CONTRIBUTIONS of the HYDROTHERMAL BRECCIA PIPES EM. Baker, DJ. Ki d R.G. Taylor EGRU CONTRIBUTION 12 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY RESEARCH UNIT JULY, 1986 GEOLOGY DEPARTMENT JAMES COOK UNIVERSITY of NORTH QUEENSLANDJames Cook University of North Queensland ECONOMIC GEOLOGY RESEARCH UNIT. CONTRIBUTION SERIES EGRU Contributions are intended to provide EGRU members with information on topics of relevance to the general {ield of economic geology. The subject matter of individual Contributions will be either the results of current research or substantial syntheses of current data and ‘or ideas. Given that the EGRU is part of the Geology Department of James Cook University of North Queensiand, itis expected that most Contributions will derive from research being conducted within the Geology Department. However material from other sources will be accepted and indeed encouraged. Editorial policy on selection of material for EGRU Contributions is as follows: 1, Contributions are to be of direct relevance to economic geologists 2 Contributions will be of current interest. 3. Annual Reports of the EGRU will be published as part of the Contribu- Lions series, These will containa summary ofthe research being conducted within the EGRU and the Geology Department. EGRU Contributions may comprise information which may not be accessible through public channels. This may be in the form of preprints of papers submitted elsewhere for publication, or of Departmental Reports or parts of Departmental Theses The Editor of EGRU Contributions is W.P. Laing,HYDROTHERMAL BRECCIA PIPES E.M. Baker, D.J. Kirwin and R.G. Taylor EGRU CONTRIBUTION 12 JULY, 1986 Department of Geology JAMES COOK UNIVERSITY OF NORTH QUEENSLANDNational Library of Australian Cataloguing in Publication Data Baker, E.M., Kirwin, DJ. and Taylor, R.G. Hydrothermal Breccia Pipes Bibliography Includes index. ISBN 0 86443 172.4 | Petrology. Structural. 2. Breccia. I. Kirwin, D.J. (Douglas J.) IL Taylor, Roger G. IIE James Cook University of North Queensland, Geology Dept. IV. Title. ISSN 0816-0147 Wholly set up and printed within the University Manuscript received July 1985TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION Approach to Studying Breccias and Breccia Nomenclature Examination of Breccia Textures HYPABYSSAL BRECCIA PIPES Description Processes involved in Hypabyussal Brecciation Explosive Brecciation Non-explosive Brecciation Related to Magmatically Derived Volatiles Fluidisation Late-stage Modification of Breccias A Model for Hypabyssal Breccia Pipe Formation Lower Portion of Pipe Middle Portion of Pipe Upper portion of pipe Shallow Expression of Hypoabyssal Breccia Pipes Modifications to the Model Confusion Between Various Textures MAAR VOLCANOES Description Base Surge Deposits Fent Development by Phreatomagmatic Eruptions and Subsidence Fluidisation Relationship to Kimberlite Pipes Model of a Typical Maar Volcano Tuff Rings, Tuff Cones and Maar Crater Lakes Middle to Lower Vent Upper Vent Confusion Between Various Textures HYDROTHERMAL EXPLOSION BRECCIA PIPES Description Processes Involved in Hydrothermal Explosion Brecdation Formation Model for Hydrothermal Explosion Breccias Explosion Crater and Associated Breccia Fallout Apron Confusion Between Various Textures FAULT-RELATED BRECCIA PIPES Description. Problems of Recognition Page 20‘Table of Contents (Continued) RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MINERALISATION AND BRECCIATION Introduction Mineralisation in Hypabyssal Breccia Pipes Mineralisation in Maar Volcanoes Mincralisation Associated with Hydrothermal Explosion Breccias Mineralisation in Fault-Related Breccias ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES APPENDIX 1 SUMMARY OF MAJOR FEATURES OF HYDROTHERMAL BRECCIA PIPES WITH EMPHASIS ON THOSE CHARACTERISTICS RELATING. TO THEIR RECOGNITION APPENDIN EXPLANATION OF BRECCIA TERMS USED IN THIS PAPER, PLATES Page 6 30 35 36 +0INTRODUCTION This contribution aims to provide a practical manual for exploration geologists concerned with the recognition of excures presentin breccia pipes and the processes likely to have produced them. Baker (1984) proposed that brectia pipes which formed at different depths, or by different mechanisms 2t around the same depth, should exhibit diagnostic combinations of textures by which they can be broadly categorised. Baker proposed a classification of breccia pipes which is adopted herein, with addition of a further cate- gory, faultrelated breccia pipes. The classifica tion is as follows. Hypabyssal Breceia Pipes: small to large scale bodies formedat depths of around 0.510 2km, associated with the escape of volatile rich fluids from 2 crystalising melt Maar Volcanoes-Diatremes: large-scale shal low level structures produced by theexplosive interaction of an ascending magma body with groundwater Hydrothermal Eruption Breccias: relatively small structures produced at shallow levels by the explosive release of superheated steam and not involving any direct magmatic contribution, Fault-Related Breccia Pipes: small 1o moder ated sized pipe-like forms of brecciated rock resulting fom faulting Approach to Studying Breccias and Breccia Nomenclature In practicea particular feature ofa breceia such 45 clast shape is commonly considered an ade ‘quate criterion for recognition of a breccia type On this basis the breccia is then labelled with a genetic name. e.g. collapse