Chapter one

1.0 Introduction
Objectives of this section

After studying this chapter the student should understand and:-

Define Hydraulics

Differentiate Fluid mechanics and Hydraulics

Application of hydraulics

Importance of studding Hydraulics

Hydraulics is derived from the Greek word “Hydraulikos” mean water. It is the study of water and other
Engineering fluids. These Engineering fluids include water, wastewater in waste disposal and oil in
hydraulic control structures.

Activity1.1: What is the difference between Hydraulics and Fluid mechanics?

Fluid mechanics is a branch of mechanics and studies about fluid(liquid + Gasses)while Hydraulics is a
branch of fluid mechanics which studies about engineering liquids i.e. most of the time Hydraulics is
concerned with water.

Generally, fluid mechanics is about fluid while Hydraulics is concerned with engineering liquids.

The basic aim to study Hydraulics is to control and understand:-

Occurrence

Movement

Use of water for the benefit of the society.

Activity 1.2: Why do we study Hydraulics?

We study hydraulics:-

To supply the society with adequate water

To dispose waste and excess water

To protect the society from uncontrolled water.

1
Activity1.3: Where we apply hydraulics?
Hydraulics is applied for different purposes such as:

Design of wide range of Hydraulic structure (dams, canals weirs etc.) and machinery (pumps,
turbine etc.)

Design of complex network of pumping and pipe lines for transporting liquids.

Power generation

Flood protection

Surface and ground water studies

Flow metering like orifice meter

Pressure measurement

2
Chapter two

2.0 Fluid properties

2.1 Objectives
After studding this chapter the student should understand:-

Define the nature of fluid

Physical form of existence of matter

Physical properties of fluid

Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid

Surface tension and capillarity

Vapor pressure

2.2 Fluids
Matter can be in the form of solid, liquid and gas. However, liquid and gas are both
fluids. Fluids are substances, which deforms continuously under the application of shear force, no
matter how small the force might be. And fluids are characterized by their ability to flow.

Figure 2.1 below shows the deformation of the fluid caused by shearing force which act tangentially to
surface and we see the force F acting tangentially on rectangular (solid lined) element ABDC. This is a
shearing force and produce the dashed lined rhombus element A’B’DC.

A’ B’
A F
B

C D

Figure 2. 1: Shearing force, F, acting on a fluid element.

For a fluid at rest, there is no shearing force acting. When a fluid is in motion shear stresses
are developed if the particles of the fluid move relative to one another. When this happens
adjacent particles have different velocities. If fluid velocity is the same at every point then
there is no shear stress produced: the particles have zero relative velocity.
Activity 2.1: What mean by shear force and average shear stress?

3
Shear force is the component of the force that is tangent to the surface, while average shear stress is
the force component tangent to the surface divided by the area of the surface.

2.3 Fluid properties

The properties outlines below are general properties of fluids which are of interest in engineering. The
symbol usually used to represent the property is specified together with some typical values in SI units for
common fluids. The dimensions of each unit are also given in the MLT system.

Intensive property:-it is the property of the fluid that is independent of the fluid sample size.

E.g.) a) density - 100litere and 100000litere of water have the same density (1000kg/m3).

b) temperature-100litere and 100000litere of water at the same pressure have the same
temperature.

Extensive property:-It is the property of the fluid that is dependent on the sample size.

Example mass

1liter and 100 liter of water have different masses.

Mass= density * volume

Density of water is 1000kg/m3

So, 1 liter of water has a mass of 1kg and 100 liter of water has 100kg.

Chemical property is about the interaction of fluid with other chemical substances.

2.3.1 Physical properties

It is the property of fluid without reference to any other fluid.

Density

The density of the substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit volume of the substance. It
can be expressed in three different ways.

a) Mass density(r)
Mass Density, r, is defined as the mass of substance per unit volume.

4
 mass of fluid (m)
density =
volume occupied (V )

Units: Kilograms per cubic meter, kg /m3 (or kg m-3 )

Dimensions: ML-3

Typical values:

Water = 1000 kg m-3, Mercury = 13546 kg m-3 Air = 1.23 kg m-3, Paraffin Oil = 800 kg m-3

(At pressure=1.013*10-5 Nm-3 and Temperature = 288.15 K.)

Density is dependent on temperature and pressure. As the temperature increase the density slightly
decreases. For the liquid the variation is insignificant and can be ignored but for gas the variation is
significant.

b) Specific weight/ unit weight/unit gravity force, denoted by γ(gamma)

It is the weight per unit volume.

weight of fluid (W )
γ =
volume ofoccupied (V )

W mg
γ= = = ρg
V V

SI unit N/m3 (usually KN/ m3)

Dimensionally (ML –2 T-2)

At 40c ‘γ’ for water is 9.806 / 9.81 KN /m3/ Mercury = 132943 N m-3 , Air =12.07 N m-3 ,
Paraffin Oil =7851 N m-3

It changes with location on the earth’s surface depending upon g.

c) Specific gravity (S) or relative density (rl. dn.)

It is defined as the ratio of mass of a body to mass of an equal volume of a substance taken as a
standard (for liquids water at 40 c)

5
 mass of fluid
relative density =
mass of equal volume of water
density of fluid
=
density of water

Units: None, since a ratio is a pure number.

Dimensions: 1.
Typical values: Water = 1, Mercury = 13.5, Paraffin Oil =0.8.
d) Specific volume(vs)
It is the volume occupied by a unit mass of a fluid or simply the reciprocal of density.
v 1
Vs = =
m ρ
But, commonly applied to gases.

Example2.1

A 1000kg of oil at 200c has a volume of 1.5m3. Find:-

a) Density of oil
b) Unit weight
c) Relative density
Solution
m 1000 kg
a) ρ= = = 666.67 kg 3
V 1.5m 3 m
b) γ = ρ * g = 666.67
kg * 9.81m = 6540.03 N
m3 s2 m3
γ 6540.03 ρ 666.67
c) S = = = 0.667 or S = = = 0.667
γw 9810 ρw 1000
γw is unit weight of water
ρw is density of water

1.4 Viscosity of fluid

Viscosity is the property of fluid which, by virtue of cohesion and interaction between fluid molecules
offers resistance to shear deformation. Different fluid deform at different rates under the action of
shear stress. Fluids with high viscosity such as syrup deform relatively more slowly than low viscosity
fluid such as water.

6
1.4.1 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Method one

We can start by considering a 3d rectangular element of fluid, like that in the figure
below.

dx
a a’ b b’
dz
F
A’ B B’

dy θ
E x E’
F
y
c D

Figure 2.2: Fluid element under a shear force

The shearing force F acts on the area on the top of the element. This is given by A=ds*dx. We can thus
calculate the shear stress which is equal force per unit area i.e.
F
Shear stress, τ =
A

The deformation which this shear stree causes is measured by the size of the angle Φ and is known as
shearing strain. In a solid shear strain, Φ, is constant for a fixed shear stress but a fluid Φ increases for as
long as shear stress is applied-the fluid flows. It has been found experimentally that the rate of shear
stress (shear stress per unit time, /time) is directly proportional to the shear stress. If the particle at
point E (in the above figure) moves under the shear stress to point E’ and it takes time t to get there, it
has moved the distance x. For small deformations we can write

x
Shear strain Φ =
y

Φ x u
Rate of shear strain= = =
t yt y

U is the velocity of the particle at E.

Using the experimental result that shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain

7
 u
τ = cons tan t *
y

du
The velocity gradient can be written in differential form
dy

du
τ =µ This is equation of Newton’s law of viscosity
dy

Method two

Consider a fluid confined between two plates which are situated a very short distance y- apart. The
lower plate is stationary whilst the upper plate is moving at a velocity v. Hence; the fluid in immediate
contact with the moving plate has a velocity v and with the stationary plate has zero velocity. (The
experimental observation that the fluid “sticks” to the solid boundary is very important one in fluid
mechanics and is usually referred to as the no slip condition. All fluids satisfy this condition.)

V
F F
Y
A

Fixed plate

F is the force required to move the surface at constant velocity.

Figure 2.3: Viscous deformation

If distance y and velocity V are not great, the velocity variation (gradient) will be a straight line.
Experiments show that, F is directly proportional to A and V and inversely proportional to thickness Y.

- Similarity of triangles
v
AV dv v dv
F α = A and = y
Y dy y dy dy

A = area of upper plate

F dv F
Or α but = τ (tau) = shear stress
A dy A

8
 dv
τ α
dy

If proportionality constantµ, called absolute (dynamic) viscosity, is introduced.

dv τ
τ = µ or µ =
dy dv
dy

dv
τ = µ This is equation of Newton’s law of viscosity
dy

Where:-

τ -the shear stress (N/m2) and dimensionally (ML-1T-2),

du/dy - the velocity gradient, or rate of deformation (radian/second),

µ - The coefficient of dynamic (or absolute) viscosity (Ns/m2 or kg/ms) and dimensionally (ML-1T-1).

1.4.1 Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity

The Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity, µ, is defined as the sheer force, per unit area, (or shear stress t ),
required to drag one layer of fluid with unit velocity past another layer a unit distance away.

τ
µ=
du
dy

Units: Newton seconds per square meter, N sm-2 or Kilograms per meter per second, kg m-1s-1

1.4.2 Kinematic Viscosity

Kinematic Viscosity, ν , is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density.

µ
ν=
ρ

Units: square meters per second, m2s-1

Example 2.2

If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by v=2/3y-y2 in which v is the velocity in m/s at a distance
y meters above the plate, determine the shear stress at y=0 and y=0.15

9
Take v=1.015*10-3m2/s & s=0.85

Solution

2
v= y − y2
3

dv 2
= − 2y
dy 3

dv 2 dv
At y=0, = & at y=0.15, = 0.367
dy 3 dy

ρ
s= → ρ = s * ρ w = 0.85 *1000 = 850 kg 3
ρw m

µ
ν= → µ = ν * ρ = 1.015 *10 −3 m 2 / s * 850 kg 3 = 0.863 kg
ρ m ms

dv
τ = µ
dy

At y=o

τ=0863*2/3=.875N/m2

At y=0.15

τ=0.863*0.367=0.317N/m2

Example 2.3

A large movable plate is located between two large fixed plates as shown in figure below. Two
Newtonian fluids having the viscosities indicated are contained between the plates. Determine the
magnitude and direction of the shearing stress that act on the fixed walls when the moving plate has a
velocity of 4m/s as shown. Assume that the velocity distribution between the plates is linear.

Solution

10
 µ1=0.02Ns/m2
Y1
τ1A V=4m/s
F
τ2A
Y2 µ2=0.01Ns/m2

A is common area of the plate

dv
τ = µ
dy

0.02 Ns / m 2 * 4m / s
τ 1 = τ µ =0.02 = = 13.3 N / m 2
0.006m

0.01Ns / m 2 * 4m / s
τ 2 = τ µ =0.01 = = 13.3N / m 2
0.003m

Calculate the drag force

F1 = τ 1 * A = 13.3 * A

F2 = τ 2 * A = 13.3 * A

F = F1 + F2 = 13.3 A + 13.3 A = 26.6 A

A is the common area of the plate.

1.5 Compressibility and elasticity of fluids

All fluids are compressible under the application of an external force and when the force is removed
they original volume exhibiting the property that stress is proportional to volumetric strain.

stress change pressure

Bulk mod ulus(k ) = =
volumetric strain volumetric strain

If the pressure of a volume of fluid is increased by dp, it will cause a volume decrease dv

change in volume dv
volumetric strain = =
origional volume v

11
 dp
k=− V is original volume
dv
v

The negative sign indicates a decrease in volume with the increase in pressure.

ρ = m/v

Mass of a certain volume is constant, differentiatingρ.

m
dρ = d  
v
1
= md  
v
dv
= −m 2
v
m dv
=−
v v
dv
= −ρ
v

dρ dv
⇒ =−
ρ v

dρ dp
Then substituting in to k = −
ρ dv
v

dp
k=
dρ / ρ

SI unit is N/m2 and dimensionally (ML-1T-2)

Water with a bulk modulus of elasticity of 2.1*109N/m2 at 200c is 100 times more compressible than
steel, but water is ordinarily considered as incompressible.

Activity 2.2: How compressibility is related to bulk modules of elasticity?

12
Example 2.4

Eight kilometers below the surface of the ocean the pressure is 82Mpa. Determine the density of the sea
water at this depth if the density at the surface is 1025kg/m3 and the bulk modulus of elasticity is
2.3Gpa.

Solution

Pat 8 km depth =82Mpa

ρw at the surface = 1025kg/m3

∆p = p8 km − pat surface , But pat surface is zero

∆P =82Mpa

∆p
k=
∆ρ / ρ

∆p 1025kg / m 3 82 *10 6 pa
∆ρ = ρ = = 36.54kg / m 3
k 2.3 *10 9 pa

∆ρ = ρ 8 km − ρ at surface → ρ 8 km = ρ surface + ∆ρ

ρat 8km =1061.54kg/m3

1.6 Newtonian and Non - Newtonian fluids

Even among fluids which are accepted as fluids there can be wide differences in behavior under stress.
Fluids obeying Newton’s law where the value of µ is constant are known as Newtonian fluids. If µ is
constant the shear stress is linearly dependent on velocity gradient.

Fluids in which the value of µ is not constant are known as non-Newtonian fluids.

13
 Ideal plastic
Ideal solid
Non-Newtonian

Newtonian
Shear stress (τ)

dv/dy slope=µ

Ideal fluid

Velocity gradient (rate of deformation), (dv/dy)

Figure 2.4 : Plot of τ versus dv/dy

Example 2.5

Classify substance that has the following rate of deformation and corresponding shear stress.

dv/dy,s-1 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2

τ, kpa 0 2 4 6 8

Solution

Method one

By drawing the graph

14
 9
8
7
6
5
τ, kpa
4
3
2
1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
dv/dy (s-1)

The graph is street line and passing through the origin.

Therefore, the fluid is Newtonian fluid.

Method two

By finding the slope and considering whether the origin is at zero or not.

τ
µ=
du
dy

2 4 6 8
µ= = = = = 6.667 Ns / m 2
0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2

The viscosity is constant i.e. there is a linear relationship between the applied shear stress and the rate
of angular deformation or we can say the slop is constant.

At the start shear stress as well as the rate of deformation is zero.

Therefore, the fluid is Newtonian fluid.

15
1.7 Surface tension denoted by σ (Gk. Sigma)
Liquid poses the property of cohesion and adhesion due to molecular attraction. Due to the property of
cohesion, liquid can resist small tensile force at the interface between the liquid and air, known as
surface tension. It is a force, which exerts on the surface of the liquid when it is in contact with another
fluid or a solid boundary or it is a work that done to bring enough molecules from inside the liquid to
form one new unit area of the surface.

Mathematically

∆F
σ=
∆L

Its unit is N/m

Capillarity or meniscus effect

If the liquid molecule have greater adhesion than cohesion, then the liquid stick to the surface of the
container with which it is in contact resulting in a capillary rise of the liquid surface; a predominating
cohesion on the other hand causes capillarity depression.

The magnitude of the capillary rise (or depression), h, is determined by the balance of adhesive force
between the liquid and solid surface and the weight of the liquid column above (or below) the liquid
free surface.

σ
α

Water mercury

a) Rise of column of liquid for wetting liquid b) depression of column for non wetting liquid

Figure 2.5: capillarity rise and fall

16
If the diameter of glass tube is d

Surface tension is σ

Angle of contact α

To establish equilibrium d

ΣFY = o
h θ

θ
W=mg
Weight of column above free surface
ΣFy = o

W- σ cosα *πd = 0

w = mg
= ρvg
= γv
= γAh
d2
= γ *π *h
4

W- σ cosα *πd = 0

d2
γ *π * h − σ cos α * πd = 0
4
γdh
− σ cos α = 0
4
4σ cos α
h=
γd

Pressure inside a liquid droplet

σ σ
∆p ∆p
d

From the above figure you see that the forces:

17

Change in pressure (which trying to below apart in to two hemispheres.)

Surface tension (which is trying to pull the together.)

Using equilibrium equations

ΣFx =0

Fp + FT =0

πd 2
F p = ∆p *
4
FT = σ * πd
πd 2
− ∆p * + σ * πd = 0
4
4σ
∆p =
d

Example 2.6

The diameter of two glass limbs of a differential U tube manometer was found to be 2mm and 3mm
respectively. The tube is kept vertically and partially filled with water of surface tension 0.0735N/m and
zero contact angles. Calculate the difference in levels of water in the two limbs caused by surface
tension effect.

h1 h2

Solution

4σ cosα 4 * 0.0735 * cos 0

h1 = =
γd1 9810 * 0.002
h1 = 0.015m

4σ cos α 4 * 0.0735 * cos 0

h2 = =
γd 2 9810 * 0.003
h2 = 0.00999m

18
 ∆h = h1 − h2
∆h = 0.015 − 0.00999 = 5mm

Example 2.7

A small circular jet of mercury 0.1mm in diameter issues from an opening. What is the pressure
difference between the inside and outside of the jet at 200c?

Take σ of water is 0.48N/m

Solution

∆P
σ
d
σ

L
L

Pressure force = ∆p*A

=∆P*L*d

Surface tension force= σ*2L

=0.48*2L

∆P * L * d = σ * 2 L
2σ 2 * 0.48
∆P = =
d 1*10 −4
∆p = 9.6kpa

19
1.8 Vapor pressure

The vapor pressure of a liquid is the (generally small) pressure at which the liquid vaporizes or boils as it
changes from the liquid to the gaseous or vapor state. The vapor pressure is strongly dependent on
temperature. Water boils at atmospheric pressure when the temperature is 1000c and at higher
elevations the atmospheric pressure is less; hence, water evaporates at temperatures lower than 1000C.
This property usually has no effect on a fluid flow; however, if a flowing liquid experiences a pressure at
any point, which lowers the pressure locally to the vapor pressure for that temperature, then this
vaporization, will take place. In problems involving siphoning, the result of pressure reduction to the
vapor point will be to break the siphon and interrupt the flow. In other cases the flow will continue,
altered in form, as the phenomenon of cavitation occurs. Cavitation is the rapid formation and collapse
of small vapor bubbles, which are not only disruptive, but are also frequently destructive as well.

Activity2.3: what is vapor pressure? What is its significance in flow problem? What do you understand
by the term cavitations?

20
Problem on fluid properties

1. If 10 m3 of mercury weighs 1329Kn calculate its specific weight, mass density, specific volume
and specific gravity.
Answer (132.9Kn/m3; 13550kg/m3; 7.38 x 10-5m3/kg; 13.55)
2. The velocity distribution over a plate is given by V= (1/3) y-y2 in which v is the velocity in m/sec.
at a distance y meters above the plate. Determine the shear stress at y=0 and y=0.1. take
µ=0.835Ns/m2
Answer (0.278 and 0.111N/m2)
3. The space between two square plates is filled with oil. Each side of the plate is 60cm. the
thickness of the oil film is 12.5mm. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5m/s, requires a force of
98.1 N to maintain the speed. Determine (a) the dynamic viscosity and (b) the kinematic
viscosity of oil in stokes. If the specific gravity of oil is 0.95.
Answer (13.62poise & 14.34 st.)
4. A 300 mm wide shaft sleeve moves along a 100mm diameter shaft at a speed of 0.5m/s under
the application of a force 250N in the direction of its motion. If 1000N of force is applied what
speed will the sleeve attain? Assume the temperature of the sleeve to be constant and
determine the viscosity of the Newtonian fluid in the clearance between the shaft and its sleeve
if the radial clearance is estimated to be 0.075mm.
Answer (2 m/s; 0.4Ns/m2)
5. The following data refer to a liquid under shearing action at a constant temperature. Determine
its dynamic viscosity
du/dy (rad/s) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
τ (N/m2) 0 1 1.9 3.1 4
Answer (5 Ns/m2)

6. A glass tube 0.2mm in diameter contains a mercury column with water above the mercury. The
surface tension in contact with water is 0.36N/m. determine the capillarity depression of the
mercury.
Answer (37.44mm)
7. Calculate the internal pressure of a 25 mm diameter soap bubble if the tension in the soap film
is 0.5N/m.
Answer (80N/m2)

21
Chapter Three

3.0 Hydrostatics
3.1 Objective
After studding this chapter the students have to know and understand:

The concept of pressure and prove it has a unique value at any particular elevation.

