investment
NPC National People’s Congress
NPT Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
NSC National Security Commission
NSG Nuclear Suppliers Group
NTS-PD Non-Traditional Security and Peaceful Development Studies
(Zhejiang University)
NWS nuclear weapon states
OBOR One Belt One Road
OCAO Overseas Chinese Affairs Office
ODCC Organization Department of the Central Committee
OFDI outward foreign direct investment
OIMC Office for International Military Cooperation
PBOC People’s Bank of China
PDCC Publicity Department of the Central Committee
PFTZ pilot free trade zone
Abbreviations xix
PLA People’s Liberation Army

PLAN PLA Navy
PRC People’s Republic of China
PROCC Policy Research Office of the Central Committee
PSC Politburo Standing Committee
PTBT Partial Test Ban Treaty
PU-IISS Institute of International and Strategic Studies of Peking
University
PWD Political Work Department
QDII Qualified Domestic Institutional Investors
QFII Qualified Foreign Institutional Investors
RCEP Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership
RII RMB Internationalization Index
RIMPAC Rim of the Pacific
RMB renminbi
ROC Republic of China
RQFII RMB Qualified Foreign Institutional Investors
RUC Renmin University of China
SAMR State Administration for Market Regulation
SASS Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences
SCC Secretariat of the Central Committee
SCGO State Council General Office
SCIO State Council Information Office
SCO Shanghai Cooperation Organization
SDR Special Drawing Right
SEANWFZ Southeast Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free-Zone
SEZ special economic zone
SIIS Shanghai Institutes for International Studies
Sinopec China Petroleum and Chemical Corporation
SIPRI Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
SLD Shangri-La Dialogue
TAO Taiwan Affairs Office
TBL Tendering and Bidding Law
THR tourist and holiday resorts
TNC transnational corporation
TPNW Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons
TPP Trans-Pacific Partnership
TRIMS Trade-Related Investment Measures
TRIPS Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights
TRQs tariff-rate quotas
UN United Nations
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP UN Development Program
UNEP UN Environment Program
xx Abbreviations
UNESCO UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNFPA UN Population Fund
UNICEF UN Children’s Fund
UNIDO UN Industrial Development Organization
UNODA UN Office of Disarmament Affairs
UPU Universal Postal Union
VAT value-added tax
WEC World Energy Council
WFP World Food Program
WHO World Health Organization
WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization
WITS World Integrated Trade Solution
WMD Weapons of Mass Destruction
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WTO World Trade Organization
PREFACE
With the rise of Chinese power, China’s foreign policy and external behaviors
have been bringing increasing impact on almost all major policy areas of global
affairs as well as the existing international system. Thus, it becomes imperative
for students of international affairsi, policy makers and other interested people
to have a better understanding of Chinese foreign policy. On the other hand, in
the process of teaching my course on Chinese foreign policy, I also increasingly
feel the need to have a suitable up-to-date text that would allow students to have
a systematic and comprehensive understanding of Chinese foreign policy. These
thoughts have led to this book project.
The subject of Chinese foreign policy can be addressed from different angles.
When initially designing this book project, I compared a couple of approaches
that I could adopt. The first approach was to focus only on Chinese foreign pol-
icy toward individual countries and regions, for example, China’s foreign policy
toward the US, the Soviet Union/Russia, Japan, East Asia, the ASEAN, the EU,
Africa, Latin America, etc. Another approach was to discuss Chinese foreign
policy toward individual countries and regions and at the same time explore
Chinese foreign policy on some important topics, such as China’s national secu-
rity policy, China’s international security policy, China’s foreign economic pol-
icy, China’s multilateralism policy, etc. However, I have finally decided to adopt
an approach that focuses only on Chinese foreign policy on some most important
topics, while Chinese foreign policy toward individual countries (superpowers
in particular) and regions is to be incorporated into the study of these topics of
Chinese foreign policy. By adopting this approach, I intend to provide a more
focused panorama of Chinese foreign policy rather than a relatively broken view
of Chinese foreign policy toward individual countries and/or regions, although
this is also a very important part of Chinese foreign policy.
xxii Preface
I was able to concentrate on this book project over the year of 2020, largely
thanks to the sabbatical leave from my home institution, Renison University
College of University of Waterloo. I am grateful to my home institution for this
leave, which allows me to be able to complete this book project timely.
I would also like to thank Helen Yue and Andrew Jin for their helpful assis-
tance in various ways for this project.
By the time this book project is completed, the worldwide rampant COVID-19
pandemic still remains unchecked. My salute is given to all the medical and
research staff around the world for fighting hard against this disease to protect
the well-being of the peoples of the world.
Kevin G. Cai
September 5, 2021
1
INTRODUCTION
This work is a study of the foreign policy of the People’s Republic of China (PRC)
(thereafter China) since 1949. Chinese foreign policy has long been a widely stud-
ied subject in academia. Today, the study of Chinese foreign policy becomes all
the more important in the context of the rise of China. This is because the for-
eign policy and external behaviors of a rising China inevitably exert increasing
influence on almost all the major areas of the world today, including international
security, geopolitics, global economy, development, environment, global public
health, various nontraditional security issues and so on with a substantial impact
on the existing international system. It is even speculated by some analysts that
with its continuing rise, China will eventually replace the US as a new global
superpower within this century. As such, it is all the more imperative today to
have more and better understanding of China’s foreign policy.
This book is intended to provide a systematic and comprehensive study of
Chinese foreign policy. Through an analytical framework that is constructed
on the basis Waltz’s three-level international relations theory, realism and con-
structivism, this study shows that Chinese foreign policy since 1949 has been
influenced jointly by a number of factors at the international, state and individual
levels, each of which shapes Chinese foreign policy in its own way. Some of them
are conditioning factors, which include the nation’s geographical and geopoliti-
cal environment, the country’s power (physical, economic and military), China’s
philosophical traditions, long historical experience and communist ideology of
the state; the others are determining factors, which involve the national/core
interests as identified by the Chinese communist state and the personality traits