breccia, The term collapse breccia’ implies that the breccia being described is formed by the process of collapse, but the presence of slab-shaped clasts is commonly the only feature on which this connection between texture and process is made. In reality slabsshaped clasts can be produced by any one of several processes, and unless other features such as the nature of the breccia matrix and relation- ships with other elements of the breccia pipe are considered. icis impossible to identify which pro. cess is responsible for brecdation ‘This loose usage of genetic terms fails to pro- vide a framework in which textures can be inter preted in terms of processes Ihowevera particu. lar combination of textures can be related to @ process, ic then becomes possible to formulae a model of breccia pipe formation. By a process of induction a tentative model can be postulated on the basis of initial observations and us validity then tested against further observations, thereby leading to progressive relinement of the model To facilitate this approach, processes capable of brecciation and the textures they produce are dis- cussed within the context of the four proposed ‘ategories of breccia pipes, Another problem encountered by those work ing on brecdas is one of nomenclature: should genetic, or purely descriptive terms be used? A Selection of process-related terms is used here in preference (0 descriptive terms, in an attempt to relate the various textures to the processes that may have produced them. A form of process related nomenclature is currently enriched in both field usage and the literature, and we have adopted and clarified many of these terms. A glos sary of the terms used herein forms Appendix 2. To avoid loose usage of process-related termsit is necessary to discuss in detail the textures and processes responsible for the observed features Features which may assist in distinguishing between superficially similar textures formed by different processes are discussed at theend of each Examination of Breccia Textures At outcrop scale the two main elements of » breccia are the fragments and the matrix. An initial observation required i the sie range and ‘elaive proportions ofthe tw, and whether the Breccia ts cast or matrix supported. A clasts supported breccia commoniy has cavities which ray be filled by later hydrothermal minerals ina Poorly sorted matrixsupported breccia a cont foun of material sizes may exist, ranging irom large blocks many metes in diameter down to fine rock flour. The degree of sorting and the matrixelas ratio isan approximate measure of the degree of breciation and may help in deer mining the processes that produced the pipe. The Angulartyof clasts indicates the depre of com: mninution by milling. Shape s important incon Junetion with angularity a6 an indication of peo ess of formation: note that iregular polygonal élastscan shows considerable degre of rounding of cores, Angular clastsmay feback ogether 4 jigsaw pattern, indicating that only minor mmovementof material has taken place or clasts may be extremely well-rounded suggesting in some circumstances that prolonged milling of fragments within a brecca column may have ocaured “The composition of clasts and mate material igalso important Ls the matrix derived trom mil Ting of clast material or Is it of hydrothermal origin? Ate the clasts of an exotic composition? Doclasts show signs of prevbreceia alteration and mineralisation, perhaps indieating the presence of economic mineralisation a depth? What isthe felationshipol class and mattixto the ostrockss Is there any incrasive material in the becca, and do he ntrusvespre-orpost-date he brecciation?HYPABYSSAL BRECCIA PIPES Description Hypabvssal breccia pipes are cylindrical to carrot-shaped bodies of brecciated wallrock and incrusives, ranging in diameter from tens. of metres to over one kilometre and with a vertical extent up to several orders of magnitude larger than thediameter. The geological seuing of many fof these bodies suggests they formed between 0.5, and 2km below the surlace in intimate relation swith late stage magmatic processes (eg. Figure I). ‘The formation of hypabyssal breccias does not necessarily involve explosive venting of the pipe to surlace since examples have been described ‘which appear to terminate upward into unbrec- ciated rock (Sillitoe and Sawkins, 1971; Jacobsen eval, 1976: and Sharp, 1978). ‘The considerable textural variation present within hypabyssal breccias suggests that a ‘number of different processes are invoived. Also. some textures are restricted to2 particular portion ff the pipe, indicating that different processes may be active at different localities within the pipe and at different times during its formation. The madel proposed below involves examples where acid to intermediate intrusives are int mately associated with brecciation. Similar brec. cia pipes with no obvious relationship to such intrusives do exist: in such examples, the textures observed, their relative distribution, and the over- all shape of the pipe are surprisingly similar 10 those discussed tn our intrusive-related model (Jacobsen eval, 1976: see Figure 2. Because hypabyssal breccia pipes form at com- paratively deep levels. they are generally asso- ciated with porphyry-stsle mineralisation Processes involved in Hypabyssal Brecciation Unlike hydrothermal eruption breccias and maar volcanoes where breccia formation can be directly