How the pressure varies with depth according to the hydrostatic equation.

How pressure can be expressed in terms of head.

3.2 Fluid pressures

Fluid exerts a normal force on any boundary it is in contact with. The force applied per unit area is
the pressure.

Force
pressure =
Area over which the force is applied
F
p=
A

Units: Newton’s per square meter, N m-2, kg m-1s -2.

Dimensions: ML-1T -2

3.2.1 Pascal’s Law for Pressure at a Point

By considering a small element of fluid in the form of a triangular prism which contains a point P, we
can establish a relationship between the three pressures px in the x direction, py in the y direction
and ps in the direction normal to the sloping face.

22
 Y

Pdsdz (Surface force)

Z B
ds
α
X
Pxdy dz F
A C
P dydz dz dy
900-α
E D
dx
Pydxdz

1/2 γ dxdydz (body force)

Figure 3. 1: Definition sketch for normal stress at a point.

The fluid is a rest, so we know there are no shearing forces, and we know that all force are acting at
right angles to the surfaces .i.e.

p acts perpendicular to surface ABCD,

px acts perpendicular to surface ABFE and

py acts perpendicular to surface FECD.

And, as the fluid is at rest, in equilibrium, the sum of the forces in any direction is zero. Summing forces
in the x-direction:

Force due to px ,

ΣFx =0

FX = PX dydz

Component of force in the x-direction due to p,

Fx = − pdsdz cosα

Equating the two equation

p x dydz − pdsdz cosα = 0

23
 But ds*cosα=dy

p x dydz = pdydz
px = p

ΣFy =0

Force due to py

Pydxdz-Pdsdz sinα -1/2γdxdydz=0

ds sinα=dx

Pydxdz-Pdxdz -1/2γdxdydz=0

Py-P -1/2γdy=0 as compared to others dy is small so, 1/2γdy is ignored.

⇒ Py=P

The pressure force can also consider and it will be the same with others.

∴ P=Pz=PX=Py

Pressure at any point is the same in all directions. This is known as Pascal’s Law and applies to fluids at
rest.

3.2.2 Pressure Distribution PASCAL’s Law

Consider an elementary cylindrical volume of fluid (of length, L, and cross-sectional area, dA) within the
static fluid mass, p being the pressure at an elevation of y and dp being the pressure variation
corresponding to an elevation variation of dy.

E (p+dp)dA
l L
e
v θ
a
t Y+dy
p.dA
i y ρg.dA.L
o S
n Datum axis

Figure 3. 2: Pressure distribution in Pascal’s law

24
For equilibrium of elementary volume

p.dA − ρgdAL sin θ − ( p + dp)dA = 0

dy
or dp = − ρgdy & sin θ =
L

ρ is constant for incompressible fluids, we can write

∫ dp = − ρg ∫ dy This gives

p = − ρgy + c

When y=yo, p=pa, the atmospheric pressure.

p − pa = ρg ( yo − y )
= ρgh

Pressure at a depth h, p = pa + ρgh

Pa(atmospheric)

h=yo-y
yo

y
datum

Figure 3. 3: Measurement of pressure from datum

The pressure in a homogeneous, incompressible fluid at rest depends on the depth of the fluid relative
to some reference plane, and it is not influenced by the size or shape of the container in which the fluid
is held.

3.3 pressure and head

dp
In a static fluid of constant density we have the relationship = − ρg
dz

This integrated to give p = − ρ gh + cons tan t

25
 z h

y
x

Figure 3. 4: Fluid head measured in a tank

In a liquid free surface with a free surface the pressure at any depth z measured from the free surface so
that z= -h.

This gives the pressure

p = ρ gh + cons tan t

At the surface of fluids we are normally concerned with, the pressure is the atmospheric pressure.

So, p = ρ gh + p a

As we live constantly under the pressure of the atmosphere, and everything else exists under this
pressure, it is convenient (and often done) to take atmospheric pressure as the datum. So we quote
pressure as above or below atmospheric.

Pressure quoted in this way is known as gauge pressure i.e.

Gauge pressure is

p gage = ρ gh

The lower limit of any pressure is zero - that is the pressure in a perfect vacuum. Pressure measured
above this datum is known as absolute pressure i.e.

Absolute pressure;

absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheri c pressure

p absolute = ρ gh + p a

26
Figure 3.5: Graphical representation of gage and absolute pressure.

Pressure in head is the pressure in terms of height. It is the ratio of pressure in Pascal to unit weight.

Activity3.1: what mean by intensity of pressure? How it varies with the depth of the fluid?

3.4 pressure measurement

The pressure at the erths surface depends up on the air culumen above it. At sea level this atmospheric
pressure is about 101kN/m2
2 equivalent to 10.3m of water or 760mm of mercuery columens. A oerfect
vacume is an empity space where the pressure is zero. Gauge pressure is the pressure measured above
or below atmospheric pressure. The pressure below atmospheric presure is also called negative or
partial vacume pressure. Absolute pressure measured above a perfect vacume, the absolute zero.

a) Piezometer Tube

A simple vertical tube fixed to a system, whose pressure is to be measured, is called a piezometer. The
liquid rises to such a level that the liquid columns height balances the pressure inside.

Figure 3. 6
Piezometer tube

27
 p = ρ gh + p a

Since the piezometer is open to the atmosphere, pa=o

p = ρ gh

b) U-tube manometer

Heavy immiscible manometer liquids are used to measure large pressure and small pressure are
measured by using lighter liquid.

Figure 3. 7: Simple U-tube

Simple U-tube

The pressure at points A and (1) are the same, and as we move from point (1) to (2) the pressure will
increase by γ1h1. The pressure at point (2) is equal to the pressure at point (3), since the pressures at
equal elevation in a continuous mass of fluid at rest must be the same. Note that we could not simply
“jump across” from point (1) to a point at the same elevation in the right – hand tube since these would
not be points within the same continuous mass of fluid. With the pressure at point (3) specified we now
move to the open end where the pressure is zero. As we move vertically upward the pressure decreases
by an amount γ2h2. In equation form these various steps can be expressed as

PA + γ1h1 - γ2h2 = 0
PA = γ2h2 - γ1h1

28
 Differential U-tube
tube manometer

Figure 3. 8: Differential U-tube manometer

Following the same procedure like above Simple U-tube

U manometer

PA + γ1h1-γ2h2 - γ3h3 = PB

And the pressure difference is

PA - PB = γ2h2 + γ3h3 - γ1h1

Inclined – tube Manometer

Following the same procedure like simple U-tube

U manometer

Figure 3. 9: Inclined Tube manometer

PA + γ 1h12 − γ 2l 2 sin θ − γ 3h3 = PB

29
 p A − pB = γ 2l 2 sin θ + γ 3h3 − γ 1h1

Activity 3.2: what is a piezometer? What is its limitation? Can a piezometer be used for measuring
pressure in the pipe
ipe in which a gas is flowing?

Example3.1

if the height of liquid surface above the four vessels is the same. In which vessile the pressure of the
liquid on the bottom of the vessile the greatest?

a b c d

Solution

The same i.e. pressure depends up on the elevation difference irrespective of its shape.

Example 3.2

In figure below s1=0.86,s2=1.0,h1=150mm and h2=90mm. find PA in mmHg gauge. If the barometric
reading is 720mm Hg, what is PA in meter of water?

S1 B

S2

Solution

PA + γ 1h1 − γ 2 h2 = PB

30
 PA + 0.86 * 9810 * 0.15 − 9810 * .09 = PB

PA + 1265.5 − 882.9 = PB but, PB = 0 sin ce the manometer is open at B

PA = −382.6kpa
pA − 382.6 pa
pA = h = = = −0.002868mHg
γ Hg 13.6 * 9810 N / m 3
= −2.87 mmHg

Pabsolute = p atm + p gauge

= −2.87 + 720
= 717.13mmHg
717.13 *13.6
=
1000
= 9.75m water

Example 3.3

In fig.2, S1=1.0, S2=0.95, S3=1.0, h1=h2=280mm and h3=1m. Compute PA-PB in mm of water.

Solution

PA + γ 1h1 − γ 2 h2 − γ 3 hγ 3 = PB

PA − PB = γ 3 h3 + γ 2 h2 − γ 1h1

PA − PB = 1.0 * 9810 *1 + 0.95 * 9810 * 0.28 − 1.0 * 9810 * 0.28

= 9810 + 2609.46 + 2746.8
= 9672.66 pa

31
 9672.66 pa
PA − PB = = 0.986m water
9810 N / m 3
= 986mm water

Example 3.4

In Fig.6 find the pressure at A in Pascal. What is the pressure of the air in the tube?

Solution

P2 = P3
P4 = P5 = P6

PA + 0.9 * 9810 * 0.6 − 2.94 * 9810 * 0.5 − 1.0 * 9810 * 0.3 = 0

PA = 12066 pa
= 12.066kpa

32
Exercise 3.5

Determine the angle θ of the inclined tube shown in Fig. 8 if the pressure at A is 2 psi greater than that
at B.

Solution

PA + γ 1h1 − γ 2 h2 − γ 3 hγ 3 = PB

1 psi=6.89kpa

1 ft=0.3048m

PA = PB + 2 psi * 6.89kpa
PA = PB + 1378 pa − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − *

PA + 0.7 * 9810 * 0.3048 + 1.0 * 9810 * 0.3048 − 1.0 * 9810 *10 * 0.3048 sin θ = PB

PA − PB = (−5083.06 + 29900 sin θ ) pa − − − − − − − − − * *

Equating (equation *&**)

13780 = −5083.06 + 29900 sin θ

18863.06
sin θ = = 0.63 ⇒ θ = sin −1 (0.63)
29900
θ ≈ 39 0

3.5 Forces on Submerged Surfaces in Static Fluids

Objective

After studying this topic the student should:-

Analyze and obtain expression for the forces on submerged surfaces. In during this it should be
clear the difference between.

33
 3.5.1 Forces on plane surface

Pressure is defined as force per unit area. If a pressure p acts on a small area dA then the force
exerted on that area will be

F = PdA

Since the fluid is at rest the force will act at right-angles to the surface

Let the plane surface be inclined at an angle θ to the free surface of water as shown in figure.

If the plane area A, is assumed to consist of elemental areas, dA, the elemental force dF, always
normal to the surface area, are parallel. Therefore the system is equivalent to one resultant force, F,
known as hydrostatic force. Its point of application, which produce the same moment effect as the
distributed force, is called the center of pressure.
O

θ
h
h0 h-
F
G x- X0
C x

O
G
dA
C
Area, A

Figure 3. 10: Force on a plane surface submerged in water

F = ∫ dF = ∫ ρghdA = ∫ ρgx sin θ dA

A A A

= ρg sin θ ∫ xdA, but ∫ xdA = x

A A

= ρg sin θ Ax , but x sin θ = h

= ρgh A

34
 h
Where is the vertical depth of the centroid, G

Taking the moment of the force at 0-0

F x0 = ∫ ρg sin θ x 2 dA
A

Therefore, the distance to the center of pressure, C

ρg sin θ Ax x0 = ρg sin θ ∫ x 2 dA
A

Ax x0 = ∫ x dA , but
2
∫ x dA = I
2
0
A A

I0
x0 =
Ax

But, I 0 = I g + Ax (parallel axis rule) where Ig is the second moment of area of the surface about an
2

axis through its centroid and parallel to axis 0-0.

Therefore, x0 = x + I g / Ax

This shows that the center of pressure is always below the centroid of the area.

Depth of center of pressure below free surface, ho=xosinθ

For a vertical surface θ=900

h0 = h + I g / Ah

If the area is not symmetrical, an additional co-ordinate, yo, must be fixed to locate the center of
pressure completely.

O O
XO
x
G
C
yo

35
 By moments

yo ∫ dF = ∫ dFy or
A A

yo ρgx sin θ A = ∫ ρgx sinθ dA y

A

1
Ax ∫A
y0 = xy dA

Pressure prism

Another approach to determine hydrostatic force and its location is by the concept of pressure prism.

Figure 3. 11: Force on a pressure prism

Force acting on the elemental area dA is:

dF = γhdA = dV

The volume of pressure prism equals to the magnitude of the resultant force acting on one side of the
surface. The center of pressure is given by

36
 1 1
V V∫ V V∫
xp = xdV and yp = ydV

This shows that the resultant force passes through the centroid of the pressure prism.

Therefore; the pressure force is the volume of the prism in magnitude acting at the centroid of the prism
normal to the surface.

Activity 3.3: what is meant by total hydrostatic pressure? Drive an expression for the total pressure?
What do you understand by the term center of pressure? Drive an expression for the center of
pressure. Prove that the center of pressure always below the center of gravity of the surface.

Example 3.6

A rectangular plate 3m*5m is immersed vertically in water such that the 3m side is parallel to the
surface. Determine the hydrostatic force and center of pressure if the top edge of the surface is

a) Conside with the water surface

b) 2m below the water surface

Solution

a) x
m
C y
5m
p

3m

A=3m*5m=15m2

y
FP = γy c A but , yc =
= 5 / 2 = 2. 5 m
2
FP = 9810 N / m 3 * 2.5m *15m 2 = 367 .88kN

37
 Ic 1
y p = yc + but , Ic = * b * h 3 = 31.25m 4
Ay c 12
Ic 31.25
= = 0.83m
Ay c 15 * 2.5
y p = 2.5 + 0.83 = 3.33m

b)
2m

5m
C
p

3m

y
FP = γy c A but , yc = 2 +
= 2 + 5 / 2 = 4. 5m
2
FP = 9810 N / m 3 * 4.5m *15m 2 = 662.18kN

Ic 1
y p = yc + but , Ic = * b * h 3 = 31.25m 4
Ay c 12
Ic 31.25
= = 0.463m
Ay c 15 * 4.5
y p = 4.5 + 0.463 = 4.963m

38
Example 3.7

Answer the questions on Example 3.6 by prism pressure method

Solution
D

C
5m

A B

3m
γh
A

FP = V = A * b
1
= γh * h * b
2
1
= γh 2 * b = 0.5 * 9810 * 5 2 * 3
2
= 367 .88kN

The pressure force passes through the centroid of the prism.

2
yp = h from the free surface of water
3
2
y p = * 5 = 3.33m
3

h1=2m
o
D
h
A1
γh1 CC 5m

A B

3m
γh
39
 FP = V = ( A − A1 ) * b
1 1
= γh * h * b − γh1 * h1 * b
2 2
1
(
= γ * b h 2 − h12
2
)
1
(
= * 9810 * 3 7 2 − 2 2
2
)
= 662 .18kN

Center of pressure, yp
Since it is composite triangle

AT CT − A1C1
2m C=
A1 AT − A1
(0.5 * γ * 7 * 7 * 7 / 3) − (0.5 * γ * 2 * 2(5 + 2 / 3))
=
( 0 . 5 * γ * 7 * 7 ) − ( 0 . 5 * γ * 2 * 2)
5m
A2 = 2.04 m
y p = 7 − 2.04 = 4.96 m
γh y p = 4.96 m

3.5.2 Hydrostatic force on curved surface

If the surface is curved the forces on each element of the surface will not be parallel and must be
combined using some vectorial method.

It is most straightforward to calculate the horizontal and vertical components and combine these to
obtain the resultant force and its direction.

In the diagram below the liquid is resting on top of a curved base.

40
 E
D

C B

O RH
θ

A R
RV
Figure 3. 12: force on a curved surface

The element of fluid ABC is equilibrium (as the fluid is at rest).

Horizontal forces

Considering the horizontal forces, none can act on CB as there are no shear forces in a static fluid so the
forces would act on the faces AC and AB as shown below.

C B

FAC RH

We can see that the horizontal force on AC, FAC , must equal and be in the opposite direction to the
resultant force RH on the curved surface.

As AC is the projection of the curved surface AB onto a vertical plane, we can generalize this to say The
resultant horizontal force of a fluid above a curved surface is:

RH = Resultant force on the projection of the curved surface onto a vertical plane.

We know that the force on a vertical plane must act horizontally (as it acts normal to the plane) and that
RH must act through the same point. So we can say RH acts horizontally through the centre of pressure of
the projection of the curved surface onto a vertical plane.

41
Vertical forces

The diagram below shows the vertical forces which act on the element of fluid above the curved surface.

E D

C B

A
RV

There are no shear forces on the vertical edges, so the vertical component can only be due to the weight
of the fluid. So we can say the resultant vertical force of a fluid above a curved surface is:

RV = Weight of fluid directly above the curved surface. And it will act vertically downward through the
centre of gravity of the mass of fluid.

The overall resultant force is found by combining the vertical and horizontal components vectorialy,

R= R H2 + RV2

The angle the resultant force makes to the horizontal is

 RV 
θ = tan −1  
 RH 

Activity 3.4: What are the forces if the fluid is below the curved surface?

42
Example 3.8

A 2m long curved gate in the figure below is hinged at o.

a) Find the horizontal component of force and its line of action.

b) Find the vertical component of force and its line of action.
c) What force is required to open the gate?
Neglect the weight of the gate

4.5m

Water o
1.5m

1.5m

Solution

a) FH &yp

hc = 4.5 + 1.5 / 2
O = 5.25 m

A = 2 * 1 .5 = 3 m 2
FH

FH = γhc A = 9810 * 5.25 * 3 = 154 .5kN

43
 A1C1 + A2 C 2
4.5γ C=
A2 + A1
1.5m (0.5 * γ *1.5 *1.5 * ( 2 / 3) *1.5) + ( 4.5 * γ *1.5 * 0.75)
A2 =
A1 (0.5 * γ *1.5 *1.5) + (γ * 4.5 *1.5)
= 0.786 m
6γ
y p = 4.5 + 0.786
y p = 5.286 m from the free surface of water

b) FV &Xp

A1, W1 FV = W1 + W2
π * 1 .5 2
O = 9810 * 4.5 *1.5 * 2 − 9810 * *2
4
FV = 167 .1kN
A2, W2
A1C1 + A2 C 2
C=
A2 + A1
πr 2  4r 
( 4.5 *1.5)(1.5 / 2) +  
4  3π 
=
(1.5) 2
π + (4.5 *1.5)
4
C = 0.724 m
x p = 1.5 − 0.724
x p = 0.774 m from the hinge

c) Force required to open the gate

∑M O =0
FH * yp + FV * xp − F *1.5 = 0
154 .5 * 0.786 + 167 .1 * 0.774 − F *1.5 = 0
F = 166 .7 kN

44
 3.6 Tensile stress in a pipe and spherical shell
A circular pipe under the action of an internal pressure is in tension around its periphery. Assuming that
no longitudinal stress occurs, the walls are in tension, as shown in Fig. below.