and leadership styles of individual communist leaders. While the conditioning
factors provide physical conditions, power foundation and parameters, and the
historical, philosophical and ideological sources of Chinese foreign policy, the
determining factors directly set the direction and specific objectives of Chinese
DOI: 10.4324/9780429260926-1
2 Introduction
foreign policy and the ways in which the nation’s foreign policy objectives are
pursued and achieved.
On the basis of this analytical framework, a major theme that runs throughout
this work is that China’s foreign policy over the past seven decades has revealed a
persistent pattern of continuity and change. On the one hand, there is clear continu-
ity in China’s foreign policy since 1949, which is most notably reflected in Beijing’s
major foreign policy objectives, the important approaches adopted to achieve the
nation’s foreign policy goals, the key elements and principles in China’s foreign
policy, the major driving forces of Chinese foreign policy and the nation’s foreign
policy primarily defined by the nature of the country’s relations with superpowers.
On the other hand, however, there is also dramatic change in China’s foreign policy
over time, reflecting changed conditions in both domestic and external settings.
Change in China’s foreign policy is particularly reflected in the nation’s specific
missions of foreign policy and specific substance of China’s national security policy,
foreign economic policy, international security policy, policy toward great pow-
ers and the region and policy toward multilateralism. Apparently, many important
aspects of China’s foreign policy since 1949 can be better interpreted and under-
stood by referring to this pattern of continuity and change in China’s foreign policy.
With this general pattern of Chinese foreign policy in mind, it can be found
that Chinese foreign policy since 1949 has been evolving through three major
phases, that is, the first phase of the Mao era (1949–1979), the second phase of
Deng’s influence (1979–2009) and the third phase that is primarily under Xi’s lead-
ership (2009–present). In each of these three phases, Chinese foreign policy was/is
pursued in different domestic and international settings and tasked with different
missions. Hence, while some basic tenets and objectives of Chinese foreign policy
have remained unchanged, the specific substance of Chinese foreign policy dif-
fers one phase from the other. In this process, some major trends of the evolution
of Chinese foreign policy are clearly visible. Specifically, over the past 70 years,
Chinese foreign policy has been moving from (1) primarily driven by ideology to
basically driven by practical motivations, (2) from isolationist to actively engag-
ing, (3) from antagonistic and confrontational to conciliatory and cooperative, (4)
from basically one-dimensional (concerned primarily about national security) to
multidimensional (concerned about a whole range of foreign policy issues, includ-
ing national and international security, global economy, development, environ-
ment and many others) and (5) from unilateral to multilateral.
Despite the evolution of Chinese foreign policy, Beijing’s major foreign policy
objectives remain unchanged, although the sequence of importance and spe-
cific elements of each of these objectives have been modified over time. Set to
promote China’s national interests/core interests, these foreign policy objectives
are closely related to each other and ranked on the basis of the Chinese commu-
nist leadership’s prioritization of the country’s national interests/core interests.
Generally speaking, the Chinese communist leadership has been pursuing seven
major foreign policy objectives since 1949, which include: (1) securing China’s
existing political system of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)’s one-party
Introduction 3
rule; (2) maintaining state sovereignty; (3) safeguarding the country’s national
security; (4) preserving the nation’s territorial integrity; (5) achieving national
unification with Taiwan and keeping Hong Kong, Xinjiang and Tibet as inte-
gral parts of China; (6) ensuring the nation’s sustained economic development
and modernization; and (7) enhancing the nation’s international position and
restoring its great power status. Of these foreign policy objectives, securing the
existing political system dominated by the CCP takes precedence over all the
other foreign policy objectives. While the other foreign policy objectives are
subordinated to the top objective of preserving China’s communist regime, the
effective implementation of these other foreign policy objectives can logically
help enhance the legitimacy of the CCP’s rule and to secure its one-party domi-
nant political system in China. It is in this sense that the interests of the CCP and
the interests of the Chinese nation as such are overlapped in some way.
While Chinese foreign policy has been evolving over time, the process of
Chinese foreign policy making has also been gradually transformed. During the
Mao era, foreign policy decision was primarily made by Mao in person on the
basis of his personal intuition and ideological orientation. In the post-Mao era,
however, the process of foreign policy making has gradually been institutional-
ized, particularly since the 1990s, which involves a growing number of actors,
although final decisions of foreign policy, particularly those of strategic impor-
tance, are still made by the top communist leaders. In the meantime, think tanks
have been playing an increasingly important role in foreign policy making by pro-
viding the communist leaders and foreign policy making bodies with professional
advice and foreign policy analysis and suggestion reports. Moreover, as Chinese
society becomes increasingly pluralistic and liberalized as a result of economic
reforms, Chinese foreign policy has also been growingly subject to the influence
of domestic interest groups, media and public opinion to some extent in the
post-Mao era. As a result, Chinese foreign policy making in the post-Mao era
has become a much more complex process than what it was during the Mao era.
Moreover, as the country has rapidly integrated into the mainstream interna-
tional system as a result of dramatic economic reforms and opening policy in the
post-Mao era, China now engages in almost all major areas of international affairs.
Consequently, Chinese foreign policy has become highly complex today. Hence,
the study of Chinese foreign policy accordingly becomes much more comprehen-
sive and complex than ever before, covering a wide range of foreign policy issues,
including national and international security, geopolitics, global economy, devel-
opment, environment, global public health, various nontraditional security issues,
multilateralism and many others. As such, it indeed poses a challenge for scholars
who intend to pursue a comprehensive study of China’s overall foreign policy today.
This study focuses on some most important specific topics of Chinese for-
eign policy rather than on Chinese foreign policy toward individual countries
or groups of countries or regions. However, when relevant, individual coun-
tries (particularly superpowers) and regions will be duly and fully addressed in
the process of exploring each of these specific topics of Chinese foreign policy.
4 Introduction
Specifically, after constructing an analytical framework for explaining Chinese