observed, our understanding of the pro: ‘cesses involved in hypabyssal breccia formation is, necessarily based on interpretation ofthe textures present. Ideally these textures should be inter preted in terms of known geological or industrial processes. Where possible che experimental and physical limitations of such processes should be considered before 2 particular texture is inter- preted. Because of these limitations the origin of ypabysoal breccia pipes associated with igneous activity and ore deposits has intrigued and con- fused geologises for decades. ‘The most popular and commonly conflicting theories in the literature are summarised. in Table 1. Ie appears that many interacting pro- cesses contribute to the formation and upward propagation of hypabyssal breccia pipes. Often the processes are repetitive and considerable vari= lion might exist at dillerent times within one pipe or cluster of pipes. Many ore deposits illus: trate multiphase and complex episodes of beccia- tion e.g, Torquepala (Richard and Courtright, 1959) and Ardlethan (Clarke, 1979) Explosive Brecciation Hypabyssal breccias are commonly considered to be simply caused by the explosive release of volatiles from theapical portion of acrystallising melt, with no consideration of the effect that depth of formation may have on the effectiveness ff this process. Based on observations made on rhuclear and chemical blasts, Nordyke (1961) demonstrated that the crater produced by a par: ticular strength of blast decreased in size with increasing depth. At depths greater than several hundred metres the explosions failed to produce a crater and disruption of the rock was restricted «0 melting and cataclasis immediately adjacent to the blast site, Burnham and Ohmoto (1980) arrived at a similar conelusion from theoretical modelling of magmatic systems (Figure 3); note that the depth limit of explosive brecciation is dependent on the size and shape of the magma bods. Although itis difficult to apply these results directly to breccia pipe formation, it seems likely that increasing depth tends to inhibit explosive brecciation, since the amount of material that must be displaced upward to make space for brec- ciation is proportional to (depth? Therefore. any alternative to explosion as a brecciation mecha- nism at depth must also explain how the required space was produced, asa space must be presentor rock fragments cannot be displaced relacive to ‘each other. Following this it seems likely that for breccia pipes formed by processes other than explosion, the volume of a breccia pipe will bea function of the original space available. Non-explosive Brecciation Related to Magmatically Derived Volatiles Nérton and Cathles (1973) discussed the space problem inherent in brecciation at deeper levels. ‘They proposed a model for breccia pipe forma- tion whereby escape of volatiles from the apical portion ofa crystallising melt produced a void or ‘more accurately a fluid-rich reservoir with conse- quent collapse of the overlying host rocks and formation of the breccia column. Pichavant (1979) demonstrated experimentally thava boron rich melt could coexist with a volatile-rich hydrous phase in which the solubility of silica and aluminium was greatly enhanced. Such a hydrous phase could contain up to 15% boron by weight and even more water. Escape of such a quantity of volatiles would be sufficient «0 Initiate the collapse situation envisaged by Nor- ton and Cathles (1973). Escape of volatile-rich uids from the overpressured area via fractures resus in a substantial pressure drop within thisPracembrian bitite goviss aryorite Runpie breccia Rhyolite porptyry ea CHD Fessire SS OSG8 Qveternery telus Figure |. The Redwell Basin intrusive and breccia complex. Colorada (fram Sharp, 1978).bo the West Lode brecciaTABLE 1 THEORIES OF BRECCIATION MECHANISMS FOR HYPABYSSAL BRECCIA PIPES (after Kirwin, 1985) Solution stoping (Busler, 1913) Mineralisation stoping (Locke, 1926; Oxidation subsidence (Wisser, 1927) Chemical brecciation (Sawkins, 1969) Solution collapse (Mills, 1972) Magmatic bubble collapse (Norton & Cathles, 1978) Magmatic heating of meteorie water (Lindgren and Bastin, 1922) Magmatic water converted co steam (Emmons, 1988) Volcanic explosion pipes (Walker, 1928) Explosion collapse (Sohnge, 1963) Phreatomagmatic explosions (Wolle. 1980 & 1983) Hydrothermal explosions (Scherkenbach, 1983) Magmatic explosion (Bashkirov, 1983) Solutions ac fault intersections (Kuhn, 1941) Collapse mechanism (Perry. 1961) Structural ditations {Park k MacDiarmid, 1964) Hydraulic ramming (Kents, 1964) ‘Multiplane faule dilations (Mitcham, 1974) Fluidisation (Reynolds, 1954) Gas bubbling (Douglas, 1937) Fluidisation (Bryant, 1968) Fi otic water (Gustafson & Hunt, 1975) Fluidisation (Sharp, 1978) ised ont Injection breccia (Konstantinov, 1978) Fluidisation (Goode & Taylor, 1980) Fluidisation (Brvant, 1988)Mech. Energy (PAV;) » Engs kur of Magma x 107% wo 1S 20S OS 2000 ~ 1800 ~ Fracture fateasity P, bars. 1000 ~ Depth, km 500: (14,0 Secseation. 2.7%) 0 20 30 «0 30 AV, (% Expansion of magma body) -igute The shaugein volume lower abycissaiand mechanical energy released tupper abseissa) 0 Tha crrscnating weno HaOssacuraied melt —ersstals* "vapour" Values of Vrand P Vr plete nisetallication ofa granodioritic magma with an initial HO content of 2 re iaealgpaly af nansinion hetween “explosive” volcanic eruption and “strong” fracture pttlines te apitonittate. as # alypends upon the sige and shape of the magma body (from haan & Ohno. 19ND Poe Disthamematic Mlusuation af experiments modeling the development ofa uidised cel Moone ees eneting feat elo gises through tractares and begins to circulate in lIeaheticettstelon tus proxioced bs fntcturesaind uplift, Surface isdomed and uphified |B) pea ese eiben dough to sartace.