1 unit
T1 T1

T1 T2 FH
y
T2 T2

Figure 3.13: Internal forces on walls of a pipe. A section of pipe of unit length is considered

The bursting of a pipe can be thought of as a tendency for the top half to separate from the bottom half.
The only force acting against this tendency is the hoop tension (T) of the pipe walls then the bursting
pressure force must exactly equal the hoop tension.

Total bursting pressure = P* 2r * 1

P = pressure at the centre line

r = the internal pipe radius

For high pressures the pressure centre can be taken at the pipe centre; then

T1 = T2 T = Pr

For wall thickness t, the tensile stress in the pipe wall,

T pr
σ= =
t t

For larger variations in pressure b/n top and bottom of pipe, the location of pressure centre y is
computed.

[∑FH = 0} ⇒ T1+ T2 =FH =2pr

[ ∑M @T2 ] 2rT1 -2pry = 0 (Neglecting the vertical component)

⇒ T1 = py T2 = p (2r-y)

45
3.7 Relative Equilibrium
3.7.1 Translation and Rotation of fluid masses
If a body of fluid is subjected to motion such that no layer moves relative to adjacent layer, shear stress

doesn’t exist within the fluid. In other words in any moving fluid mass if the fluid particle don’t move

relative to each other, they are said to be in static condition and a relative or dynamic equilibrium exists

between them under the action of accelerating force and fluid pressure as everywhere normal to the

surface on which they act.

Uniform linear acceleration

A liquid in an open vessel subjected to uniform acceleration adjusts to the acceleration after some time

so that it moves as a solid and the whole mass of liquid will be in relative equilibrium.

A horizontal acceleration ax causes the free liquid surface to slope upward in a direction opposite to ax

and the entire mass of liquid is the under the action of gravity force, hydrostatic force and the inertia

force mxa.

F ρgh.dA
θ
ay
max ax
h1
mg dA h
h
H pdA
h2
P=ρgh ρgh.dAay
ρgh ρgh2 ρayH/ ρgH
a. horizontal acceleration b. Vertical acceleration

Figure 3. 14: Linear acceleration of a liquid with a free surface

For equilibrium of a particle of mass, say on the free surface:

F sin θ = ma x and F cosθ − mg = 0 or F cosθ = mg

Slope of free surface, tan θ=max/mg=ax/g

46
And the line of constant pressure will be parallel to the liquid surface. A vertical acceleration ( positive
upward) ay cause no disturbance to the free surface and the fluid mass is in equilibrium under gravity,
hydrostatic force and the inertia force may.

For equilibrium of a small column of liquid of area dA

P dA = ρh dA g + ρh dA a y

P, the pressure intensity at a depth h below free surface

p = ρgh(1+ a y / g )

Activity 3.5: what is relative equilibrium? Why a fluid mass in a relative equilibrium is free from shear
stresses? What is the effect of uniform horizontal and vertical acceleration on the free surface of the
liquid and the pressure distribution respectively?

Example 3.9

An oil tanker 3m wide, 2m deep and 10 m long contains oil density 800kg/m3 to a depth of 1m.
Determine the maximum horizontal acceleration that can be given to the tanker such that the oil just
reaches its top end. If the tanker is closed and completely filled with the oil and accelerated horizontally
at 3m/s2, determine the liquid thrust:

a) on the front end

b) on the rear end

c) on one of its longitudinal vertical side

Solution

10m

ax
2m
θ
1m

Maximum possible surface slope=1/5=ax/g

a x = (1 / 5) * g = (1 / 5) * 9.81 = 1.962m / s 2
When the tanker is completely filled and closed, there will be pressure built up at the rear end
equivalent to the virtual oil column (h) that would assume a slope ax/g.

47
 h
θ B
γh D
10m ax=3m/s2
2m

γ*2 A
γ(2+h) C

a) total thrust on front end AB

1
= * 9810 * 2 2 * 3 = 58.6kN
2
b) total thrust on rear end CD
Virtual rise of oil level at rear end,
h = 10 tan θ = 10 * a x / g
3
= 10 * = 3.06m
9.81
Total thrust on CD,
γ * 3.06 + γ (2 + 3.06)
= * 2*3
2
= 239kN
c) Total thrust on side ABCD = volume of the pressure prism
1 1
= γ * 2 2 *10 + γ * 3.06 *10 * 2
2 2
= 496kN

Radial acceleration

Fluid particles moving in a curved path experience radial acceleration. When a cylindrical container

partly filled with a liquid is rotated at a constant angular velocity ω about a vertical axis the rotation

motion is transmitted to different parts of the liquid and after some time the whole fluid mass assumes

the same angular velocity as a solid and the fluid particles experience no relative motion.

A particle of mass ,m, on the free surface is equilibrium under the action of gravity, hydrostatic force
and the center fugal accelerating force mω2r,ω2r being the center fugal acceleration due to rotation.

48
 F
mω r 2 r
y
θ
mg
h

P=ρgh

ω rad/s
Figure 3. 15: Fluid subjected to radial acceleration

The gradient of the free surface,

tan θ = dy / dr = m ω 2 r / mg = ω 2 r / g
y = ω 2 r 2 / 2 g + cons tan t

When r=0, y=0 and hence C=0

y = ω 2 r 2 / 2g

This shows that the free liquid surface is a paraboloid of revolution.

Activity 3.6: prove that the free surface of the liquid in a vessel rotating about its axis is paraboloid?
How will the pressure intensity vary along the bottom of the vessel?

Example 3.10

A 375mm high open cylinder, 150mm in diameter, is filled with water and rotated about its vertical axis
at an angular speed of 33.5rad/s2. Determine

a) The depth of water in the cylinder when it is brought to rest

b) The volume of water in the cylinder if the speed is doubled.

49
 150mm
150mm

1287mm
320mm
375mm
375mm

ω=33.5rad/s2

a) b)
ω=67rad/s2
b
Solution

Angular velocity, ω=33.5rad/s2

Height of the paraboloid (figure a)

y = ω 2 r 2 / 2g

=
(33.5 * 0.075)2 = 0.32m
19.62

Amount of water spilled out=volume of the paraboloid

=1/2*volume of circumscribing cylinder

= 0.5 * π * (0.075) 2 * 0.32

= 2.83 *10 −3 m 3

origional volume of water = π * (0.075) 2 * 0.32

= 6.63 *10 −3 m 3

Re maining volume of water = (6.63 − 2.83) *10 −3

= 3.8 *10 −3 m 3

3.8 *10 −3
Hence depth of water at rest =
π * 0.0752
= 0.215m

50
 If the speed is doubled, ω=67rad/s2

Height of the paraboloid (figure b)

y = ω 2r 2 / 2g

=
(67 * 0.075)
2
= 1.287m
19.62

The free surface in the vessel assumes the shape as shown in figure b, and we can write:

1.287 − 0.375 = ω 2 r 2 / 2 g
r = 2 g * 0.912 / 67 2
= 0.063m

Volume of water spilled out

1 1
= π (0.075) 2 *1.287 − π (0.063) 2 * 0.912
2 2
−3 3
= 5.684 *10 m

Hence volume of water left = (6.63 − 5.684) *10 −3

= 0.946 *10 −3 m 3

3.8 Buoyancy and stability of floating bodies

3.8.1 Buoyant force (Resultant fluid force in a body)
When a body is submerged or floating in static fluid various parts of the surface of the body showed
submerged in a fluid, the cross-sectional area of each cylinder being dA.

hB PBdA

PDdA
PBdA
hC
O x

PCdA
Figure 3. 16: Buoyant force on a submerged body

51
Assume a vertical cylindrical element of cross- sectional area dA. As dA is small, the pressure on the
exposed ends of the cylinder may be taken as pC and pB.

Since pC> pB, there will be an upward force (pC –pB) dA acting on the cylindrical element.

dFB = (pc – pB ) dA = γ(h2-h1) dA = γdv

∴ Where dv = volume of the prism

The entire body may be considered to be made up of small cylindrical elements, then integrating over
the complete body gives

v v
FB = ∫ dFB = ∫ γdv = γ ∫ dv = γV

γ is assumed constant throughout the volume.

V= Volume of the body

Horizontal turest on the cylinder BD=(PB-PD)Da

Total horizontal turest on the body= ∫ (P

A
B − PD )dA

=0(since PB=PD)

Therefore, the only force acting on the body is the vertical up trust known as buoyant force which is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body. The buoyant force acts through the centroid of
the displaced fluid.

Example 3.11

An open tank is filled to the top of water. A steel cylindrical container, wall thickness δ=1mm, outside
diameter D=100mm, and height H =1m, with an open at the top, is gently placed in the water. What is
the volume of water that overflows from the tank? How many 1kg weights must be placed in the
container to make it sink? Neglect surface tension effects and take SG for steel is 7.83.

Solution

52
The volume of the cylinder is

 πD 2 
Vsteel = δ *  + πDH 
 4 
−3
= 3.22 *10 m 3

The weight of the cylinder is

W = SGγVsteel
= 7.83 * 9810 * 3.22 *10 −4
= 24.7 N

At equilibrium, the weight of fluid displace is equal to the weight of the cylinder.

Wdiplaced = γVdisplaced = W
W 24.7 N
Vdisplaced = = = 2.52 *10 −3 m 3
γ 9810 N / m 3

To determine how many 1 kg wts will make it sink, we first need to find the extra volume that we need

to be displaced.

Distance cylinder sank

Vdisplaced
x1 = = 0.321m
 πD 2 
 
 4 

Hence, the cylinder must be made to sink an additional x2.

x2 = H − x1 = 0.679m

We need to add n weights so that

πD 2
1kg * n * g = γ x2
4
ρπD 2 x 2
n= = 5.328, Hence we need n = 6 weights to sink the cylinder.
4 * 1kg

53
3.8.2 Stability of submerged and floating bodies
Submerged body

A fully submerged body in stable equilibrium if its center of pressure (G) is below the center of
buoyancy (B)

*B *G
* B, G
*G *B
B>G G>B G=B

Stable equilibrium Unstable Neutral

Floating body

The buoyant force on a body of weight, W, and centroid, G, acts through the centroid of the displaced

fluid volume and this point of application of the buoyant force is called the center of buoyancy, B, of the

body. For the body to be in equilibrium, the weight, W, must equal the buoyant force, Fb both acting

along the same vertical line. For small angle of heel, the intersection point the vertical through the new

center of buoyancy, B’, and the line, BG, produced is known as the metacentere, M, and the body thus

disturbed tends to oscillate about, M. The distance between G and M is metacentric height.

Condition of equilibrium

1. If M lies above G a righting moment is produced, GM is regarded as positive, and equilibrium is

stable.

2. If M lies below G an overturning moment is produced, GM is regarded as negative, and

equilibrium is unstable.

3. If M and G coincide the body is in neutral equilibrium.

54
 W

G
B
θ
G

Fb=W B B’

W=Fb

a) Equilibrium condition b) disturbed condition

Disturbing moment

M
G G,M

G w
M
B
B B B’
B’
B’

W Fb Fb w Fb

Restoring moment

a) Stable b) unstable c) neutral

Figure 3. 17: Condition of equilibrium

Determination of metacentric height

In the figure below, AA is the water-line and when a body is given a small tilt θ two wedge forces
formed, due to the submergence and emergence of the wedge area AOA’ on either side of the axis of
rolling, are imposed on the body forming a couple which tends to restore the body to undisturbed
condition. The effect of this couple is the same as the moment caused by the shift of the total buoyant
force Fb from B to B’, the new center of buoyancy.

55
 L (Fb)

b
A’
A
g θ df A
df B g
B’ A’

w F’b
(w)

Figure 3. 18: Determination of metacentre

The buoyant force acting through B’

By moment about B,

Fb '*BB' = df * gg
gg
BB' = df * = df * gg / W
Fb '
= df * gg / ρgV − − − − − − − − − − − − − *

Where; V is the volume of the displaced fluid.

The wedge force,

1 1
df = ρg * AA'* b * L , where L is the length of the body.
2 2

1
AA' = bθ
2
21  2 1  2
gg =  b  +  b  = b
3 2  3 2  3

1 1 2
ρg * bθ * b * L * b
BB' = BMθ = 4 2 3 from (*)
ρgV
1 3 I
BM = Lb / V =
12 V

Where; I is the second moment of plane area of the body at water level about its longitudinal axis.

56
Hence the Metacentric height,

GM = BM ± BG
I
GM = ± BG
V

Activity 3.7: what did you understand by the stability of floating body?

Time of oscillation

Consider a floating body, which is tilted through an angle by an overturning couple as shown below. Let
the overturning couple is suddenly removed. The body will start oscillating. Thus, the body will be in a
state of oscillation as if suspended at the meta- center M. This is similar to a case of a pendulum. The
only force acting on the body is due to the restoring couple due to the weight w of the body force of
buoyancy FB.

Y M
θ

W
W FB
FB

Figure 3. 19: Tilted floating body

Restoring couple = W GM sinθ--------------------*

Angular acceleration of the body,

d 2θ
α=
dt 2

Negative sign has been introduced as the restoring couple tries to decrease the angleθ.

57
Torque due to inertia

 d 2θ 
= I Y −Y  2 
 dt 

But IY-Y = (W/g) K2

Where W=weight of body, K=radius of gyration about Y-Y

Inertia torque

W 2 d 2θ
= −( )K − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − **
g dt 2

Equating the above equations(*&**)

d 2θ
WGM sin θ = −(W / g )k 2
dt 2

For small angleθ, sin θ =θ

( ) ddtθ
2
GMθ = − k 2 / g 2

d 2θ GMgθ
+ =0
dt 2 k2

This is second-degree differential equation, the solution is

GM g GM g
θ = C1 sin 2
*t + C2 Cos *t
K K2

Where, C1 and C2 are constants of integration.

The values of C1 and C2 are obtained from boundary conditions, which are

i) at t=0, θ=0

ii) at t=(T/2), θ=0

Where T=time of one complete oscillation

Substituting the first boundary condition, C2=0

58
Substituting the second boundary condition, we get

Mg T
C1 sin * =0
K2 2

But C1 cannot be equal to zero and so the other alternative is

GM g T
sin * = 0 = sin π
K2 2
GM g T K2
* = π or T = 2π
K2 2 GM g

This gives the time period of oscillation or rolling of a floating body.

59
Problems on hydrostatics

1. What depth of oil (s =0.75) will produce a pressure of 294.3Kn/m2? (Answer 40m)
2. Convert the pressure of 101.043Kn/m2 into
a) Meter of water
b) Meter of oil (s=0.8)
c) Millimeter of mercury ( s=13.6)
(Answer 10.3m; 12.88m; 757.3mm)
3. A simple manometer is used to measure the pressure of oil (s =0.80) flowing in the pipe. Its right
limb is open to the atmosphere and the left limb is connected to the pipe. The center of the pipe is
900mm below the level of mercury (s = 13.6) in the right limb. If the difference of mercury level in
the limb is 150mm, determine the absolute pressure of the oil in the pipe in kN/m2.
( Answer 120.663Kn/m2)
4. Two pressure points in a water pipe are connected to a manometer which has the form of an
inverted U-tube. The space above the water in the two limbs of the manometer if filled with toluene
(s=0.875). if the difference of the water column in the two limbs is read as 12cm, what is the
corresponding difference of pressure in KN/m2?
(Answer 0.1472Kn/m2)
5. Calculate the pressure difference between point A and B in the manometer shown in the figure
below.
(Answer 4.396kN/m2)

Oil S=0.9

30cm WATER

B
20cm

40cm

A
WATER

60
6. Two tanks are filled with water. The bottoms of the tank, which are at the same, are connected to
an inverted U- tube manometer containing oil of specific gravity 0.8. What should be the
manometer reading when the difference of pressure at the bottom of the tank is 1.4715Kn/M2?
(Answer 0.75m)

7. A slice gate consists of a quadrant of a cylinder of diameter 3m. the gate is pivoted at its center in
the figure below. If the center of gravity of the gate is at G, determine the magnitude and direction
of the resultant pressure on the gate due to water below the gate. Also calculate the turning
moment required to open the gate. Take width of the at 3m and weight of the gate =58.86Kn. (
answer 61.65Kn; 37.67KN-m; 57.50)

O
0.64m

1.5m G

0.64m

8. In figure below a circular gate of diameter 2m. The gate can swing about a horizontal pivot C which
is 10cm below the center of gravity. Calculate the water depth ‘h’ so that there is unbalanced
moment about the pivot.
(Answer 1.5m)

1m
G
2m
C

61
9. A flat plate hinged at C in the figure below has a configuration satisfying the equation x2+0.5y=1.
What is the total pressure on the plate and what is the torque about hinge C?

2m
X2+0.5y=1
1.25m
C

S=0.80 y
θ

(Answer 34.53KN; 30.41KN-m)

10. A slice gate in the form of a circular arc radius 4m as shown in figure below. Calculate the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the gate per unit length.

4m B 300
O
300

(Answer 79.76KN; 10.20)

62
11. A block of wood 4m long, 3m wide and 2m high, floats in oil of specific gravity 0.75. a clockwise
moment holds the block in the position shown in figure below. Determine
a) The buoyant force acting on the block, and its position
b) The magnitude of the couple acting on the block
c) The metacentric height

2m

300

1.5m
1.5m

(Answer: 76.5kN at2.02m from the corner; 16.83KN; 0.442m)

12. An open cylindrical tank 2m diameter and 2.5 m high contains oil of specific 0.9 up to a depth of 1m.
Calculate the pressure intensity at the bottom of the tank when the tank moves with an acceleration
of 4.905m/s2
a) Vertically upward
b) Vertically downward
(Answer; 13.244KN/m2; 4.415KN/m2)

13. A cylindrical open vessel 4m diameter and 3m high is filled with water to a depth of 2m. calculate
a) The speed at which the water commences to spill
b) The speed at which the base begins to be uncovered
c) The area of uncovered base when the speed reaches 50rpm and the volume of water left
in the vessel.
d) Speed of the vessel again the base is just covered.
(answer; 29.91rpm; 36.63rpm; 5.82m2; 10.12m3; 26.83rpm)

63
Chapter 4

4. KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW

INTRODUCTION
Activity4.1: What is Kinematics of fluid flow?

Kinematics of fluid flow deals with the geometry of motion, i.e. space – time relationships of
fluids only without regards to the forces causing the motion.

The concept of a free body diagram, as used in static of rigid bodies in a fluid static is usually
inadequate for the analysis of moving fluids. Instead we frequently find the concepts of system
& control volume to be useful in the analysis of fluid mechanics.

Objectives: The kinematics of the fluid flow

—the velocity

—acceleration, and

—the description and visualization of its motion

(The dynamics of the motion—The analysis of the specific

Force necessary to produce the motion.)

4.1 Fluid Flow Concepts and Reynolds Transport Theorem

Descriptions of:

fluid motion

fluid flows

temporal and spatial classifications

Analysis Approaches

Lagrangian vs. Eulerian

Moving from a system to a control volume
Reynolds Transport Theorem

64
Analysis Approaches

Lagrangian (system approach)

 Describes a defined mass (position, velocity, acceleration, pressure, temperature,
etc.) as functions of time
 Track the location of a migrating bird
 Fixed pt.; different particles.