foreign policy, this work studies the following six topics: (1) Chinese foreign pol-
icy making, (2) the evolution of Chinese foreign policy since 1949, (3) Chinese
national security strategy, (4) Chinese international security policy, (5) Chinese
foreign economic policy and (6) Chinese multilateralism policy.
To investigate these topics, the book is organized into nine chapters.
After the introductory chapter, Chapter 2 constructs an analytical framework
for explaining Chinese foreign policy. The framework adopts a symbiotic neo-
realist-constructivist approach, which explains how each of the factors at Waltz’s
three levels (international, state and individual) influences and shapes Chinese
foreign policy.
Chapter 3 explores foreign policy making in China, focusing on Chinese
foreign policy making in the post-Mao era by examining the institutional struc-
ture of Chinese foreign policy making, the rising role of Chinese think tanks in
foreign policy making and the growing influence of interest groups, media and
public opinion in Chinese foreign policy making.
Chapter 4 provides an overview of how Chinese foreign policy has evolved
through three phases from the founding of the PRC in 1949 to the present day,
reflecting changing conditions at both the domestic and global settings.
Chapter 5 studies the evolution of Chinese national security strategy in response
to the changing domestic and international conditions, which involves two mutually
complementary components, that is, diplomatic maneuvers and military doctrines.
Chapter 6 looks into China’s international security policy in two major areas,
namely, control and disarmament of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and
security/military confidence-building measures (CBMs), explaining how and
why China has been moving from nonparticipation in security multilateralism in
the 1950s–1970s to growing involvement in multilateral cooperation in multiple
areas of international security from the 1980s onward.
Chapter 7 scrutinizes Chinese foreign economic policy. After a brief overview
of Chinese foreign economic policy during the Mao era, the chapter focuses on
post-Mao Chinese foreign economic policy with respect to trade, foreign direct
investment (FDI), the renminbi (RMB) and free trade agreements (FTA).
Chapter 8 investigates China’s policy on multilateralism by explaining how
China’s multilateralism policy has evolved since 1949, the motivations of China’s
pursuit of multilateralism, the major features of the evolution of China’s mul-
tilateralism policy and the impact of China’s rising influence in international
organizations on the existing multilateral system.
The concluding chapter offers a comparative assessment of three phases of
Chinese foreign policy and explains how effective Chinese foreign policy of each of
the three phases was/is in helping pursue the nation’s major foreign policy objectives.
It is hoped that this study will help contribute to the understanding of Beijing’s
foreign policy and external behaviors from a new perspective and provide an
assessment of the current status of Chinese foreign policy under the leadership
of Xi Jinping.
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“Professor Kevin G.