€) Continued escape of gas and solid fragenens evetedaped snate atter Woolsey et th 1973)tone. The fluid within the pores and fractures of the intrusive and adjacent host rocks, still over~ pressured provided the escape is rapid enough, ‘Gauses tabular and wedge-shaped clasis to burst ‘olf the adjacent walls into the reservoir recently evacuated by the fluid. Bursting of detached blocks within the fluid reservoir could result in their concentric exfoliation. This process is commonls relerced as decompressive shock and was discussed by Farmin (1987) and Fletcher (1977) In the case of a boron-rich hydrous melt the pressure drop and oss of volatiles may result in freezing of the residual portion of the melt, producing breccia showing textures characteris tic of decompressive shock cemented by a quartz tourmaline matcix. Allman-Ward et al, (1982) described this eype of tourmaline-cemented brec: cciaat Wheal Remlrs. Cornwall. associated with a boron-rich intrusive as evidenced by the presence of pre-consolidacion tourmaline-tich bands within the granite Other volatiles such as chlorine. carbon diox: ideand phosphorus may act like boron to varying degrees in assisting breccia pipe formation. Bai- ley (1977) and Shannon et al. (1982) considered that fluctuations in the partial pressure of fluo~ Fine within a crystallising melt is responsible for the formation of crenulate quart-lavered rock in the upper portions of some intrusives, Generally ‘the initial presence of other volatiles in a crystal lised melt is not a8 obvious as for boron and Fluorine: and even where textures indicating high Initial volatile content occur. breciation is by no ‘means alwavs present. Examples where cenulate quar teatures are associated with breccias include Kidston (Mustard, 19851 and Seventy Mile Mountain «Claussen. 1984), Presumably acertain Amount of ovepressuring of these volatiles must ‘occur before conditions become fasourable for brecciation, In a situation where brecciation at depth is related to magmatically derived volatiles the olatile-rich phase must escape of contract in order to provide the initial space necessary 10 enable brecciation to occur. Burnham 1979) des- cribed how volatiles that become concentrated ‘during crystallisation of the melt boil due co the tellect of the latent heat of crystallisation. The resulting overpeessure from boiling may be suffi cient to fracture the surrounding rock hydrauli cally. resulting in the stockwork veining com- monly present in deposits. Overpressuring is enhanced by an increase in the unit volume of ‘erystal plus hydrous phase compared totheinivial silicate melt. Norton (1982) ealculated that the hydraulie fracturing may cause an increase in permeability of wa orders of magnitude, Wheres ‘considerable portion of the valume of the rock ‘was occupied by such (luid, its rapid evacuation {rom the fractures might produce sufficient space to initiate rebrecciation. Brecciation may cease at this early stage if the amount of volatile-rich fluid within the overpres: sured zone is relaiively minor, However. a sud- stantial initial void might produce an elongate column of collapse breecia above the intrusion ‘The resulting collapse breccias have sharp-edged clasts with commonly tabular shape, although theshape of clasts also influenced 1o some extent by the pre-existing fabric of the rock. These brec- cias are typically clastsupported, with insulli- cient rock flour matrix to fil the existing cavities, ‘which may be filled by later hydrothermal minerals, In the majority of breecia pipes however the clasts are rounded to subangular and are sup- ported in a rock flour matrix. In these examples, {an additional process other than simple collapse has probably been active during breccia pipe for- mation; a process capable of milling the class to produce rounded edges and a rock flour matrix. Fragments of earlier breceias are commonly pres: ent as clasts indicating that brecciation was a multiphase process Fluidisation Reynolds (1954) recognised the similarity between textures in breccias showing fair degree ff milling, and industrial materials which had undergone fluidisation, Fividisation occurs Wwhen either a liquid or gas is passed upwaré through a particulate bed initially buoving the particles up in a condition similar co that observed in quicksand, With incteasing fluid Velocity. particles become agitated and then ‘become wansported by the gas or liquid upward through the centre and down along the margins fof the fluidised cell. Particles become abraded during this process, with rounding of clasts and production of significant amount of rock flour matrix. Prolonged milling may produce near spherical clasts. Less-rounded clasts which are either more resistant {0 abrasion or have been lundergoing fluidisation for a shorter period of lume are commonly mixed with the more rounded clasts within the breccia column. ‘This «ype of breccia is referred o as mill breccia. When Muidisation takes place in a restricted space, such asa fracture along which volatiles are escaping, milling