Eulerian
 Describes the flow field (velocity, acceleration, pressure, temperature, etc.) as
functions of position and time
 Count the birds passing a particular location

Activity 4.2: If you were going to study water flowing in a pipeline, which approach
would you use?
Reynolds Transport Theorem

o A moving system flows through the fixed control volume.

o The moving system transports extensive properties across the control volume surfaces.
o We need a book keeping method to keep track of the properties that are being
transported into and out of the control volume

4.2 DIMENSION OF FLOW

Activity 4.3
1. How many dimensions of flows are there? Elaborate them using
examples.
2. What is the problem in expressing fluid dimensions as a rigid body
dimension?

A Fluid flow is said to be one, two or three-dimensional flow depending up on the number of

independent space coordinate required to describe the flow.

One dimensional flow (1D): When the dependent variables (example, velocity, pressure density

etc) are a function of one space co-ordinate say x- coordinate) it is known as one-dimensional

65
flow. Example Flow through pipes & channels, between boundaries, etc if the velocity

distribution is considered constant at each cross-section.

Fig 4.1 One-dimensional flow in a pipe

Two dimensional flow (2D): When the dependent variables vary only with two – space

coordinates, the flow is known as two – Dimensional flow (2 -D).

Example: Flow around a circular cylinder of infinite length, flow such that all streamlines are

plane curves & are identical in a series of parallel planes such that the flow at any X- direction is

the same.

Fig 4.2 Two-dimensional flow over a weir

Three dimensional flow (3D): When the dependent variables (example, velocity, pressure
density etc) are a function of three space co-ordinates it is known as three-dimensional flow.

Example of a 3 – D flow: the flow of air past an airplane wing provides a complex three-
dimensional flow.

4.2.1 Velocity & Acceleration in a fluid flow

o The motion of fluid is described in terms of the velocity & acceleration of the fluid
particles

66
 o Any fluid property may be given as a function of the fluids location

i.e.

 , , ,
, , , 
 , , , 

The acceleration components are given by:

∂ u ∂ u ∂ u ∂ u
a = u + v + w +
∂ x ∂y ∂ z ∂ t
x

∂ V ∂ V ∂Y ∂ v
ay = u + V + w +
∂x ∂ Y ∂ z ∂ t
∂ w ∂w ∂w ∂w
a = u + V + w +
∂ x ∂y ∂y ∂ t
z

The total acceleration is given as a = ax i + ay j + a zk

• Convective acceleration – it is instantaneous space rate of change of velocity,

• Local acceleration: - local time rate of change of velocity

Example1. A fluid flow field is given by:

  2    

Determine whether this is a possible steady incompressible type of fluid flow. If so calculate the
acceleration at1,2,3

Solution

But
   ,
 2

And
   

For three dimensional steady incompressible flow the continuity equation is given by

∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z

 2    2  0 ok! The flow is possible

First find the acceleration component

67
 ∂ u ∂ u ∂ u ∂ u
a = u + v + w +
∂ x ∂y ∂ z ∂ t
x


But for steady flow  0 then     2 and at(1,2,3)


  16 Following the same steps,

  4   2   12 and

  84

In a component form   16 12 84

Activity 4
A fluid flow is described by the velocity field:
V = 5x 3 i - 15 x2 y j + t k. Evaluate the velocity & acceleration components at pints (1, 2.
3, 1,)

4.3 Describing the pattern of flow

Streak lines: A line that consist of all particles in a flow that

has previously passed through a common point.

 tracer injected continuously into a flow

 same as path line and streamline for steady flow

Path lines: A line traced out by a given particle as it flows from

one point to another (Lagrangian concept).

 path of a particle

 same as streamline for steady flow

 defined as particle moves over time

68
Streamline: - it is an imaginary curve drawn through a flowing fluid in such a way that the
tangent to it at any point gives the direction of the velocity of flow at that point.

 has the direction of the velocity vector at each point

 no flow across streamline

 steady flow streamlines are fixed in space

 unsteady flow streamlines move

 defined instantaneously

Stream tube: - is a tube imagined to be formed by a group of streamlines passing through a

small closed curve.

- A fluid can enter or leave a stream tube only at its ends

4.4 Types of flow

A. Classification according to type of fluid

I. Ideal fluid flow – the fluid is assumed to have no viscosity. The velocity distribution is
thus assumed uniform ---- (idealized)

(i) Real fluid flow: viscosity is taken in to consideration, which leads to the development
of shear stress b/n moving layers. However, some fluids such as water are near to an
ideal fluid, and this simplifying assumption enables mathematical methods to be
adopted in the solution of certain flow problems.

(ii) Compressible fluid flow: - if variation of pressure results in considerable changes in

volume & density. Gases are generally treated as compressible.

(iii) Incompressible fluid flow - if extremely large variation in pressure is required to affect
very small changes in volume. Liquids are generally treated as incompressible.

B. Classification according to variation of velocity, displacement and etc

II. Steady flow: - A flow is said to be steady if at any point in the flowing fluid characteristic
such as velocity, pressure, density etc don’t change with time. However this
characteristic may be different at different points in the flowing fluid.

69
 ∂v ∂p
∴ = 0, = 0 , etc
∂t ∂t

(i) Unsteady flow: - if at any point in the flowing fluid any one of all of the characteristics,
which describes the behavior of fluids in motion changes with time.
∂v ∂p
∴ ≠ 0, ≠ 0 , etc
∂t ∂t

(ii) Uniform flow:- this occurs when the velocity both in magnitude & direction remains
constant with respect to distance, i. e it doesn’t change from point to point
∴ ∂v =0
∂s

(iii) Non- uniform flow: - if there is a change in velocity either in magnitude or direction
with respect to distance , then:
∂v
≠0
∂s

(iv) Laminar flow: - in laminar flow the particles of fluid move in orderly manners & the
steam lines retain the same relative position in successive cross section. Laminar flow
is associated with low velocity of flow and viscous fluids.

(v) Turbulent flow: - Here the fluid particles flow in a disorder manner occupying different
relative positions in successive cross section. Turbulent flow is associated with high
velocity flows.

Around 1883, Reynolds established the boundary between the laminar and turbulent flow, using
the dimensionless number called Reynolds’s number, Re.

VD
Re =
υ
Where V- mean velocity

D- Diameter

ν- Kinematics viscosity

70
 Reynolds showed that if Re < 2000 ---- laminar flow

Re> 4000 ----- Turbulent

In b/n 2000 & 4000 it is transition flow.

4.5Continuity Equation

Activity 5
1. Discus the basic principles of conservation of energy?
2. Discus the difference between steady and unsteady flow

The continuity equation is a mathematical statement of the principle of conservation of mass.

Since fluid is neither created nor destroyed within the region it may be stored that the rate of
increase of mass contained within the region must be equal to the differences b/n the rate at
which the fluid mass enters the region & the rate of which it leaves the region.
Fixed region

Mass of fluid entering

fff Mass of fluid leaving the
the region
region

Consider flow through a portion of a stream tube: assume the flow is steady flow

I.e. the rate of increase of the fluid mass within the region is equal to zero; then the rate at
which fluid mass enters the region is the rate equal to at which the fluid mass leaves the-reg

71
 1

At section-1 at section-2

Area of elementary Tube = dA1 Area of elementary Tube = dA2

Average velocity = V1 Average velocity = V2

Density = ρ1 Density = ρ2

 Mass of fluid per unit time flowing past section-1 = ρ1 dA1 V1

 Mass of fluid flowing per unit of time past section 2 = ρ2 dA2 V2

For steady flow, by the principle of conservation of mass the rate of flow is constant

i.e. dQ1=dQ2

ρ1 dA1 V1 = ρ2 d A2 V2

For the entire area of the stream tube:

∫ρ
A
1 dA1 V1 = ∫
A2
ρ 2 dA 2 V 2 = constant

If ρ1 and ρ2 are average densities at section (1) and (2), then

ρ1 ∫ V1 dA1 = ρ 2 ∫ V 2 dA 2 = ρ VA =constant
A1

ρ1 V1 A1 = ρ2V2 A2 = ρVA =constant. This is applicable to steady, one-dimensional flow of

compressible flow.

For steady incompressible flow,ρ = constant and doesn’t vary from point to point,

Therefore: ρ1  ρ2 and the continuity equation will be reduced to:

V1 A1  V2 A2  Q Where Q is the discharge (or volumetric flow rate or flow) defined as

Q = AV [m2 m/s = m3/s = Volume/time]

4.4 The general equation of continuity for three dimensional ( 3-D) flow

72
The general equation of continuity for three dimensional ( 3-D) flow can be derived as follows.

Consider a flow through a rectangular parallelepiped of dimensions: δx, δ y , δ z

∂
ρU ( δ y δ z ) . ρU ( δ y δ z ) . + ( ρ U δ y δz ) δ x
∂x

The mass of fluid flowing per unit time through the left face ΑBCD = ρ U (δ y δ z )

The mass of fluid flowing out of the parallelepiped through face A’B’C’D’

∂
= ρU ( δ y δ z ) . + ( ρ U δ y δz ) δ x
∂x

∴ The net mass of fluid that remain in the parallelepiped per unit time:

 ∂ 
= ρ u δ y δ z − ρ u δ y δ z + (ρ U δ yδ z )δ x
 ∂x 
∂
= − (ρ U δ y δ x δ z )
∂x

By similar procedure the mass of fluid remaining in the others two pairs of faces

(Y, z – directions)

∂
Y –direction = − (ρ V ) δ x δ y δ z
∂y

−∂
Z-direction = ( ρ w ) δx δy δz
∂z

The net total mass of fluid that remains in the parallelepiped per unit time is :

 ∂(ρ u ) ∂ (ρ v ) ∂ ( ρw) 
= -  + +  δ x δ y δ z − − − − − − − − − − − −1
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

73
The mass of fluid in the parallelepiped is:

(ρ δ x δ y δ z ) & its rate of increase with time is:

∂
∂t
(ρ δ x δ y δ z ) = ∂ρ (δ x δ y δ z ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 2
∂z

 ∂  ∂  ρ v  ∂  ρ w   ∂ρ
Equating 1 & 2 we get -   ( ρ u ) +   +    =
  ∂x  ∂y   ∂z    ∂t

∂ρ  ρu   ρv  ρ w
In polar coordinate system, + ∂  + ∂   + ∂   = 0
∂t  ∂x   ∂y   ∂z 

(General continuity equation in 3-D Flow)

∂ρ  ρv r  ρV   ρV z 
+ ∂ t  + ∂  θ  + ∂   = 0
∂t  r∂r   r ∂θ   ∂z  In Cylindrical coordinate system

∂ρ
For steady flow, = 0 therefore:-
∂t

 ρu ρv  ρ w
∂  + ∂   + ∂   = 0 (Steady compressible fluid)
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂z 

For incompressible flow, ρis constant with x, y, z, and t.

ρ = Constant

Example: A fluid of constant density flows at a rate of 15 l/s along a pipe of 100mm diameter.
This pipe further branch to pipe BC and BD each with 25 mm and a third pipe BE of 50mm
diameter. The flow through BC is three times the flow through BE and the velocity through BD is
4 m/s. Find the discharge in the three branches BC, BD and BE and the velocity in AB,BC and
BE (assume steady flow).

$%&  3$%'
%(  41 )⁄* $%( 
%( . -%(  1.964 /0*

$1%  $%& $%( $%' But $%&  3$%' Therefore,

74
 $1%  3$%' $%( $%'  $%( 4$%'

15 /0*  4$%' 1.964 /0*

$%'  3.259 /0* And $%&  3$%'  3 3 3.259 /0*  9.87 /0*

Now we can find velocity of flow through each pipes

$1%

1%  0-  1.91 )⁄*
%(

$%&

%5  0-  26.56 )⁄*
%5

$%'

%'  0-  1.66 )⁄*
%'

(Continuity equation for incompressible, steady flow in 3-D)

Example: For the two components of the velocity given, find the third component, so that they
satisfy the continuity eqn. (steady, incompressible flow)

6   7  2  6        

For steady, incompressible flow, continuity equation is given by,

Ə6 Ə6
0
Ə6
Ə Ə Ə

 3  And        substituting their corresponding values in

Ə8 Ə89
Ə Ə

0
Ə8 Ə89 Ə8:
Ə Ə Ə

Ə6
3          0
Ə
Ə6
 2   
Ə

6  2    

6  ;2     Integrating both side,

75
 <
6  2    = Where c is >, 


4.4 Stream function (ψ ) and velocity potential (φ

φ)

Stream function (ψ ): stream function is the discharge per unit width perpendicular to the plane

It is the mathematical expression showing field

Let Ψ(x, y) represents the stream function nearest to the origin then ? @? represents the
second stream lines.

@?

 @

? @?


@

Since there is no flow across a stream line, we can let Ψ be indicative

Of the flow carried through the area from the origin O to the first stream line and thus, dΨ
represents the flow carried between the two stream lines.

From continuity equation, @?  
@
 @ … … … … … … … . . … 1

BC BC
The total derivative of @?  B
@ B
@ … … … … … … … … … … . . 2

Comparing equation 1 and 2 we have

BC BC
 
And 
 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . 3
B B

76
Given the stream function Ψ we can find the velocity for each direction.

Since the derivative of Ψ is based on the principle of continuity, continuity equation should be
satisfied for the stream function to exist.

DEF DEG
I.e. DF DG
H

Activity 4.5
1. Prove that stream function equation satisfy continuity equation.

Velocity potential function (φ)

It is a function such that its negative particle derivative with respect to any direction is the
velocity component in that direction.
BI BI
i.e.
   and
 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . 4
B B

K K
The total derivative is given by @J   @ 
@ … … … … … … … … … … … 5

Substituting equation (4) in to (5) we have

@J  
 @ 
@ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . 6

Substituting equation (4) in to 2D continuity equation, we will obtain

LK LK
L L
L L
0
L L

< K < K
 0 This is called two dimensional form of Laplace equation.
 <  <

Note: for velocity potential to exist the flow must be irrotational.

The flow of a liquid is be irrotational is irrotational if and only if

L
L

 0
L L

For rotational types of flow the angular velocity ω is given by

1 L
L

M N  O
2 L L

Example: The velocity components on a two dimensional field for an incompressible fluid is
expressed as follows:-

77
 y3
Vx = + 2 x − x2 y
3

Vy = xy 2 − 2 y − x3
3

i. obtain an expression for stream function ψ

ii. obtain an expression for velocity potential φ
Solution

i. For the stream function to exist, flow should be continuous. i.e.

∂ u ∂ V
+ = 0
∂ x ∂y

= ( 2 − 2 xy ) + ( 2 xy − 2) =0, Therefore stream function exists.

C  70
 6  3 2    

 70
? 3 2     

 70
?  ; 3 2      Integrating both side

 P0    0
? 12 2  2 > Where, > * =QR* R ST .

C
Now, let us find  6 for the same equation of ? above:-


C P    0
  012 2  2 >
 

C
 2    >´ ………………………..eqn1 but,


 6     2   03 ………… eqn2

C 7


Then equating equation 1and 2

>´     2   03 From this

C 7
 6  2   


>´   03 Then integrating with respect to x >   012

7 P
=

78
  P0    0  P0
Hence, ?  12 2  2 12 = … … … … R*

ii. For velocity potential to exist, the flow must be irrotational i.e.

89 8

 0

            0 Therefore, it is irrotational and velocity potential exists.

K K
 6 R@  6


K 7
 6   03 2    


 70
K   3 2     

 V V
K     > Where > * =QR* R ST  .
7 7
K K V
Now, let us find  6 for the same equation of K above:-   W   X
7

 6     2   03 … … … … … \]R 2
K 7
>´ … … … … . eqn 1 but
Now, by equating \]R 1 R@ \]R 2, >´  2 by integrating both sides wrt y,

 V V
>    = Hence, K      =
7 7

4.6 Flow net

Lines of constant ? (stream function) and K (equi-potential Velocity function) form two families
of curves (s-line and h-line) that intersect each other at right angles

If the two families of curves are constructed (drawn) such that they form a pattern of ‘squares’
i.e. ∆s=∆h the discharge in stream tubes formed by adjacent stream lines is constant. This is
called flow net.

Example: A flow is defined by
  2 and
 2 Find the stream function Ψ and velocity
potential function Φ for this flow and draw flow net.

Check for continuity

L
 L

0
L L

79
 2  2  0 … … … … . . ^! The flow is continues and Ψ exist.
C C
 6 And  6


?  ; 
L  ; 2L  2 > Now derivate this with respect to 

Therefore ?  2 = R@ > =  0, ?  2

To find Φ first check for irrotation.

9 
i.e. 
 
0

0  0  0 The flow is irrotational and Φ exists

K K
 6 R@  6
 

Integrating with respect to, K  ; 2L    > now differentiate with respect to y,
K
 > ′   6  2 again integrating this with respect to y we will obtain >   
= /\ =  0 and finally we will get K      

Now we can plot flow net by using Φ and Ψ

Assign values for both Φ and Ψ

?  2 Let ?`  30 , ?  60 R@ ?7  90

When ?`  30 , a\R   150

When ?  60 , a\R   300

When ?7  90 , a\R   600

Now by using some values of x beginning from 0,1,2,3……draw the graph of Ψ on the (x,y)
plane.

Similarly, assign the same values for K      

When J  30, a\R   √30 

When J  60, a\R   √60 

When J  90, a\R   √90 

Now, we can draw graph for velocity potential using different coordinate points

80
Fig flow net

81
5 FLUID DYNAMICS

5.1 Introduction
Dynamics of fluid is a branch of fluid mechanics dealing with the force responsible for fluid
motion relating acceleration and energy change evolved in the flow

The dynamics of fluid motion deals with kinetics, which relates the kinematics with the forces
responsible for causing the motion.

It uses the law of natures.

i) The principle of conservation of mass (the continuity relationship)

ii) Newton’s laws of motion
iii) The 1st and second laws of thermodynamics

5.2 Equations of motion

Gravity forces (Fg): is due to the weight of the fluid
Fg  mg Where m is mass of the body and

g is acceleration due to gravity.

Pressure force (Fp): Fp  pxA where P is pressure intensity and

A is cross sectional area of the flowing fluid.

Viscous forces (Fv): Fh  τxA where, τ is shearing resistance

Surface tension (Fs): important when the depth of flow is extremely small.

Fi  σxl Where, is surface tension and length.

Force due to compressibilityk= : significant in problems of unsteady flow like water
hammer.

Force due to turbulence (Ft): ): the continuous momentum transfer between layers in
highly turbulent flow results in normal and shear stresses known as Reynolds's stress.
Generally, from Newton’s 2nd law of motion:

∑ Fm  mam

Fg m Fpm Fvm Fσm Fcm Ft m  mam

82
Let us take conditions for each of them

i) Force due to turbulence and compressibility

∑ Fm  mam

Fg m Fpm Fvm Fσm Fcm Ft m  mam

ii) Real fluids and high depth of flow

Fcm  0 and Fσm  0 then,

Fg m Fpm Fvm Ft m  mam This is called Reynolds stress equation

iii) For laminar flow, Ft m  0

Fg m Fpm Fvm  mam This is called Stocks Navier equation

iv) For ideal fluids Fvm  0 Fgm Fpm  mam is Euler’s equation of motion.

5.2.1 Energy and Head

Activity 1.
State forms of energy which a liquid in motion can posses and derive expressions for
each of these forms in terms of the pressure p, velocity v and elevation z for unit weight
of fluid.