Cai’s cogent, systematic and theoretically well

“Understanding the origins, content and future of China’s foreign policy

9780367203290_FM.indd 1 27/01/22 9:42 AM

This book provides a systematic and comprehensive analysis and overview of

Kevin G. Cai is an Associate Professor at Renison University College of the Uni-

9780367203290_FM.indd 3 27/01/22 9:42 AM

224 Local Clan Communities in Rural China

225 China’s Energy Security and Relations With Petrostates

226 Ethnic Identity of the Kam People in Contemporary China

227 China’s Globalization from Below

228 Civil Society in China

229 China’s Foreign Policy since 1949

For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.routledge.com/

ISBN: 978-0-367-20329-0 (hbk)

List of figures xiii

2 Constructing an analytical framework for explaining

3 Chinese foreign policy making 28

4 The evolution of Chinese foreign policy since 1949 60

5 Chinese national security strategy 93

6 Chinese international security policy 116

7 Chinese foreign economic policy 145

8 Chinese multilateralism policy 195

List of figures xiii

2 Constructing an analytical framework for explaining

3 Chinese foreign policy making 28

4 The evolution of Chinese foreign policy since 1949 60

5 Chinese national security strategy 93

6 Chinese international security policy 116

7 Chinese foreign economic policy 145

8 Chinese multilateralism policy 195

2.1 Analytical framework for explaining Chinese foreign policy – a

3.1 The journals published by institutes of the ADIS, the CASS41

ABC Agricultural Bank of China

CAMS China Association of Military Science

IOC International Olympic Committee

PLA People’s Liberation Army

UNESCO UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Specifically, after constructing an analytical framework for explaining Chinese

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List of figures xiii

3 Chinese foreign policy making 28

4 The evolution of Chinese foreign policy since 1949 60

5 Chinese national security strategy 93

6 Chinese international security policy 116

7 Chinese foreign economic policy 145

8 Chinese multilateralism policy 195

List of figures xiii

3 Chinese foreign policy making 28

4 The evolution of Chinese foreign policy since 1949 60

5 Chinese national security strategy 93

6 Chinese international security policy 116

7 Chinese foreign economic policy 145

8 Chinese multilateralism policy 195

3.1 The journals published by institutes of the ADIS, the CASS41