may produce a pebble breccia skein which the majority of clasts ate spherical land supported in a rock flour matrix Milling of breccia material may also be pro: duced by other mechanical processes. e.g. Fyfe et al. (1978) suggested that the high pore fluid pres- Sure and generation of steam at the head of an intrusion may result in the disaggregation of che wallracks be cataclastic flow and grain boundary sliding. enabling a viscous magma to bore its way upward. Such a breccia would be unlikely to con. tain rounded clasts and instead of forming an elongate breccia column above the intrusion ‘would probably form a sheath or cap around the top of the intrustce The experiments of Woolsey et al. (1975) pro- vide a useful understanding of the sequence of ‘events likely to be involved in the formation of a breccia column, Initially a stationary bubble must form belore ans moxement of material ean ‘occur (Figure 4 (A). Because Woolsey's experiJe cc oie (Plow) Figure. Generalised model ofa hypabyssal breccia pipe illustrating the position of various breccia epee thin the pipe‘ments were conducted in lightly compacted sand, the void formed close to surface with the initial {Huidised cell below. With continued supply of gas the fluidised cell in the experiments eventur ally breached the surface and ejection of material irom the column built up an apron of material around the pipe similar to the uff apron observed round maar soleanoes (Figures 4(B) and 4(C)) In the case of hs pabyssal breccias forming in nature the position of the initial soid is likels to be in the upper portion of the intrusion: the brec- Cis column would then stope Hs way upward by Collapse. If the fluidised cell collapses at this sage. for example. due to the depletion of vola- Ges, the resulting beeecia pipe may fail 10 explo~ ively breach the surface. Pipes may not breach the surface because of the transivion from dom hantly vertical to dominantly horizontal stress fegimes within the depth range 1.0 (0 0.3km as Indicated by the rock mechantes experiments of Hock & Brossn (19801 (Figure 3). This change Could possibly inbibit beeceiation by the above peocesies as the sestem approaches shallow Uepths. A plesvure differential through the Column is necessare 10 susan the fluidised cel, Such us might result from the escape of volatiles Surlace via a network of fractures. The relvance of theye experiments 10 maar soleanoes will be discussed below. However nypaby seal brecenas presumably explosively breach the vurlace in some mscanees. particularly ian anfluy of meteoric water is involved. as in Sinie Bolivian examples (Grant et al. 98D) Where des bicach thesurlace oe format relatively shallow dept, explosive breceiation mas Iiecome Hhestomtauant process making it difficalt to distingtise revi pipe that was anictaed ay Ss lispabsosa bieve ut onan atypical sar soleano. Late-Stage Modification of Brecctas During ani alter the waning stages of uid hon, considerable modification may rake place within the brevcst clus and adjacent: host fcks. Out ntay factor alfectnng this is the come yetenes cantaat hetiveen the fost rock and the ‘av hiicl Ieee alte retlting ae brittle fa tare ot te unscented host tor kauring compa tin ob the breccia anagerial, A zone of sheeted ievures scones ese ibe i temas of pijns. sith slabs blnc kyl the ypalle! pipe mae ki present sodas the brevet Silieue and Sw Kise 107 and favuben etal 19762. Wheve the Tualiset tues ei esouant Eas te eats the 3 ice the wverlving tok mas gently sebside into she pipe borauing a conte of ybatter ng Baker and Honton, 1k the upper parsions at this one Isheve the amount ab iovetent Hats beea aie fia. lasts sw get bled sen relative chun the ists in sissvih ay Ives antey atid at tii be p nnn pamtenons. Phespa eb ‘canalls filed he batrathera.e wo ‘A Model for Hypabyssal Breccia Pipe Formation Figure 6 isa schematic model of a hypabyssal breccia pipe. The Plates referred to are discussed belove Lower Portion of Pipe In the proposed model the lower portion of the pipe will be in close proximity to the site of the Yolatile-rich melt. Due to the intial overpressur- ing of the volatiles the intrusive and adjacent wwallrocks may contain stockwork mineralisation [Plate 1). The escape of overpressured fluids from the pores and fractures of the intrusive and adja ent host rocks would cause tabular and wedge Shaped clasts to explosively burst off the adjacent Toeks into the atea recently evacuated bv the Tluids. producing a breccia with decompressive shock textures (Plate 2). Similar bursting of large Uetached blocks would result in clasts becoming concentrically exfoliated (Place 3). In the case of boron-rich ssstems this process of decompressive shoek may result in freezing of the residual por tion of the hydrous melt. producing a breccia Cemented by tourmaline-rich mattis. During Subsequent activity paris of the tourmaline brec Ga may become re-breceiated and incorporated as clasts into later breccia. Presumably at this level Significant proportion of the clasts present will be derived from the intrusive Middle Portion of Pipe “The middle portion of the pipe is characterised by a "mill breecia” consisting of subangular to rounded, tabular to cube-shaped clasts supported bya tock llour matrix produced by the milling of the clast material (Plate 4). In a large body of breccia a mixture of clasts of various shapes. sites and compositions would be expected in this sec