A liquid in motion may possess three forms of energy.

a) Potential energy /elevation /positional energy/

b) Pressure energy:
c) Kinetic energy
5.3 Bernoulli’s Equation
Activity 2.
1. State Bernoulli’s theorem for a liquid.
2. What is meant by (a) potential head, pressure head, velocity head and total
head for liquid in motion

Basic assumptions in derivation of Bernoulli’s equation:

o The flow is Steady and incompressible type of flow,
o Frictionless and non viscous flow,
o No shaft work - no pump or turbines on the streamline,
o No transfer of heat - either added or removed.

Consider a cylindrical element of stream tube having cross-sectional area dA length ds and unit
weight γ as shown in motion along a streamline.

83
 dP
[P + ( ) dS ]dA
dS dS

θ
u@-

Z
γ@~@-

Applying Newton’s second law of motion:

i.e. ∑ Ft  mat

@w
u@-  vw @*x @-  S cos {  mat
@*
h
But,)  |
 @-@~ and at  v
γ
} t

B
@w  γ@* cos { 
@
But cos { 
γ
} B€

@ γ
@w  γ@* 
@

@* 

@w γ@
@
 0
γ
}

This is called one dimensional Euler’s equation of motion

Integrating the above equation, we will get

dp dV
∫γ + ∫ dz + ∫ V
g
= Cons tan t

P V2
+Z+ = Cons tan t This is called Bernoulli’s Equation which states that the total energy
γ 2g
at all points in a steady continuous flow of an ideal fluid is constant.

84
 ‚
Is called pressure head,
γ

Z potential energy head and

<
Kinetic energy head
}

For real incompressible fluid flow some energy is lost in the form ofheat due to viscous
resistance. Therefore, Bernoulli’s equation between two points will be given as;

ƒ„ „< ƒ< <<

γ }
`  γ }
 † Where † * \@ /Q** R )

Example 5 Water flows through the horizontal branching pipe shown below in fig at a rate
> 70
of10 *. If viscous effects are negligible, determine the water speed at section (2), the

pressure at section (3) and the flow rate at section (4).

u
21
22
From (1) to (2) ‡1 2
1  u‡2 2
2 where`  , u`  10w*

ˆ„ > 70 Š
, u  5w* and
`   10 * 3 1ft  10 € thus with ‡  |

1„

Œ Ž< ‘ < Œ Ž<

W`‹ < X`PP < `‹ W— < X`PP < < <

Ž ‘ “ Ž ‘
“”•–“  “”•–“ 
Rearranging this
`.’P `.’P
‘V ‘V

ft

  29 … … … … … … … … … … . ans
s

85

21
23
From (1) to (3)
u1
‡ 2
1  u‡3 2
3 Where, `  7 , u`  10w* and

Œ Ž< ‘ < ‘ <

W`‹ < X`PP < `‹ ƒV ‹

Š Š Ž ‘ “ “

`  10 And
7  20 Thus, “”•–“ ‘ Œ ‘ Or u7 
€ € `.’P 7. < ˜.P V 7. <
‘V “ ‘ “
™š
1150  7.89w*
Š <

Also,

$P  $`  $  $7  $`  -
  -7
7

Or

> 7 ft ft ft 7
$P  10  0.07> 
v29 x  0.2> 
v20 x  3.97
* s s s

Activity 3.
Derive Bernoulli’s equation for the flow of an incompressible frictionless fluid from
consideration of motion

Under special conditions the assumption underlying Bernoulli’s equations can be Valid.

1. When streamlines originate from a reservoir,

2. For unsteady flow with gradually changing conditions (E.g. Emptying a reservoir) the
equation may be applied without appreciable error,
3. It may be used for real fluids, by modifying the result experimentally.

Hydraulic and Energy grade line

Horizontal
h1
V12/2g
V22/2g
P1/γ The modified Bernoulli’s equation for upstream section
P2/γ (1) and downstream section (2)
1
2

Z1
Datum Z2 86
 V12 P1 V2 p
+ + Z 1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2 + hl
2g γ 2g γ

α)
5.3.2 Energy correction factor (α

Activity 4.

Differentiate the Velocity distribution of real fluids and ideal fluids

Kinetic energy correction factor α is a measure of viscous resistance generated in a given flow

In real fluids, the kinetic energy per unit weight given by V2/2g doesn’t represent the kinetic
energy across the section. Instead, multiplication of α with V2/2g yields the kinetic energy
actually passing a section.

Ideal liquid Real liquid

flow flow
@-

Velocity
distribution

6

Fig 1.1 Velocity distribution in a pipe flow

`
Actual energy head=›  )


o The kinetic energy per unit time passing through on elemental area dA is ½ ρ@-u u2
o Total kinetic energy passing the section ∫ 1
2
ρu 3dA
A
o The actual kinetic energy passed on average velocity V passing the section is equal to
1
α ρV 3 A
2
1
o Now Equate this two equations ∫ 1
2
ρu 3dA = α ρV 3 A and finally you will obtain
A 2

87
 3
1 u
o α = ∫   dA
A v
Bernoulli’s equation will be modified to:
V12 p1 V22 p2
α1 + + Z1 = α 2 + + Z 2 + hl
2g γ 2g γ Where hl is head loss

5.3.3 Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation.

Bernoulli’s equation is applicable in all problems of incompressible fluid flow where energy
considerations are involved.

1. Venturimeter (tube) (G.B Venturi (1746 –1822) Italian Eng)

Activity 5.
A. Describe the arrangement of a venturi meter and explain its mode of
action
B. Derive an expression for the theoretical discharge through a horizontal
venturi meter and show how it must be modified to obtain the actual
discharge.

o used for measuring rate of flow in a pipeline

o it consists of three components
i) A converging entrance cone of angle of about 200
ii) A cylindrical portion of short length called the “throat”
iii) A diverging section known as diffuser, of cone angle 50 to 70

88
 Fig.5.4 Horizontal Venturimeter

 Assume that the fluid is ideal (So that energy is not dissipated in overcoming frictional
resistance)
 velocities V1 and V2 are uniformly distributed over the cross section
 the energy correction factor α is 1
 no frictional resistance
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points (1) and (2) on a central stream line

V12 P1 V2 P
+ + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2
2gg γ 2g γ

For an incompressible fluid, continuity of flow at section 1 and 2 is,

Q = A1V1 = A2V2

89
 A1
V2 = V1 ………………………… (a)
A2

For a horizontal Venturimeter, the datum Z1=Z2 and Bernoulli’s equation is reduced to

V2 − V1 P − P2
2 2

= 1 .....................................(b)
2g ρg
Substituting equation
V1  A1  
2
P − P2
2
  − 1 = 1 (a) in to (b)
2 g  A2   ρ g

1  P − P2 
V1 = * 2 g *  1 
 ρg 
2
 A1 
  − 1
 A2 

Rearranging this

A2 P1 − P2
V1 = 2g
A21 − A22 ρg

Theoretical Discharge

A1 A 2 P1 − P 2
Q = A 1 V 1t = 2g
ρ g
t
− A2
2 2
A 1

The actual discharge can be converted to actual discharge by multiplying the theoretical
discharge with area

A1 A 2 P1 − P 2
Qa = Cd *Qt = Cd 2 g
A
2
− A 2
ρ g
1 2

The differential pressure is evaluated from manometry, and for figure.5.5

90
P1 P2
s + ys − xs − sm ( y − x) = s
γ γ
P1 − P2 sm
= x( − 1)
γ s

For vertical or inclined Venturi meter, the actual discharge can be computed similarly.

Example 3 (flow rate) water flows through the pipe contraction shown in fig .For the given 0.2m
difference in manometer level; determine the flow rate as a function of the diameter of the small
pipe, D.

Where, and

Thus,

But,

And , so that
Thus,

Or

91
 П
0.1)  ž29.81 0.2  0.0156 ) 0*
7
$  -`
` 
4

2. Pitot tube (Total head tube) / (Henri Pitot)

Activity 6.
Describe with the help of neat sketch, the construction and operation of
a) Pitot static tube
b) Manometer suitable for use with such a tube when the difference of
head is very small.

Pitot tube is a device used for measuring velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a channel.

Stagnation pressure: For a figure below it has been seen that the central streamline
terminates at B the entrance to the Pitot tube. This is on account of the inability of the streamline
to take a sudden turn. The fluid flowing along the central streamline, therefore, stops moving as
it reaches the point B. Hence the velocity of flow at this point is zero. This point is known as
stagnation point.

Applying the Bernoulli’s equation at points A and B,

PB=PO=PA+ρVA2/2

Fig 5 Simple Pitot tube in pipe flow and open channel flow.

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to point A in the undisturbed flow region:

92
 2 2
VO P V P
+ O + ZO = A + A + Z A
2g γ 2g γ
2
PO VA P
⇒ = + A
γ 2g γ
P −P
2
VA
= O A
2g γ

VA =
2 (PO − PA ) 2 g ⇒ V = 2g (
PO − PA
) = 2 gh sin ce
PO − PA
=h
γ γ γ
A

2. Orifices:-An
An orifice is an opening (usually circular) in the wall of a tank or in a plate
normal to the axis of a pipe.
a. Orifice flow in pipes, Orifice meter or orifice plate

Fig.5.12 Orifice plate in a pipe

Applying the Bernoulli equation between at 1 (upstream of plate) and 2 (at the orifice)

93
 2 2
P1 V1 P v
+ = 2 + 2 Since the orfice is horizontal Z1 = Z 2
γ 2g γ 2g

V1 − V2 P2 − P1
2 2
=
2g γ
A 
Using continuity equation A1v1 = A2 V2 ⇒ V2 =  1  V1
 A2 
v1 − ( A1 / A2 ) 2v1 P −P
2 2
= 2 1
2g γ
 1 − ( A1 / A2 ) 2  p − p1  p2 − p1  2g
v1
2
  = 2 ⇒ V1 =   *
 2g  γ  γ  1 − ( A1 / A2 )
2

The theoretical discharge Q will therefore be,

Q = A1V1 =A1
( p2 − p1 ) * 2
p 1 − ( A1 / A2 ) 2

Example 2 (Bernoulli/continuity/Pitot tube ) two pitot tubes and two static pressure taps are
placed in the pipe contraction shown in fig the flowing fluid is water and viscous effects are
negligible. Determine the two manometer readings, h and H

94
 and

Thus, so that manometer considerations give

Or with, this gives

Also,

Where

From continuity, from this

Thus,

But
Or

From equation and we obtain

95
 Or

Flow through a reservoir opening (orifice flow)

Given a reservoir at water level h above orifice opening below, the reservoir is
assumed to be very large as compared to size of the opening.

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points A and B,

V2
0+0+h = + 0 +0
2g

V= 2 gh (Theoretical velocity).

Theoretical discharge 2 gh , where is area of orifice

Example 8 water flows from large tank through a large pipe that splits in to two smaller pipes as
shown in fig If viscous effects are negligible, determine the flow rate from the tank and the
pressure at point (1)

96
ƒŸ Ÿ< ƒ< <<
‹   Where u¡  0, u  0,
¡  0, ¡  7) R@   4)
} }

Thus,
  ž2Q  2 ž27  4

)
  7.67
*

Similarly,
  ž2Q  3 ž27  0

)
  11.7
*

П
Thus, $  $ $7  
 ¢
7 ¢7
P

П ) ) )7
$ NW7.67 X 0.03m 
W11.7 X 0.02m 
O  9.110£7
4 * * *

Also,

¥V
ƒŸ Ÿ< ƒ„ „< ˆ ’.``‹¤V §
‹  ` Where `  0) and
`   П
“
 4.63
} } 1„ ‹.‹—§ < €
¦

And rearranging the above equationu`  57.9w

Areaofjet at vena contracta

1) Coefficient of contraction, Cc =
Area of orifice

A0 = Area of orifice (Area of jet at C)

Actual velocity at venacontracta

2) Coefficient of velocity, Cv =
Theoretica l velocity

Actual disch arg e

3) Coefficient of discharge, Cd =
Theoretica l disch arg e

Actual velocity
  ¨6 2 gh

97
Actual discharge Qa = Actual area * Actual velocity

= CcA0 Cv ž2gh  Cd A0 ž2gh

Hydraulic Coefficients for flow through orifices

Determination of ª« and ª¬

1. Trajectory method
From Newton’s law of projectile motion, the maximum height from which the water falls is given
as follows.
`
z  Vzot   gt  … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . 1

And the horizontal distance it will cover is given by

x  Vxot … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 2

Evaluating t from the equation 1 and substituting in equation 2

Vz 0 g
z= x− 2
x2
Vx 0 2Vx 0

If the jet is initially horizontal, as in the flow from a

vertical orifice, Vx0=V0 and Vz0=0, the above equation is reduced
in to;

g
V0 = x
2 z

V0 V0 x x
Then Cv = = = =
Vt 2 gH 2 z / g 2 gh 4 zh

1. Pitot tube method can be set at the vena contracta so that actual velocity Va is
determined

98
Types of orifice

Activity 7.
Define the coefficients used in connection with flow through orifices, explaining why
these coefficients are necessary.

The following figure shows common types of orifice with their coefficient of discha

rge.

2. Unsteady orifice flow from reservoirs

But then

Rearranging this equation

Where A is area of the reservoir and is area of the orifices

Now integrating the above equation we will obtain

This equation is used for rectangular reservoirs

99
Example 6 (Bernoulli/continuity) water collects in the bottom of a rectangular oil tank as
shown in fig. How long will it take for the water to drain from the tank through a 0.02m-diameter
drain hole in bottom of the tank? Assume quasi-steady flow.

ƒ„ „<
}
` 
ƒ< <<
}
 Where, u`  u¡ ‡¡ a¡ but u¡  0

u  0 And `  a ,   0, R@
1  0
‡®
 ~¯  0.87
‡
Thus, since

‡® °®
Or
  ž2a
<<
a ~± aQ
‡ }

Or
  ž2a 0.87 3 1.9  4.43√a 1.653 )⁄* where h is in m

Also,
П П
$  -
 
 ¢  0.002 2 ²4.43√a 1.653 ³
4 4

100
 1.653 ) 0* … … … … … … … … . 1
3
$  1.3910£7 √a

And

B°
$  -` W X, Where, -`  2.69.5  24.7) Therefore,
B

@a @a
$  24.7) v x  24.7 … … … … … . . 2
@ @
Now equate equation (1) and (2)
@a
1.653 ) 0*  24.7
3
$  1.3910£7 √a
@

B°
 5.6310£— √a 1.653 Or,
B

B°
 5.6310£— @ Now integrating both sides
√°´`.˜—7

°µ‹ B° µ
;°µ‹.¶ √°´`.˜—7  5.6310£— ;µ‹ @ Where

Š is time to drain the water.

Or

2√a 1.653  5.6310£— Š Inserting the value of a  0 Q a  0.7

Š  8.83107 *\=  2.45aT

3. Weirs
Open channel flow may be measured by a weir on obstruction in the channel
a) Rectangular weir
Figure shows rectangular notch of crest length (L) and working under a head H.

101
 ………………………………….. (1)

Where and substituting the values in to equation (1)

Finally integrating this we will obtain

2
Actual discharge = = Cd L 2 g H 3 / 2
3

b) Triangular weir (V-notch)

notch)

Fig. 5.18 Triangular weir

Let the Head producing flow

Velocity through strip =

If width of strip = b, Area of strip =

Discharge through
hrough strip,

102
 The width b depends on h and is given by ·  2  a Rθ Then

@$ 
- 
·@a  2  a ž2a Rθ@a Integrating both sides

¸
$  ;‹ 2  a ž2a Rθ@a

18
$  ž2 tan { √ —
15

¹a\ = º/ @ *=aT\ $  ¨B 3 a\QT =/ @ *=aT\$

For a 90‹ V-notch, ¨B  0.555.

5.4 Impulse-momentum theorem

It is important to determine the force produced on a solid body by fluid flowing
steadily over it.

Consider a stream tube shown below 2

Fig 5 Stream tube

Assumptions:-

 The cross section of stream tube is sufficiently small so that the velocity may be
considered uniformly distributed

 The flow is steady i.e. the stream tube remains stationary with respect to the
fixed coordinate axis.
B
From Newton’s second law k  )  but   therefore,
B

B
k) Rearranging this equation we will obtain
B

k@  )@

Momentum principle states that the rate of change of momentum is equal to the net
force acting on the fluid mass.

Momentum of fluid entering section 1 –1 in a time ∆t in the x –direction  |@$∆
`

Momentum leaving section 2- 2 in time ∆t |@$∆


103
 ¼Bˆ∆< £¼Bˆ∆„
From momentum principle @k  simplifying this equation
∆

@k  |@$
  |@$
` Where, @k is the net force exerted on the fluid in the x-
direction.

The total force in the x –direction is given by

k  ½|@$
  |@$
`

But from continuity $`  $  -`
`  -
 then

k  ½|
@-
  |
` @-` $
`

Assuming the fluid is incompressible i.e. | is constant

k  ρ
2 -2 
2   ρ
1-1
1  But,
1-1 
2 -2  $ Therefore,

k  ρ$
2   ρ $
1 

k  ρ$
2  
1 

Similar equations for y and z directions may be written as

k  ρ$ ¾
2 –
1 À

k  ρ$ ¾
2 –
1 À

Applications of momentum equations

1) The force caused by a jet striking a surface

A. Impact on a flat surface
I. Stationary plate
Let A = area of jet
V2 = velocity of jet
ρ = mass density

k  ρ$ 62  – 61 But,
  0 (horizontal alignment)

k  ρ$  – 61

k  ρ -
2 force in the jet

kQT=\ \\T \@ QR a\ w/ \  ρ-
2

II. Moving plate

104
 ÄR / 6\/Q=  Q> a\ \ 61 
1

\/Q=  Q> a\ w/ \S a Sa =a )Q6\*  Å

¹a\ 6\/Q=  S a Sa =a \ * T \* a\ w/ \ 
– Å

Æ** Q> >/º @ * T  R w/ \/*\=  ρ- 
– Å  ρ$

kQT=\ QR w/ \  ρ- 
– Å 
– Å

 ρ- 
– Å 2
III.
Stationary inclined plate

1   6 =Q* 90  θ  6 * R θ

2   0

Æ** * T  R *  QRT w/ \  ρ-

ÈQT)/ >QT=\ QR a\ w/ \  ρ-

* Rθ  ρ-
 * R θ

Since the plate surface is smooth, there can be no force exerted by the plate on the fluid jet in
the tangential direction.

k  ρ$1
 ρ$2
– u$
¨Q*θ  0

$1 – $2 – $ ¨Q*θ  0 … … … … … … … \]R1

From continuity equation, $  $1 $2 ⇒ $2  $ – $1

Substitute in (\]R 1)

$1 – $ $1 – $ ¨Q*θ  0

2$1  $ 1 ¨Q*θ  0

$ – $2 – $2 – $ ¨Q* θ  0

$1  $/2 1 ¨Q*θ

$ 1  ¨Q*θ – 2 $2  0

$2  $/2 1  ¨Q* θ

For a vertical plate, θ = 900

Q1 = Q/2 = Q2

105
 IV. Moving inclined plate

1   6 * R θ

2   Å * R θ

Mass striking the moving plate per second  ρ$  ρ- 6  º

Normal force on the plate  ρ- 
 Å 
* Rθ  Å * Rθ

 ρ- 
– Å 2 * R θ

Work done by this force  k 3 Å  F n sinθ * u

V. Series of flat plates

The force exerted by the impact of jet can be fruitfully utilized if the flat plates are mounted on
the periphery of a wheel as shown below

o The force exerted by the jet causes the rotation of the wheel.
o The flat plates thus occupy the bottom most position according to their turn.
o The number and location of the plates is so arranged that no portion of jet goes waste
without doing work on the plate.
Let the initial velocity of jet 

Final velocity = velocity of plate  Å
Fluid mass striking the plate per second  ρ$  ρ-

Force exerted on the plate by jet  ρ-

– Å

Work done per second  kQT=\ 3 @ * R=\ )Q6\@ w\T *\=QR@

 ρ-

– Å 3 Å

KE of jet per second  ½ ρ-

2

Work done on plate ρ AV (v − u )u 2 ( v − u )u

Efficiency of jet = = =
KE of jet 1 / 2 ρ AV V 2
v2

B. Force on curved vane

Consider a symmetrical curved vane having smooth surface. The jet strikes at the center and
after impact it is deflected equally along the vane surface.