tion of the pipe due to theeffectof mixing during Tluidisation. The margins of the pipe may show sheeted (racturing concentrie to the pipe where the unsupported wallrocks have starced 10 subside into the breccia (Plate 5), Fractures in the walls of the pipe may also form by hydraulic fracturing of the wallrocks from overpressured fluids prior to breccia formation, The spalling of these raccured twallrocks into the breceia mat resultin an imbri- Cited layering of the clasts with a near vertical Grientation near the margin. becoming rotated tivo the Horieontal further into che pipe as they become compacted {Plate 6). Upper Portion of Pipe In the upper portions of the breesia pipe large blocks of host rock showing varving degrees of displacement and rotation may be present within the breccia, Where a significant amount of host fork snaterial has subsided into the breccia with= Su undergoing much mising 11 mav be possible ta stace the pre-breccia host rock stranigraphy tivough the pipe. e.g Kidston Baker. in prep.) Subsidence of the walls and roof of the breceis pipe may also produce shusiering of the adjacenthost rocks resulting in the formation of shawter breccia (Plate 7}. Clasts show only minor dis: placement relative each other and may fit back together in ajigesave pattern. The amount of dis- placement between fragments may increase downwards grading into an angular clast supported breccia commonly referred t0 as "col- lapse breccia Where the escape of volatiles upalong fractures has been prolonged Tuidisation mas occu pro ducing pebble breccia dskes consisting of rounded clasts of mixed assemblages in a rock flour macris (Place 8). Pehle breccia deke forma Hon is intimately associated with the escape of volatiles during breceiation and theretore they are likely co be synehonous with the main stage of Jnreceia pipe formation and preserved in the upper portionsola pipe above the column. Wishin pore phere svstems (after Walker & Cregheur, 1980) ppebble breccia dykes are generally observed to be lesstage eutcing the stockwork mineralisation, Thisis consistent with the proposed model wher ebv hydraulic jacking resulting in stockwork frac: turing isa precursor to breccition. Shallow Expression of Hypabyssal Breccia Pipes In areas of shallow erosion where hypabyssal breccia pipes are not exposed their presence at Uepih may be indicated by any’ of dhe features present in the host rocks adjacent ta the upper portions of these bodies. e.g pebble breceia dvkes and shattered and cemented wallrocks, Atsurface some evidence of subsidence siruetutes may De present if che diameter of the top of the pipe was roughly equal 1 of greater than is depth below surface. Sillitoe and Sawkins (1971) described firewate fracture networks above some Chilean ‘nveccia pipes. and Sharp (1978) referred to similar feaiurew im a model of the Case Peak intrusive breccia comples Figuce Modifications to the Model A summary of breccia textures commonly (onl in bypabyssal breccia pipes and the pro: esses thes might reflect is contained in Appen- is 2 Asdiseussed in the model (Figures) partic: ssl teste types or combinations of textures are folew characteristic of a level within the pipe Haeever ane number of variables such a5 wall vouknsl or merusive nacare and depth of formas tion. may result in variations to this model. For example where the initial amountof fluid present ‘was insufficient to initiate any significant cal- Japse.or if volatile pressure was too low to sustain a fluidised cell. the proportion of breccia showing. 2 significant amount of milling is likely to be small. Features normally present in the middle section of the pipe where fluidisatioh appears to be the dominant process are not likely to be strongly developed! Ia hypabyssal breccia pipe was to breach the surface. the morphology of the pipe might be similar to that of a maar xoleano. However we know of no breccia pipes where such a situation hhas been demonstrated. Perhaps this is because at shallow depths explosive breceiation becomes the dominant process and therefore their final char acter becomes that of a roaar voleano, Features which may characterise such maar volcanoes include the presence of lasis showing porpihers type mineralisation, and the lack of any shallow intrusives which are an integral part of normal maar voleano formation (see below. Confusion Between Various Textures Asiscommon in most geological environments textures can easily be misidentified. This can be avoided by examining them in the light of the processes likely 10 have produced them, The sheeted fractures and astociated slabby breccia havea texture somewhat similar to that of the breceia produced by decompressive shock ina boron-rich system. However in the former the clasts are supported in a rock flour macrix rather than a courmaline-rich cement and are mixed with and grade in to twpical “mill breccia” This relationship suggests that the sheeted fracturing and siabby breccia form adjacent to the fluidised cell and are subsequentiy incorporated into the uidised column, probably during its waning stages Sheeted fractures could be confused with stockwork. However the former have concentric orientations whereas the latter have a more ran dom orientation and consist of multiple genera. tions of cross-cutting fractures or veins. Stock- work veining could also be confused with the ‘shatcer breccia although in decal the latter consists of brecciated rock with one generation of hydrothermal ill rather chan the multiple tract ring. veining typical of siockwork veining.MAAR VOLCANOES Description Maar volcanoes consist of low-lying circula? sents ranging from several hundred metres to over tne kilometre in diameter. They are commonly filled with water and surrounded bya narrow ring bof ejecta composed ofa mixture of brecciated host fock and juvenile volcanic material. Lorenz (1975) observed that maars at Eifel in Germany land in the Massif Central in Franceare commonls Sssociated with cinder cones, and thac the cinder cones iwhich erupt along a fissure invariable lie fon the hills ar valley slopes whereas the maars ie fon the intersection of the fissure with the valley floor. Presumably in the valle floors the ascend: ing magma encounters a substantial amount of [ground water tesulting in an explosive eruption. Cas and Wright (1985) considered that though the term maar voleano has been used loosely to Usscribe all broad lov-rimmed volcanic centces inscluding tuff rings and tuff cones. aclear distinc: tion is requited between these terms. eg. Wood 1940), Sheridan and Wohlez (1983) differen tiated betteeen these stzuctures in the following Tuff rings hae low topagraphic protilesand gentle eviernal slopes whereas tulf canes have hhogh profilesand steep outer slopes. ff te floor extends below theariginal ground surface they tnay be called maars Tujf nngsare more commonly associated with Inaarathan tuff cones. The difference on siope ff tuff rongs and tuff cones is due 10 the coi Stan of the scel ash that constructs the latter The tert masts voktano has been aclopted for eeneral use heve becatise esploration is normally Concerned with epithermal mineralisation in the traaled Lower portions of these pipes The terms diatreme and maar volcano hase heen used yenonemously by many auchors inelwing Glos 941 and Lorene (19751, Goin- tinals diatreme is used when referring to the partis creed bieceiaellled sent of an original muse soles. Diginond-bearing breccia pipes Seug kisnberlite pipes and diatremes) also hase Shape, sie and features very similar to maar solani, Processes Involved in Maar Volcano Formation Mae volcanoes form be the eruption of meteo- vig water explosively Mashing to steam when it fomies into contact with an ascending magma, The process has been referred to as phreatomag: matic eruption bi Lorenz(1975)and as hsdrovol- anism bs Sheridan and Wohlet (1985) The process envisaged for maar voleano forma: on is summarised as ollows. When ground: ‘water within a fissure comes into contact with a 2 body of intruding magma, the water is heated. If the temperature anvwhere in the water column above the. magma surpasses the pressure- Controlled boiling point it will flash to steam. ‘The resulting pressure relief will cause che level of steam formation to propagate downwards {Lorens, 1973). The eruption of this steam up the fissuee ejects pyroclastic debris and steam and perhaps water, depending on the watermagma fatio, The latter ratio largely controls the energy Of hydroexplosions (Sheridan and Woblet. 1983). Moore (1967) described a series of debris-laden eruption clouds moving out radially from the base of a phreatomagmatic eruption column at Taal voleano in the Phillipines in 1965. Similar clouds. relerred 10 as base surges. have been Gbserved in shallow underground nuclear tests The base surge apparently forms as the expand ing gases at the explosive centte first vent verti> tally and then with contiaued expansion, rush Sunwards horizontally over the rim of the crater ‘The base surge cloud moves horizontally with an inisal velocity of around 50 meties per second tnd is capable of carrsing clastic material mans illomeures trom the sent. Breccia clasts deposited De base surges at Taal were up tonearlva metre in diameter and sere mixed with a poorly sored ‘matrix of ash and lapilli along with shredded ‘wood and twigs from sand-blasted trees Base Surge Deposits Poroclastic material forms an apron of base surge deposits surrounding the vent. This mate Tial is deposited by high energy surge eruptions, tsining rise to thin sheets of unconsolidated but Nellsuratified breccia and cull beds. The Cine: rained tull beds eharacteristically contain accre Nonary lapilly und dune-form bedding, Acre tionary lapilli form by aceretion of dust particles ton io small fragments Of rock or water droplets hich condense due to adiabatic cooling of expanding base surge clouds. Low angle less than 15°) dune-form cross-bedding isa character istie of densite-tlow deposits. commonly in the finer-grained beds associated with accretionary Tpit Vent Development 6y Phreatomagmatic Enuptions and Subsidence Ac the end of an individual eruption the pres: sure inside the sent is lower than the surrounding Tithostatie pressuce, The resulting pressure gra dient leads to spalling at depta anda more gentle Slumping near surface [Shoemaker et af. 1962), The enlarged (issure. is choked with wallrock Alebris and felled with water initiating another hele of eruption. With continued eruptions the Sent increases in diameter aud propagates Gownwards. as long as there is a supply of magina and water, phreatomagmatic eruptions {ind subsidence will continue. Ifthe water supply js cuvoll the magma may intrude the vent mate>tial im the form of plugs, sills, dvkes and ring vkes, When the ventreaches 2 crticial diameter, large blocks of wallrock and overlving pyroclastic