ÆR  ρ-
3
 ρ-
2

ÆQº  ρ
Av Av
v cos θ − ρ v cos θ
2 2

  ρ-
2 ¨Q*θ

106
Force exerted by curved vane on the jet

k  ÆQº – Æ R

  ρ-
2 ¨Q*θ  ρ-
2   ρ-
2 1 =Q*θ

kQT=\ QR =ºT6\ 6R\ · \  ρ-
2 1 =Q*θ

For θ = 900 – Flat plate at right angle to jet k  ρ-
2

For θ = 00 - semi –circular plate k  2 ρ-
2

Curved vane moving in translation

Mass of fluid striking the vane  ρ- 6  º

Æ R  ρ- 6  º 2

ÆQº   ρ- 6 – º 2 ¨Q*θ

Force exerted by jet on the vane  k  ρ- 6 – º 2 1 ¨Q*θ

Work done by jet  k Å

KE of jet /sec  ½ ρ-

2

workdone by jet
Efficiency, η =
KE of jet

2 (1 + cosθ ) (v − u ) u
2
η =
v3

Curved vane mounted on a wheel

Let the wheel rotate with a tangential velocity U and a jet moving with velocity v strikes the
wheel.

Fluid mass striking the wheel per second  ρ-

Æ R  ρ-
6 – º (Before impact)

ÆQº  ρ-
6 – º ¨Q*θ (After impact)

Force exerted by jet on the vane  Æ R – ÆQº

107
 k  ρ-
6 – º 1 ¨Q*θ

É  k 3 Å

2u (v − u ) (1 + cosθ )
KE = ½ ρAV2 η =
v2

2) Force exerted on a reducing pipe bends.

As a general case a reducer bend has been selected which changes the magnitude and
direction of velocity.

For simplicity assume the bend is in a horizontal plane.

u -

u` -`

k

Let k nd k be the components of the force exerted on the fluid by the pipe bend.

Then momentum equation in the x –direction can be written as

ρ1 -1  ρ2 -2 =Q*θ  k  ρ$ 
1 –
2 =Q*θ

Momentum equation may be expressed as

u1 -1  u2 -2  Ê  ρ$ 
2 
1

As the discharge is to the atmosphere, P2 = 0, and thus

Ê  u1-1  ρ$ 
2 
1

Example 7 Water flows from the pipe shown inn fig. as a free jet and strikes a circular flat plate.
The geometry shown is axisymmetrical. Determine the flow rate and the manometer reading, H.

108
 „< <<
 , where, u`  u  0,
ƒ„ ƒ<
`  `  0 R@ ,   0.2)
} }

Thus,

„< <<
  Where, -`
`  -
  $ … … … … … … … … … … … … … 1
} }

Or,

-
 П¢ a 40.1) 0.0004)

`  
 
  1.6

-` П  0.01
¢
4
Hence,

1.6
 

   2 3 9.81 3 0.2 Or
  1.59 )⁄*

So that,

)7
-
  $  П0.1 0.0004 1.59  0.0002
*

Also,

109
 u`
` u‹
‹
`  ‹
‡ 2 ‡ 2

Where,

‹  0 , ‹  0.2), u`  0,
`  1.6
  1.6 3 1.59 )⁄*  2.54 )⁄*

Thus,

u‹
`
  ‹  0.129)
‡ 2

110
 CHAPTER SIX

6. BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY

6.1. INTRODUCTION
What is the basic difference between ideal fluid and real fluid?

The basic difference between ideal fluid and real fluid is the presence of viscosity force (force holding
fluids).

Ideal fluid: - are those fluids which has no viscosity force (in viscid).

Real fluids: - are those fluids which posses’ viscosity force (viscous fluid).

Viscous plays an important role in real fluid motion. As real fluids flow in a solid boundary, the viscous
introduce resistance to motion by developing shearing or frictional stress between the fluid layers, and
between the fluid layers and the boundary.

The existence of this shearing resistance causes the fluid to adhere to solid boundary, and hence there is
no relative motion between the fluids layers immediately contact with the solid boundary and the solid
boundary. At this contact region a thin layer is formed and this thin layer is called boundary layer.

At the boundary layer the velocity gradient (LÅ/L) is very high(i.e. the velocity increase from zero at
the boundary surface to that equal the main stream velocity at the outer edge of the boundary layer)
and shear stress is also large. The fluid outside this layer is considered as ideal fluid and viscosity effect is
negligible.

The boundary layer formation governed by inertia force and viscous force.

6.2. Development of the Boundary Layer

To develop the boundary layer concept, it is helpful to begin with a flow bounded on one side only
consider.

111
Let us consider a smooth flat plate of width b exposed to the fluid with a uniform velocity U because of
no slip, the fluid sticks to the leading edge of the plate and a steep velocity gradient is set up in the
immediate neighborhood of the surface.

The shear stress retards further and the thickness of the boundary layer increase as the distance from
the leading edge increases.

As the thickness of the laminar boundary layer increases, more fluid is retarded and a stage is reached at
which the boundary layer becomes unstable and it breaks down. The layer beyond this point is in
transition stage. The layer in this stage is neither laminar nor turbulent. After the transition zone, the
layer becomes turbulent. Even in turbulent layer, there is a thin laminar sub-layer near the solid surface.

Fig 3- 1 Development of a boundary layer

The incident flow (i.e. the flow just upstream of the plate) has a uniform velocity U∞. As the flow comes

into contact with the plate, the layer of fluid immediately adjacent to the plate decelerates (due to
viscous friction) and comes to rest.

Thus the thickness of the boundary layer δ goes on increasing in the downstream direction as shown in
Fig 3.1.The various factors which influence the thickness of the boundary layer forming along a flat
smooth plate are noted below

1 The boundary layer thickness increases are the distance from the leading edge increases

112
 2 The boundary layer thickness decreases with the increase in the velocity of flow of the
approaching stream of fluid
3 Greater is the kinematics viscosity of the fluid greater is the boundary layer thickness.
4 The boundary layer thickness is considerably affected by the pressure gradient (∂p/∂x) in the
direction of flow. In the case of a flat plate placed in a stream of uniform Velocity U∞ the
pressure may also be assumed to be uniform i.e. (∂p/∂x) = 0 However, if the pressure gradient is
negative as in the case of a converging flow and it accelerates the retarded fluid in the boundary
layer. As Such the boundary layer growth is retarded in the presence of negative pressure
gradient. On the other hand if the pressure gradient is positive as in the case of divergent flow
the fluid in the boundary layer is further decelerated and hence assists in thickening of the
boundary layer.

6.3. Boundary layer equations

A. The boundary layer thickness, δ, is the distance in the y-direction from the solid surface to the outer
edge of the boundary layer. Since the velocity distribution in the boundary layer is

asymptotic to U∞, it is difficult to measure an exact value for δ. The usual convention is to assume that
the edge of the boundary layer occurs where

u
= 0.99
U∞

B. The displacement thickness, Ë*, is the distance by which a streamline is displaced due to the

boundary layer. Consider the velocity distribution at a section in the boundary layer. In side boundary
layer, the velocity is everywhere less than in the free stream. The discharge through this cross section is
correspondingly less than the discharge through the same cross-sectional area in the free stream. This

deficit in discharge can be quantified for unit width and an equation may then be developed for Ë*.

113
 Fig 3-2 Velocity distribution in a boundary layer

Q 1 = A U∞ but, A= B.dy

Q1 = B.dy. U∞ for unit width (B = 1) Q1 = U∞. dy

Q2 = AU Q2 = U.dy

Deficit of discharge Q = Q1 - Q2

= U∞.dy - U.dy

= (U∞ - U) dy………. (1). For small sample area.

For the whole shaded area Q =

In the free stream an equivalent discharge would pass through a layer of depth δ*, so

U∞.δ* =

Dividing by U∞, δ* =

114
 Î Ì
Therefore, δ* = ;
‹
 1  dy
Ì∞

Where, Q1 = discharge through the main stream

Q2 = discharge through the boundary layer

U∞ = free stream velocity

C. The momentum thickness θ is analogous to the displacement thickness. It may be defined as the
depth of a layer in the free stream, which would pass a momentum flux equivalent to the deficit due to
the boundary layer. Using the above fig.

Mass flow through small element = |.U.dy. U∞

Mass flow through the main stream = |. U2.dy

Deficit of momentum flux = |.U.dy ( U∞  U

Î
For whole boundary layer section = ;‹ |. U  U∞  U dy

In the free stream, an equivalent momentum flux would pass through a layer of depth, θ, and
unit width, so that

|. U∞
2
. { = ;‹Î |. U  U∞  U dy dividing by |. U∞

Î Ì Ì
{ = ;‹ 1  dy
Ì∞ Ì∞

D. The definition of kinetic energy thickness Ë**:- follows the same pattern, leading to the equation

`
Kinetic energy through small element =  |. U.dy. Å∞

`
Kinetic energy through the main stream = |. U3.dy


`
Deficit of Kinetic energy ∆ = |.U. ( Å∞  U dy


In the free stream, an equivalent Kinetic energy would pass through a layer of depth, Ë**, and
unit width, so that

115
 |. U∞ . Ë** = ;‹
Î` `
|. U  Å∞  U  dy dividing by |. U∞
` 3 3
  

Î Ì Ì
Ë** = ;‹  1 – 
dy
Ì∞ Ì∞

Example:-

Ì 
1. The velocity distribution in boundary layer is given by Ì∞ = Ë , where u is the velocity at a

distance y from the plate and u = U∞ at y =Ë, where Ë being boundary layer thickness. Find:
i) The displacement thickness
ii) The momentum thickness
iii) The energy thickness and
Î3
Ð
iv) The value of

Ì 
Solution: velocity distribution Ì∞ = Ë

i) The displacement thickness, Ë*

Î Ì
Ë* = ;‹ W1  X @
Ì∞
Î Ñ
Ë* = ;‹ W1  X @
Ë
<
Ë* = Ò  Ó
Ë

Î<
Ë* = WË  X
Î

Î
Ë* =Ë-


Ô
Ë* =
Õ

ii) The momentum thickness, {

{= ;‹
Î Ì Ì
W1  Xdy
Ì∞ Ì∞

116
 ÎÑ Ñ
=;
‹ Î
W1  Xdy
Î

Î Ñ Ñ<
=; W  Xdy
‹ Î δ<

 V
=Ò  Ó
Î 7Î <

Î< ÎV

Î Î <
=

Î Î

 7
=

Ô
{=
Ö

iii) The energy thickness, Ë**

Î Ì Ì<
Ë**= ; W1  Xdy
‹ Ì∞ Ì∞<

Î y y2
=; v1  xdy
‹ Ë δ2

Î y y3
=; v  xdy
‹ Ë δ3

< ¦
=Ò  Ó
Î PÎ V

Î< Φ

Î PÎ V
=

Î Î

 P
=

Ô
Ë** =
×

117
 Î3
ii) The value of
Ð

Î3 Ë
= 2Ë
Ð
6

Ì y y 
= 2W X  W X ,
Ì∞ Ë Ë
The velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given by

Where Ë being boundary thickness.

Activity:-1
Î
Calculate: i) displacement thickness (Ans. Ë 3 )
7


ii) Momentum thickness ({  Ë) and
`—


iii) Energy thickness (Ans.Ë**= Ë)
`‹—

Ô3
Ø
=3

E. The momentum integral equation is used to relate certain boundary layer parameters so that
numerical estimates may be made. Consider the longitudinal section through a boundary layer (Fig
3.3), the section is bounded on it outer side by a streamline, BC, and is l m wide. The discharge across
CD is

δ
Q CD = ∫0
udy As Q = AV

= B.dy.U

= U.dy for unit width

118
 U∞ B C

τo
A D

Fig 3-3 Longitudinal Section through a boundary layer.

∆Ù
The momentum flux (= ρ Q x velocity) = ( = |. U2.dy) is therefore,


dM CD δ
= ∫ ρ u 2 dy
dt 0

As BC is a streamline, the discharge across AB must be the same are that across CD

δ
Q AB = ∫ 0
udy

The incident velocity at AB is U∞, so the momentum flux is

dM AB δ
= ∫ ρ uU ∞ dy
dt 0

119
Boundary layers are actually very thin, so it is reasonable to assume the velocities are in the X –
direction. The loss of momentum flux is due to the frictional shear force (FS) at the solid surface.
Therefore

δ δ
- FS = ∫ ρ u 2 dy − ∫ ρ uU ∞ dy
0 0

The negative sing follows from the fact that the frictional resistance acts in the opposite sense to the
velocity. The equation may be rearranged to give

ρ (U ∞ u − u 2 )dy
δ
FS = ∫ 0

δ u  u 
= ρU ∞ ∫ 1 −  dy
2
0 U ∞  U ∞ 

= ρU ∞ θ
2

The frictional shear at the solid surface is not a constant, but varies with X, due to the growth of the
boundary layer. The shear force may therefore be expressed as

L
FS = ∫ τ 0 dx
0

Where: - τ ο is the shear stress between the fluid and the solid surface.

The momentum integral equation is therefore.

L
∫ τ 0 dx = ρ U ∞ 2 θ
0

120
  Î Û Û
Ú¡ = |. Å∞ ; W1  X @
 ‹ Û∞ Û∞

6.4. LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER

The velocity distribution in a laminar boundary layer is parabolic (U∞-u) ~ ( (δ − y ) ,
2

The simplest equation for a velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer can be expressed by the
general parabolic equation:

U = a + by + cy2 ………………… (A)

Constants a, b, &c can be determined from boundary layer condition:

Û
= 0 at y = Ë

U = 0 at y = 0

V = U∞ at y = Ë

Ì∞ Ì∞
Î<
So, we can get a = 0, b = 2 and c =
δ

Then the equation becomes,

Ì∞ Ì∞
y2
Î<
U=0+2 y+
δ

Û 
= - 
Ì∞ Î Î
…………… (A) Prandtl assumption

Û
Where Ü = = 2 Ü - Ü…… (1) Ý U = 2 Ü. U∞ - Ü
Î Ì∞
and then,

Substituting the value of U in eqn. (1) in to eqn. (A)

 Î Û Û
Ú¡ = |. Å∞ ; W1  Û∞X @Ü………….(2)
 ‹ Û∞

121
 ∂δ  3 η 3  3 η3 
1
τ 0 =ρ U∞ 2
∫ 1 − η − η −   η −  dη
∂x 0  2 2  2 2 
∂δ
= 0.139 ρU ∞
2
........................(3)
∂x

At the boundary (solid surface), from Newton law viscosity,

Ú¡ = Þ ß Û ß
 y=0

∂u U ∞ ∂F U∞ ∂ 3 η3 
τ0=µ = µ =µ  η − 
2 
Y =0 η =0 η =o
∂y δ ∂η δ ∂η 2
3 U∞
= µ .......... .......... ......( 4 )
2 δ

Then equate the two expressions fro τ 0 yield (eqn. (3) and (4))

3 U∞ 2 ∂δ
µ = 0 . 139 U ∞
2 δ ∂x
and rearrangin g gives
dx
δ ds = 10 . 78 µ
ρU ∞

Since δ is a function of X only in this equation integrating gives

δ2 υ
= 10 .78 X + Conr tan t
2 U∞

At the leading edge δ =0 for x = 0, the constant of integration is zero Solving for δ
Χ leads to

δ υ
= 4 . 65
x U ∞ x
4 . 65 x
= .......... ....( 5 )
R ex

122
in which Rex = U∞x / ν is a Reynolds number based on the distance X from the leading edge of the plate.
This equation from boundary – layer thickness in laminar flow shows that δ increases as the square root
of the distance from the leading edge.

Substituting the value of δ in to eqn. (4)

3 U∞
τ0= µ
2 δ
µ ρU ∞ 3
τ 0 = 0.322 ..........(6)
x
The shear stress varies inversely as the square root of x and directly as the three halves power of the
velocity.

 The drag force on one side of the plate of unit width

L
Fs=F Drag= ∫ τ dx
0
0

L µρU ∞ 3
= ∫
0
0.322
x
dx

FD = 0.644 µρU ∞ L...................(7)

3

ÝLaminar boundary layer occur

(Re)L < 5 x 105

And drag coefficient

123
 Ì∞
FD = CD .A. |( )


à(
â∞<
CD =
á.¼
<

1.328 1.328
CD = = .................(8)
Re x Re L

Ì∞
The drag can be expressed in terms of a drag coefficient CD Times the stagnation pressure |( ) and

the area of plate (per unit width).

6.5. Turbulent Boundary Layer

For turbulent boundary layer the velocity distribution has been found to follow approximately either the
one-seventh power law U∞2~y 1/7
or it is logarithmic U∞~ logy .For laminar sub layer the velocity

distribution is parabolic, but since its thickness δ 1 is usually very small, a linear distribution can be
assumed.

The universal velocity- distribution law for smooth pipes provides the best basis, but the calculations are
involved.

The velocity distribution with in turbulent boundary layer is similar to that for turbulent in pipes.

Hence, Umax (max. velocity in pipe) = U∞ (free stream velocity)

R (radius of pipe) = Ë (boundary thickness)

And B (width of plate) = ãD (perimeter of pipe)

The momentum equation can be used to determine turbulent boundary- layer growth and shear stress
along a smooth plate in a manner analogous to the treatment of the laminar boundary layer.

1/7
A simpler approach is used prandtl’s one- seventh- power law .it is u/U∞ = (y/r) , in which y is
measured from the wall of the pipe and ro is the pipe radius. Applying it to flat plates produces

124
 1/7
u  y 
F = =  = η 1 / 7 .......... .....( A )
U∞ δ 
and
1/4
 υ 
τ = 0 . 0228 ρµ 2
  .......... .......( 1 )
 U ∞δ
o


The method used to calculate the laminar boundary layer gives

dδ 1 2 dδ
τ 0 = ρU∞2
dx ∫0
1 − η (
1/ 7
η1/)7 dη =
7
72
ρU∞
dx

By equating the expressions for shear stress, the differential equation for boundary layer thickness δ is
obtained as

„
„
ä ¦
Ë *dx = 0.234W
¦ X *dx
Ûå

After integrating and then assuming that the boundary layer is turbulent over the whole length of the
plate so that the initial conditions x = 0, δ = 0 can be used.

1/4
 υ 
δ = 0 . 292 
5 /4
 x
U ∞ 
Solving for δ gives
1/5
 υ 
δ = 0 . 37   x 4 /6

U∞ 
0 . 37 x
δ = 1

U ∞x 5
 
 υ 
0 . 37 x
δ = 1/5
R ex

125
The thickness increases more rapidly in the turbulent boundary layer. In it the thickness increases as x
, but in the laminar boundary layer δ vainer are x1/2
4/5

To determine the drag force on a smooth, flat plate δ is eliminated in above equation

1/ 4
 υ 
τ = 0 − 0228 ρ U ∞
2
 
U ∞δ
0

0 . 37 x
and δ = 1/5
R ex

then
1/ 4
 
 
 υ 
τ = 0 . 022 ρ U
2
  0 . 37 x  
0 ∞
U  
 ∞ 1/5
  R ex 

1/5
 υ 
τ ο = 0 . 029 ρ U ∞
2
  .......... .......( 3 )
U∞x 

 The drag force per unit width on one side of the plate
L
FD= ∫τ
0
0 Bdx

L
FD= ∫τ 0
0 dx
……………….. (4)

Substituting Ú¡ value in to eqn. (4),

1/5
L
2  υ 
FD =
∫ 0 . 029 ρ U ∞   dx
0  ∞x
U 

126
 ¼Ì∞ < æ
)1/5 …………………(5)
 ¼Ì∞ ç
FD = 0.0713( )L(

Average drag coefficient, CD

à(
â∞<
CD =
á.¼
<

Substituting the value of FD in to eqn. (6)

‹.‹¶`P
èé „/ê
CD =

This equation is applicable for 5ë 105 ì ReL ì 107

 For higher Reynolds number (í 107), logarithmic velocity distribution for turbulent layer is used.
‹.P——
†¡}èé† <.êî
And CD = ………………………….. (6)

Example:-

1. A smooth flat plate 5m wide and 45m long is fixed at the bottom of the channel of water
flows at 10m/s. (υ= 1.007*10 -6)

 pu 2 
Solution: - FD = CD 
 2 
A
 

ï∞.† `‹3P—
`.‹‹¶3`‹¤ñ
= 446. 87 *106 which is > 5* 105
ð
Re = =

It is turbulent region and it is greater than 107.

Therefore, CD=
0.455 -4.
= 1.74*10
(log Re ) 2.58

 pu 2 
F D = CD  A
 2 

127
  *1000 *10 2 
= 1.74*10
-4
  * 5* 45
 2 

= 19.57KN

2. Air flows over a plate 0.5m long and 0.6m wide with a velocity of 4m/s. The velocity profile is
in the form.
Û
= sin Wò . ÎX
Ì∞
If | = 1.24 kg/m3 and ó = 0.15 ë 10-4m2/s, calculate:

i) Boundary layer thickness at the end of the plate

ii) Shear stress at 250 mm from the leading edge, and

iii) Drag force on one side of the plate.

Solution

Given:-length of plate, L = 0.5m

Width of plate, B = 0.6m

Velocity of air, U∞ = 4m/s

Density of air, | = 1.24 kg/m3

Kinematic viscosity of air, ó = 0.15 ë 10-4m2/s

Û
Velocity distribution (profile), = sin Wò . ÎX
Ì∞

i) boundary layer thickness at the end of the plate, Ë;

ۆ Pë‹.—
Reynolds no, Ê\† = = = 1.33 ë 10—
ð ‹.`—ë`‹¤¦

Since Reë ì 5ë 105, therefore, the boundary layer is Laminar over entire length of the plate.

128
 P.˜— ë P.˜— † P.˜— ë‹.—
For laminar Ë =
žèéë žèéõ ž`.77ë`‹ê
= =

Ë = 6.57mm

ii) Shear stress at 250mm from the leading edge, Ú¡

æ.¼.Û∞ V
Ú¡ = 0.332ö
ë

æ.¼.Û∞V
Ú¡ 뵋.—§ ö where Þ = ó. | = 0.15 ë 10-4 *1.24 = 1.86 * 10-5
ë
= 0.332

Þ.Å∞
Or Ú¡ 뵋.—§ = 0.332 ë žÊ\ë

`.÷˜ 3 `‹¤ê 3P
√1.33 ë 10—
‹.—
= 0.332*

= 0.0360 N/m2

1.328 `.7÷
`.77ë`‹ê
CD = = = 0.00364
Re L

2
1.2434
Ú¡ 뵋.—§ = 0.00364 * 2
* 0.5 = 0.0361N/m2

Iii) Drag force on one side of the plate, FD

Ì∞
FD = CD.A. |


129
 A = L * B = 0.5 * 0.6 = 0.3m2

FD = 0.00364 * 0.5 * 0.3 * 1.24 * 42

FD = 0.01083N

6.6. BOUNDARY LAYER SEPARATION

A. Convergent flow (Lp/Lx ì0, Negative pressure gradient)

When pressure decrease in direction of flow, the flow accelerates. In this case pressure force and inertia
force added together and decrease the effect of viscosity force in the boundary layer. This result in
decrease in the thickness in the thickness of the boundary layer in the direction of flow. The accelerating
fluid maintains fluid close to the wall in motion, hence the flow remains stable and turbulent reduce and
there is no boundary layer separation.

B. Divergent flow (Lp/Lx í 0, Positive pressure gradient)

When the pressure gradient is positive, the pressure increases in the direction of flow and the pressure
force acts opposite to the direction of flow. It further increases the retarding effect of viscosity force.
This result in increase of the boundary layer thickness in the direction of flow.

Fluid outside of this boundary layer has enough momentum to overcome this pressure which is trying to
push it backwards. Then fluid within the boundary layer will quickly brought to rest and possibly
reversed in direction. If this reversal occurs it lifts the boundary layer away from the surface. This
phenomenon is known as boundary layer separation (Fluid in either sides move in opposite direction).

Some examples of boundary layer separation:

Divergent duct or diffuser

Tee-junction pipes

Bends in pipes

Y-junctions

130
 Fig. Boundary separation point

Activity:-2 Boundary layer separation occurs when (dv/dy) at the boundary is zero. Why?

And How?

6.7. Drag and lift on a sphere and cylinder

A. Drag force (FD)
The force in the direction of motion (parallel to the direction of motion)

Ì∞
FD = CD.A. | )


Where CD = drag coefficient

A = area, A = C ë L

C = chord length

131
 Ì∞
| ) = stagnation pressure


Let us take an air foil immersed in a fluid moving with velocity U∞ and at an angle of attack ›.

B. Lift force (FL)

Lift force is component of force perpendicular to the direction of motion.

Ì∞
FL = CL.A. | )


Where FL = Lift force

CL = coefficient of lift

Resultant force (F) = √FD FL

The angle between the two forces ({)

à†
{ = tan-1 W à( X

 Drag on a sphere
At very low Reynolds number, Re≤1 there is no flow separation from a sphere, the wave is laminar and
the drag is predominantly friction drag. Stokes has shown analytically, for very low Reynolds number
flows where inertia forces may be neglected, that drag force on a sphere of diameter, D, moving at
speed, V, through a fluid of Viscosity, µ is given by

FD = 3 πμVD

And

Ì∞
FD = CD.A. | )


132
 FD
CD =
Aρv2
2

7 πμúû
ü < â∞<
CD =
û ¼
¦ <

P
èé
CD =

 Cylinder
The effect of circulation on lift may be studied by considering a horizontal cylinder. There are two
type of flow condition when the fluid moves around on stationary cylindrical members.

a) I rotational uniform flow around a cylinder

U1 = 2 V sinθ

b) I rotational flow of constant circulation around a cylinder

Γ
U2 =
2π r 0

Where U = Uniform flow of fluid

r0 = Raider of cylinder

U1 =Velocity at angle θ

U2 = Velocity when the circulation Γ is there a round cylinder

Γ = Circulation

133
 Then,

U = U1 + U2 Assuming U = V

For stagnation points

Γ
U = U1 + U2 = 2 V sinθ +
2π r 0

The magnitude of the lift exerted on the cylinder due to the composite flow pattern may be determined
by integrating over the entire surface of the cylinder, the components of the pressure forces on
elementary surface areas normal to the direction of uniform flow. Applying Bernoulli’s equation
between any point in the unaffected flow and any point on the surface of the cylinder, the pressure at
any point on the cylinder is obtained as

P = P 0 + 1 2 ρV 2 − 1 2 U 2 ρ

in which P0 is the pressure in the uniform flow at some distance a head of the cylinder by substituting
the value U from the above expediting

  Γ 
2

P = P + 1
ρ V 2−
 2 V S sin θ +  
∏
0 2
  2 r0  

The lift d FL acting on an elementary surface area of the cylinder (r0dθ) is

dFL = (Lr0 d θ ) p sin θ

In which L is the length of the cylinder. The negative sine has been introduced because the pressure
force is always directed towards the surface, and hence for sin θ being positive its component is
negative being in the vertical down ward direction the total FL exerted on the cylinder is obtained by
integration are

134
 2∏
FL = ∫ (Lr
O
0 dθ ) P sin θ

2∏  1  2  T 
= − Lr 0 ∫  P0 + ρ V −  2V sin ϑ +   sin θdθ
0
 2   2 ∏ r0  

Which is reduces to a simple relationship

F L = ρ VL Γ

This equation is known as Kutta – Joukowski equation.

Example

1. Cylinder 4m in dia.25m long rotates at 90 rpm with its axis perpendicular to an airstreams
with a wind velocity of 20m/s. The specific weight of air is 12 kg/m3. Assume no slip b/n the
cylinder & the circulatory flow, find,

a. the value of circulation

b. the lift force

c. the position of the stagnation points

Solution: - Vt1 = ΠDN (peripheral velocity)

90
= Π4* = 18.85.
60

a) Γ = 2Πro vt1 = 2Π2 * vt1 = 236.87m2/5.

b) FL= ρ u * Γ L = 1.2*20* 236.8 25 = 142. 13 kN

Γ
c) Sin θ = - = - 0.471
+ 4u * u

θ = -28. 10
135
 Excercise

1. Calculate the friction drag on a flat plate 15 cm wide and 45 cm long placed longitudinally in a stream
of oil of specific gravity 0.925 and kinetic viscosity 0.9 stokes, flowing with a free stream velocity of 6
m/s. Also find the thickness of the boundary layer and shear stress at the trailing edge. (Ans. FD =
17.13N, Ë = 0.01276 m).
2. An airship 10 m diameter and 90 m Long travels through still air at 30 m/s. By treating the cylidrical
surface of the airship as a flat rolled up and exposed on one side, calculate the power absobed in skin
friction. Take | = 1.2 kg/m3 and Þ = 1.8* 10-5N-s/m2. Assume the boundary layer as turbulent.

136
 CHAPTER SEVEN

7. FLOW THROUGH PIPES

7.1. Introduction
A pipe iss a closed conduit through which fluids can flow. The flow in pipes is termed pipe flow only
when the fluid completely fills the cross section and there is no free surface of fluid.

Since the flow in pipe is in motion, it has to overcome the frictional rresistance
esistance between the adjacent
fluid layers and pipe walls.

The prime concern in the analysis of real fluids

fl s is to account for the effect of friction. The effect of
friction is to decrease the pressure, causing a pressure ‘losses”
‘ compared to the ideal, frictionless flow
case.

These losses can be grouped in to two:

1. Major Losses (due to friction in fully developed flow in constant area portions of the flow).
2. Minor Losses (due
due to flow through valves, eelbow
lbow fittings & frictional effects in other non-
non
constant –area
area portions of the system)

Figure 7.1 Flow in the pipes (circular pipe)

137
 P1 V12 P2 V22
z1 + + = z2 + + + hL ……………………………………….1
γ 2g γ 2g

hL = Head loss (major + minor)

7.2. Major Losses (Head loss in conduits of constant cross-section)

Referring to Figure 7.1 and for equilibrium in steady flow, the summation of forces acting on any fluid
element must be equal to zero, i.e. Σk  0

P1A-P2A+W sinα- τo (PL) =0

Where sinα = & W= mg = γAL

τ o - average shear stress (average shear force per unit area) at the conduit wall, is defined by:

- τo P L=0
ýþ£ýÕ
P1A-P2A-γAL

Now dividing both sides by (γA),

‚` ƒ†
+z1= +z2+ τo

…………………… (1.1)
γ γ γá

From equations (1) and (1.1), total head loss is

† á
τ
hL= o ………………………………(1.2) where R= , Hydraulic radius.
 

This equation is applicable to any shape of uniform cross-sections, regardless of whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent. For smooth-walled conduits, where wall roughness may be neglected, it may be

138
assumed that the average shear stress τ o is a function ofρ,µ, ν& some characteristic linear dimension,

which will here be taken as hydraulic radius R. Thus:

τ o = (|, Þ, v, R)
By dimensional analysis:

τ o = |v 2
(
¼è
æ
) = |v2 (Re)

Let φ (Re) = ½ Cf (dimensionless term)

V2
τ o = C f .ρ ........................................ ...........................(1.3)
2

L V2
From eqn. (1.2): hL = C f . . .........................................(1.4)
R 2g

(Applied for any shape of smooth walled conduits).

For circular conduits (pipe) flowing full;

R= ¼ D

4L V 2 L v2
Therefore, hL = C f . . = f . . .................... ..............(1.5)
D 2g D 2g

Where, f = 4Cf = 8φ (Re)

139
This equation is applicable for both smooth-walled and rough walled conduits. It is known as pipe -
friction equation, and commonly referred to as the Darcy-Weisbach equation.

Friction factor, f, is dimensionless & must be determined by experiments.

L 1 1 τ L
From eqn. (1.2) hL = τ o = τ o * L * γ * = 2 o ……………………………..(1.6)
Rγ ( 2) γ
o
roγ

V2 f V2
From eqn. (1.3) τ o = τ o = C f .ρ = .ρ
2 4 2

f V2
τo = .γ . ……………………………………………… (1.7)
4 2g

For laminar flow

v 64
f = 64. = (......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........(1.8)
DV Re

2
 64  L V
Head loss: - hlf =  . . .............................................................(1.9)
 Re  D 2 g

In fully developed turbulent flow, the pressure drop, ∆p, due to friction in a horizontal constant area

pipe depends upon the diameter, D, the pipe length, L, the pipe roughness,, the average velocity, V ,

the fluid density, ρ, and the fluid viscosity, µ.

Δp= φ(V, D, |, Þ, )

140
 ε
By dimensional analysis: f= φ (Re, )…………………………………..(2)
D

• Blasius had concluded that there were two types of pipe friction in turbulent flow.
1. Smooth pipes:-where viscosity effect is predominant, so that the friction factor is
dependent on the Reynolds number(f=φ (Re))

0.316
f = 1
…………………………………………….. (2.1)
4
Re

2. Rough pipes:-where both viscosity and roughness effect influence the flow and

friction factor (f) is dependent on Re and relative roughness( ).

(

A. Colebrook has developed this formula:

∈ 
= −0.809 ln  D +  …………………………………….. (2.2)
1 2.523
f 3.7 Re f 
 

The simplified eqn. of this eqn. is provided with the restriction placed on it:

 −6 ∈ −12 
1.325 10 ≤ ≤ 10 
f = ⇒  D  − − − −(2.3) (For Rough pipes)
∈
2
 5.74   8 
ln( 3.7 D + R 0.9 ) 5000 ≤ Re ≤ 10 

B. Moody equation

`‹ñ
)1/3À for Re=4ë103 to 1ë107
ε
f= 0.0055¾1 20,000
D èé

141
 ε
And up to 0.01
D

OR L.F Moody prepared a chart for determining friction factor for rough pipes experimentally by plotting
ε
f versus Re curve for each value of . (See Moody Chart)
D

Hence, once f value is calculated, we can use general head loss equation.

∴ Head loss in pipes is given by:

L V2
hL = f . . (for all pipes rough smooth, laminar, & turbulent)………(2.4)
D 2g

7.3. Minor losses in the pipes

Loss due to the local disturbances of the flow conduits such as changes in cross-section, bend, elbows,
valves; joints, etc are called minor losses.

In case of a very long pipe, these losses may be insignificant in comparison with the fluid friction in the
length considered.

There are around six minor losses.

a. Loss of head at entrance

b. Loss of head at submerged discharge(leave loss)
c. Loss due to contraction
d. Loss due to Expansion
e. Loss in pipe fittings
f. Losses in bend & Elbow

a) Loss of head at entrance (he): -

142
 Fig.1.2. Head loss at entrance

he =ke ----------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------(2.5)

Where ke is inlet loss coefficient and its value depends on the edge of the inlet of pipe.

Entrance type inlet loss coefficient (ke)

Rounded (bell mouthed) 0.04

Squared edged 0.5

Reentrant 0.8

b) Loss of head at submerged

erged discharges: (leave loss), (hd’)

143
Figure 1.3. Submerged Discharge Loss

Taking the datum at a Pressure

head at a is y

Ha= y + 0 +V2/2g and Hc = 0 + y + 0

Therefore, hd = Ha – Hc

V2
hd =
2g

c) Loss due to contraction (hc)

The contraction may be sudden or gradual.

v22
For sudden contraction: h’c = kc
2g

Gradual contraction:-to
to reduce losses we use smooth curved transition (kc = 0.05-0.10
0.05 for smooth and kc
= 0.04-.20 for nozzle pipes).

144
d) Loss due to Expansion (he)

The expansion may be sudden or gradual.

Sudden expansion

Rate of momentum between section (1) & (2)

γ
p1 A2 − p2 A2 = ( A2V22 − A1V12 )
g

Energy relation between section (1) & (2

(2)

p1 v12 p v2
+ = 2 + 2 + he
γ 2g γ 2g

p1 − p2
Solving for in each equation and equating the results
γ

v22 − v2v1 v22 − v12

= + he
g 2g

145
And from continuity equation A1V1 = A2V2 and that

A1V21 = (A1V1) V1 = (A2V2) V1

Substituting in the above equation

(V1 − V2 ) 2
he =
2g

f V2
is the sum of pipe friction loss( hle =
Gradual expansion:-is ∫ D . 2 g dL ) and turbulent loss due to
(V1 − V2 )2
divergent( h e = k
' '
).
2g

e) Loss in pipe fittings

V2
hf = k f Where kf is pipe fitting loss coefficient and depend on the type of fittings.
2g

f) Losses in bend & Elbow

146
The head loss produced by a bend or elbow is:

V2
hb =kb
2g

Where kb is elbow or bend loss coefficient and depends on the ratio of curvature r to pipe diameter D.

Activity:-1 Why the pipe running partially full behaves like an open channel flow.

7.4. Pipe Line with Pump or Turbine

When the pump lifts a fluid from one reservoir to another, not only does it do work in lifting the fluid
the height ∆z , but also it has to overcome the frictional loss in the suction and discharge piping. This
friction head is equivalent to some added lift, so that the effect is the same as if the pump lifted the fluid

a height ∆z + ∑h L . Hence the power delivered to the liquid is

P = ‡Qhp

P = ‡Q ( ∆z + ∑ hL )

7.5. Pipeline system

There are different pipe lines systems like: pipe in series, pipe in parallel and equivalent pipes.

Pipes in Series:-when two or more pipes are connected through one pipe, they are said to be pipe in
series connection.

In this connection the discharge is constant and the head loss is the sum of the individual losses.

Q= Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = …= Qn

hL= hL1 + hL2 + hL3 + …

147
Pipes in Parallel:-In this pipe system the head losses are the same and the discharge is the sum of the
individual discharges.

Q= Q1 + Q2 + Q3 +…

hL= hL1 = hL2 = hL3 = hn

Two types of problems in this connection are:

1) If the head loss b/n A & B is given, Q is determined.

2) If the total flow Q is given, then the head loss & distribution of flow are determined.
Size of pipes, properties, and roughness are assumed to be known. Since this type of problem is more
complex, as neither the head loss nor the discharge for any one pipe is known. The procedure is:

1) Assume discharge Q’1 through pipe 1,

2) Solve for h’f1, using assumed discharge,
3) Using h’f1, find Q’2 & Q’3
4) With the three discharges for a common head loss, now assume that the given Q is split up
among the pipes in the same proportion as Q’1, Q’2 & Q’3, Thus,

Q1 ' Q2' Q3'

Q1 = Q, Q2= Q, Q3 = Q
∑ Q' ∑ Q' ∑ Q'

5) Check the correctness of these discharges by computing hf1, hf2, & hf3 for the computed Q1 , Q2
& Q3

Ý Q –Q1 – Q2 – Q3 = 0

148
 7.5.1. Branching pipes
Let us consider three pipes connected to three reservoirs which branching at common junction point J.
Assume pipes are long that minor losses and velocity heads may be neglected. If a piezometer is
inserted at J, the liquid will rise in the piezometer, indicating the pressure at that point. Let P be the
pressure at point J and let the frictional losses in the three be hf1, hf2 and hf3.

If the pressure head at J is more than at B, the liquid flows from J to B. from the continuity equation:

Q1 = Q 2 + Q 3

However, if the pressure head at J is less than at B, the direction of flow in pipe 2 would be reversed and
the continuity equation becomes:

Q1 + Q 2 = Q 3

There are three types of problems which commonly occur in practice as given below:

Type1. When pipe lengths, diameters, the liquid surface elevations of reservoirs A and B, and

the discharge Q1 are given and the surface elevation of reservoir C (ZC) is required.

Type2. When pipe lengths, diameters, the liquid surface elevations of reservoirs A and C, and
the discharge Q2 are given and the elevation of liquid surface in reservoir B (ZB) is required.

Type3. When pipe lengths, diameters, the elevations of all reservoirs are given, and the
discharge in each pipe is required.

149
 7.5.2. Pipe network
A group of interconnected pipes forming several loops or circuits is called a network of pipes.

Pipe networking is used for municipal water distribution system in cities. The solution of pipe
networking is very time consuming. The problem in pipe networking is determining the flow through
various pipes of the networking.

A simple ingenious method of successive approximation was developed by Prof. Hardy Cross.

By this method, The distribution of discharge amongst various pipes can be easily obtained.

A pipe network must satisfy the following three basic conditions:

1) The flow in to any junction must equal the flow out of it (continuity principle).
2) In any loop, the loss of head due to flow in clockwise direction must be equal to the loss of head
due to flow in anticlockwise direction. (∑hf = 0)
3) The Darcy-Weisbach eqn of pipe-friction laws must be satisfied, (i.e. proper relation b/n the
head loss and discharge must be maintained for each pipe). Minor losses may be neglected if

150
 the pipe lengths are large. However, if the minor losses are large, they may be taken into
account by considering them in terms of the head loss due to friction in equivalent pipe lengths.
According to Darcy-Weisbach eqn the loss of head hf through any pipe discharging at the rate Q
can be expressed as:

hf = rQn

Where r is proportionality factor, which can be determined for each pipe knowing the friction factors f,
the length L and the diameter D of the pipe.

fL fL
r= = , and n is an exponent having a numerical value
2 g (π / 4) D
2 5
12.1D 5
ranging from 1.72 to 2.

Steps (procedures):

1. Assume a most suitable distribution of flow that satisfies continuity equation at each junction.

2. With the assumed values of Qo, compute the head losses for each pipe using h f = rQ n

equation.
3. Divide the network into a number of loops or closed circuits.
4. Compute the net head loss (∑ a> around each circuit considering the head loss in clockwise
flows as positive and in anti-clockwise flows as negative. For a correct distribution of flow, the
net head loss around each loop should be equal to zero, so that the circuit will be balanced.
However, in most of the cases, for the assumed distribution of flow the head loss around the
circuit will not be equal to zero. The assumed flows are then corrected by introducing a
correction ∆Q for the flows, until the circuit is balanced. The value of the correction ∆Q to be
applied to the assumed flows of the circuit may be obtained as follows:
For any pipe if Q0 is the assumed discharge and Q is the correct discharge, then,

Q = Q0 + ∆Q

And the head loss for the pipe is

h f = rQ n = r (Qo + ∆Q ) n

151
Thus, for a complete circuit,

∑h f = ∑ rQ n = ∑ r (Qo + ∆Q ) n = 0

By expanding the terms in the brackets by binomial theorem

∑ rQ n
= ∑ r[(Qo + nQo
n n −1
∆Q + .....] = 0

For small ∆Q compared with Q0, all the series after the second can be dropped. Therefore,

∑ rQ n
= ∑ rQ o + ∑ rnQ o
n n −1
∆Q = 0

n −1 n −1
∑ rQ 0 Q + ∆Q ∑ rn Q =0

For each loop, solve for ∆Q in the networks as:

n −1
− ∑ rQ0 Q0 − ∑ rQ0n − ∑ hf
∆Q = = =
∑ rn Q 0
n −1
∑ rn Q 0
n −1
∑ nhf
Q0

This is the correction to the assumed discharge (Q0).

5. Corrections are now applied to each pipe & to all loopy. For pipes common to two loops or
circuits, a correction from both the loops will be required to be applied. Clockwise direction is
considered as positive & anticlockwise as negative direction.
6. With the corrected flows in all the pipes, a second trial calculation is made for all the loops and
process is repeated until the corrections ∆Q become negligible or zero.

152
 Fig.7.5 A network of pipes

7.5.2. TUTORIAL PROBLEMS

1. Find the power required to pump the water from reservoir A to reservoir B,given that the
discharge through the pipe is 0.07m3/se.

Solution

Pˆ Pˆ
Given V1= V 2=
û` û

153
 P3‹.‹¶ P3‹.‹¶
Q= 0.07m3/s = =
3‹. 3‹.`—

ZA=3m = 2.229m/s = 3.963m/s

Taking the datum line at the pipe 1

ú` †` ú` † ú ú

+ f 1. . + f2. . +
 (  
H + ZA = ZB head loss (hL) = k
 (`

‹.—3.’ ‹.‹`÷37‹‹3.’ ‹.‹3—‹‹37.’˜7 7.’˜7

+ +
‹.3`’. ‹.`—3`’.˜ `’.˜
H= ZB-ZA hL= +
19.62

H = 38-3 hL =61.099m

H=35m

Therefore, ∆Z = H + hL

∆Z = 35 + 61.099

∆Z = 96.099m

Now power P= ‡Q∆Z

= 9810*0.07*96.099

= 65.84KW

2. The population of a city is 1 million. The city has water supply from a reservoir 5km away. The
daily water requirement is estimated as 150 liters per head. During peak 4 hours, inhabitants
use 25% of their daily water requirements. The full reservoir level is at elevation 200.0m and the
minimum reservoir level is at elevation 125m.If the delivery end of the is at an elevation of 50m
and the minimum head required at the end is 10m,determine the diameter of the main.
Take f = 0.04.

Solution:-
Total daily requirements = 106ë 0.15m3

154
 Requirement in peak 4 hours = 0.25ë 106ë 0.15
= 0.375ë105m2
‹.7¶—ë`‹—
= 2.6m3
P똋똋
Maximum discharge =

Let us consider two extreme fluctuations in reservoir levels.

a) Reservoir full
Head lost in friction hf = 200 – 50 – 10 = 140m

† ú<
hf = f. .
( 
Therefore,

—‹‹‹ Pˆ< `
Or 140 = 0.04 ë ê ë < < ë
( òë( }

‹.ë `‹V ë `˜ ë .˜ 

 < ë û< ë`’.˜

D = 0.956m
b) Reservoir at minimum level
Head loss in friction, hf = 125 – 50 – 10

† ú<
Therefore, hf = f. .
( 

‹.‹Pë — ë `‹V ë `˜ ë .˜)

65 = < ë û< ë`’.˜

D= 1.11m

Adopt the larger of the two diameters.

Activity:2 From the above example, reason out why we take the larger
diameter?

3. (Branching pipe). The water levels in the two reservoirs A and B are 104.5 m and 100 m
respectively above the datum. A pipe joins each to a common point D, where pressure is
98.1KN/m2 gauge and height is 83.5 m above datum. Another pipe connects D to another tank C.

155
 what will be the height of the water level in C assuming the same value of “f ” for all pipes. Take
friction coefficient = 0.0075. The diameters of pipes AD,BD and CD are 300 mm, 450 mm,
600mm respectively and their lengths are 240 m, 270 m, 300 m respectively.
Solution:- (Type1 problem)
Given
Pipe AD Pipe BD Pipe CD
DAD = 300 mm = 0.3 m DBD = 450 mm = 0.45 m DCD = 600 mm = 0.6 m
LAD = 240 m LBD = 270 m LCD = 300 m
Friction coefficient for each pipe, f = 0.0075
Pressure at D, PD = 98.1 KN/m2
Height of water level in tank C
ƒ( ’÷.`
The pressure head at D = = = 10 m
’.÷`

The piezometric head at D = 83.5 +10 = 93.5 m

Head loss b/n A and B, hf1 = 104.5 m -93.5 m = 11 m

Head loss b/n B and D, hf2 = 100 m – 93.5 m =6.5 m

Using Darcy-Weisbach equation, we get

156
 † „ <
For pipe AD: hf1 = f. .
( }

P‹ „ <
11= 0.0075* 3
7 `’.˜

V1 = 3 m/s

† < <
For pipe BD: hf2 = f. .
( }

¶‹ < <

6.5 = 0.0075. .
‹.P— `’.˜

V2 = 2.66 m

From continuity considerations, we have

QAD + QBD = QCD

QCD = ã/4*DAD2 * V1 + ã/4*DBD2 * 3

QCD = ã/4*0.3 2 * V1 + ã/4*0.45 2 * 2.66

QCD = 0.635 m3/s

ˆ
Velocity of flow in pipe CD, VCD =
ò/Pëˆ <

‹.˜7—
=
ò/Pë‹.˜7—<

= 2.24 m/s

† < <
Head loss in pipe CD = f. .
( }

7‹‹3.P<
hf3 = 0.0075*
‹.˜ë`’.˜

hf3 = 3.84 m

157
Therefore, water in the tank C (ZC) = 93.5 m - 3.84 m

ZC = 89.66 m

Activity:3 Two pipes with diameter 2D and D are first connected in parallel and when a
discharge Q passes the loss of head H1.When the same pipes are connected
in series for the same discharge, the loss of head is H2.Find the relationship
between H1 and H2.Neglect minor losses. Both the pipes are equal in length
and have equal friction factor.

4. (Pipe in parallel) A pumping plant forces water through a 600 mm diameter main, the friction
head being 27 m. In order to reduce the power consumption, it is proposed to lay another main
of appropriate diameter along the side of existing one, so that the tow pipes may work in
parallel for the entire length and reduce the friction head to 9.6 m only. Find the diameter of the
new main if with the exception of diameter; it is similar to the existing one in every respect.
Solution:-
Given: diameter of single main pipe, D = 600 mm = 0.6 m
Friction head, hf = 27 m
Friction head for two parallel pipes = 9.6 m
Diameter of the new main:

158
Case I. Single main

† <
hf = f. .
( }

† <
27 = f* *
‹.˜ `’.˜

fLV2 = 79.461

But V = Q/A

Therefore, fL * (Q/A) 2 = 79.461 ……………………….. (i)

Case II. Two pipes in parallel:

Loss of head hf = 9.6 m

For pipe 1:

†„ „ <
hf1 = f. .
(„ }

159
 ˆ„ ˆ„
But L1 = L, V1 = = (A1 = A)
1„ 1

D = D = 0.6 m

†„ ` ˆ 
Therefore, 9.6 = f. .*W „X
‹.˜ `’.˜ 1

ˆ„ 
fL. W X = 28.25 ……………………. (ii)
1

For pipe 2:

†< < <

hf2 = f. . = 9.6
(< }

ˆ<
Where L2 = L, V2 =
1<

Š.†.ˆ< <
Therefore, 9.6 =
(<. 1< < .}

Š.†.ˆ< <
= 47.09 …………………….. (iii)
(<. 1< <

Dividing (i) by (iii), we get

ˆ< ¶’.P˜`
< = = 2.81
ˆ„ ÷.—

ˆ
= 1.67
ˆ„

ˆ
Q1 = = 0.59Q
`.˜¶

But Q 1 + Q2 = Q

Therefore, Q2 = Q – Q1 = Q – 0.59Q = 0.41Q

160
 Dividing (ii) by (iii), we get

ˆ„ < 3(
<3< < ÷.—
< < = = 0.6
ˆ< 31 P¶.‹’

„ < 3û
<3 3< < <

¦
<  = 0.6
< 3 3‹.˜< <
¦

‹.—’ˆ  (< ê
W X * = 0.6
‹.P`ˆ ‹.7˜ <

— ‹.P` 
¢ = 0.6 * (0.36) * W
2
X
‹.—’

D2 = 0.518 m

D2 = 518 mm

5. (Pipe network) Find the discharge in each pipe of the network shown in fig.below.The value of
constant r corresponding to the head loss equation, hf = rQ2 are also shown in the figure.

Fig. (a)

161
Solution: Trial I

For firs trial, the discharges are assumed as shown below:

Fig. (b)

For loop 1:

Pipe AB Pipe BC

Qo (assumed discharge) = +6 m3/s Qo = +2 m3/s

r=5 r=3

hf = rQo2 = 5 ë (62) = 180 m hf = rQo2 = 3 ë (22) = 12 m

Pipe CA

Qo = -4 m3/s

r=4

hf = rQo2 = -4 ë (42) = -64 m

∑ h> = 180 + 12 + -64 = + 128 m

162
For loop 2:

Pipe BD Pipe DC

Qo = +1 m3/s Qo = -3 m3/s

r=1 r =2

hf = rQo2 = 1 ë (12) = 1 m hf = rQo2 = -2 ë (32) = - 18 m

Pipe CB

Qo = -2 m3/s

r=3

hf = rQo2 = -3 ë (22) = - 12 m

∑ h> = 1 + -18 + -12 = -29 m

The calculations for the correction ∆Q and the corrected discharges are given in the table below.

163
Circuit (loop) pipe r Assumed hf Σh> 2r Qo1 Σ2r Qo
1
∆Q corrected
=rQo2
Qo Q

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

AB 5 +6 180 60 +4.77

1 BC 3 +2 12 12 104 -1.23 -0.34

+28
CA 4 -4 -64 32 -5.23

BD 1 +1 1 2 +2.11

2 DC 2 -3 -18 -29 12 26 +1.11 -1.89

CB 3 -2 -12 12 +0.34

Corrected discharge (∆Q):

For AB, QAB = Qo + ∆Q = 6 – 1.23 = +4.77

For BC, QBC = 2 – 1.23 = -0.34

For CA, QCA = -4 – 1.23 = - 5.23

164
 Fig. (c)

Trial II

For the second trial, the values given in trial I (fig. c) are assumed and the process is repeapted.

Circuit (loop) pipe r Assumed hf Σh> 2r Qo1 Σ2r Qo

1
∆Q corrected
=rQo2
Qo Q

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

AB 5 +4.77 113.76 47.7 +4.73

1 BC 3 -0.34 -0.35 2.04 91.58 -0.94 -0.55

+4
CA 4 --5.23 -109.41 41.84 -5.27

BD 1 -2.11 4.45 4.22 +2.28

2 DC 2 -1.89 -7.14 -2.34 7.56 13.82 +0.17 -1.72

CB 3 +0.34 +0.35 2.04 +0.55

165
Correction of discharge for this trial is done similar to first trial and after correction the distribution is
shown in fig. (d).

Fig. (d)

Since the change in discharge or error in discharge distribution is not zero or negligible, we have to
proceed the third trial as below.

Trial III

Similarly for this trial the values for the corrected discharge in the second trial are used as assumed
discharge for this trial.

Circuit (loop) pipe r Assumed hf Σh> 2r Qo1 Σ2r Qo

1
∆Q corrected
=rQo2
Qo Q

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

166
 AB 5 +4.73 111.86 47.3 +4.71

1 BC 3 -0.55 -0.91 3.3 92.76 -0.02 -0.56

-0.14
CA 4 -5.27 -111.09 42.16 -5.29

BD 1 +2.28 5.20 4.56 +2.27

2 DC 2 -1.72 -5.92 +0.91 6.88 14.74 -0.01 -1.73

CB 3 +0.55 +0.91 3.3 +0.56

Further trial is not required because the change of discharge is negligible. The values of the corrected Q
are shown in Fig. (e) below.

Fig. (e)

6. (pipe losses) Two reservoirs with a difference in elevation of 15 m are connected by three pipes
in series. The pipes are 300m long of diameter 30 cm, 150 m long of 20 cm diameter, and 200 m
Š.†. <
long of 25 cm diameter respectively. The friction factor (f) in the relation hf = for the
(.}
three pipes are,

167
 f1 = 0.018
f2 = 0.02 and f3 = 0.019, which account for friction and all losses, further the contraction
and expansion are sudden.
Determine the flow rate in litter per second. The loss coefficient for sudden contraction from
diameter 30 cm to 20 cm is 0.24.
Solution:-

Coefficient of contraction, kc = 0.24

Various types of losses which occur in the pipe lines 1, 2 and 3 are:

i) Head loss at entrance (hi)

„ < Pˆ
hi = kc where ki = 0.5 (for square edge) and V1 =Q/A=
} ò( <

‹.— Pˆ 
= W X
`’.˜ ò(<

‹.— Pˆ 
= W <X
`’.˜ ò‹.7

= 5.1 Q2

ii) Head loss due to friction in pipe 1

†„ „ <
hf1 = f1. .
(„ }

168
 7‹‹ Pˆ 
= 0.018* W <
X
‹.73`’.˜ ò3‹.7
= 183.6 Q2
iii) Head loss at contraction at pipe 2

< <
hc = k c
}

Pˆ 
= 0.24*W X
ò3‹.<
= 12.394 Q2
iv) Head loss due to friction in pipe 2

†< < <

hf2 = f2. .
(< }

`—‹ Pˆ 
= 0.02 * *W X
‹.3`’.˜ ò3‹.<
= 774.267 Q2

v) Head loss due to sudden expansion

< £V 
he = W X
}

` Pˆ Pˆ 
=
}
*Ò
ò3(< <  ò3(V <Ó

`˜3ˆ< ` ` 
= *Ò  Ó
`’.˜3ò< ‹.< ‹.—<
= 6.69 Q2
vi) Head loss due to friction in pipe 3

† V <
hf3 = f3. V .
(V }

‹‹ Pˆ 
= 0.019*
‹.—3`’.˜
*W
ò3‹.— <X

169
 = 321.518 Q2
vii) Head loss at the exit or leave (hd`)

V <
hd`=
}

` Pˆ 
= 3W X
`’.˜ ò3‹.—<
= 21.152 Q2
Now applying Bernounill`s equation between the water surfaces of the two reservoirs, we will
get Q as:

ƒ  < ƒ  <
+ + ZA = + + ZB + hL where hL = Major loss + Minor loss
} }
0 + 0 + 15 = 0 + 0 + 0 + (5.1+ 183.6 + 12.394 + 774.267 + 6.69 + 321.518 + 21.152) Q2
Q = 0.1064 m3/s
In L/s Q = 106.4 m3/s

170