debris may subside into the breccia pipe. Cirewlar, Seep inwardly-dipping (aul referred toas "ting faults” form around the crater rim during subst dence. This enlarges the sent and leads to forma: tion of a maar crate lake in which sediments may then be deposited. Ar Wau, Papua New Gunes, Sillitae etal. (1984) report the presence of large blocks af basement and overlsing tull ring mate: rial with horizontal dimensions in excess of 500 meues, which appear to have slid gently down- slope $-100 mecees into thecenure of the pipe. The base of such blocks is underlain by a zone of sheared vent breccia and basement. Compaction and subsidence of the vert material may result in Steepening of dips and local slumping and over: turning of the stra Flurdisation As discussed previously the observations of Nordske (1961) on nuclear and chemical blasts tend (0 indicate that hydtoxolcanism phreato- magmatic eruptions are unlikely to produce breccia pipes with a vertical extent of more than Several Mundced metres. Since maar voleanoes are Known (o have a vertical extent well in excess of this Loren, 1975; Silitae etl. 1988), other pro: cesses mav be more important at depths below several hundred metres. Lorenz (1975) suggested that fluidisation within the vent may be an active process fesponsible for milling of the subsided Focks into lapll- to ashsized material, He did not consider that Hluidisation actually enlarged the vent dizecls, but that this resulted from sub: sidence along ring faults. Lorens (1975) and ear. lier workers including Cloos {1941 referred to the fluidisation as “tuffisation” and to the mate rial produced as tufsive. Tuflsite appears to have ‘many features characteristic of fhuidisation, eg. Jntcusion into fractures and faults within thevent breccia and clasts as well as intrusion into the wallioeks and the presence of well-rounded lapillesived fragments within the sults. Uiseems likely then thatin thedeepr portions of the vent, where explosive breceiation is inhibited bs the sheer weight of the overburden, (luidisa tion may become the dominant process. Presum: ably fluidisatidn results from the rapid escape of superheated stear under pressure up along faults and [ractures or in extreme cases difectiv upward through the breccia column, Relationship to Kimberlite Pipes ‘The mode for kimberlite pipes in Attica con structed by Hawthorne 1975) on the basis of field ‘observations. issizalar to that for maar voleanoes eseribed by Lorens1975). The kimberlive model consists of a pipe from 300 to 1300 metres in Giameter. with sides dipping steeply inward at around 80° and with a vertical extent in excess of fone kilometre. The original surface expression consists of an apron of kimberlite ejecta sur rounding the vent referred 194s tuft cone by the author. The upper portion ofthe vent fillconsists Of epiclassic and sedimentary kimberlite, The Went breccia is comprised of country rock and Kimberlice in roughly equal proportions and Supports large blocks of country rock which have Subsided into che pipe. The lower portion of the vent narrows down and roots olf a dyke or sll of magmatic kimberlte. Lorenz (1975) considered that kimberlite pipes may form by a process sim= ilar to that of maar volcanoes, involving the interaction of groundwater with a kimberlite ‘magma. This is strongly supported by the fact that they pass downwards into dykes and sills Isotopic results on minerals in kimberlite breccia matrix by Sheppard and Dawson (1973) suggest ‘of groundwater ar elevated tempera Model of a Typical Maar Volcano Figure 7 is a generalised model for a typical maar voleano showing thedistribution of various breccia types within the system. The annulus width of the tuff ring is characceristically similar to the vent diameter. Tuff Rings, Tuff Cones and Maar Crater Lakes Im cases where only minor erosion has taken place since maar formation, the tll ring sur rounding the ventis likely tobe preserved more oF less intact. and is characterised (Plate 9) by tuft beds of uniform thickness (100m) incerbedded swith massive brecaa, beds of which may be up 10 tens of metres in thickness, Tufl inerbeds consist of fine-grained ash- 10 lapillisized material. with blocks up to several tens of metres in diamever eposited by the base surge. These blocks depos ited by base surges show no impact sag craters. in ‘contrast ro ose that have been deposited bali calls (Place 10). The tuff beds maincain a rela Lively uniform thickness over distances of several hundred metres. Convolute bedding is present locally and may result {rom slumping, of from direct blast overturning earlier deposits at the rater rim, Aceretionaty lapitli (Plate 11) and low angle {less than 15%) dune-lorm cross-beds are ‘haracteristcally present in the Lner-grained tll beds (Plate 12). Close tothe pipe beds dip inwards. but further ‘out ther dip gently aveay from the vent (Figure 7) The wavelength of dune-form bedding decreases ‘outscard from the explosive centre and the crests fof dunes tend 10 be perpendicular to the surge rection (Moore, 1967). Accretionary lapilli extend medial distances from the vent where len: oid massive ede are common. Distal planar beds lack cross-strauification. but display reverse grad ing due to their emplacement by grain flow ‘Tull cones are thick, well-indurated, near-vent deposits, Beds are generally thick, with indisuinet stratification. Large slump and mega-ripplesdue ‘a post-depasitional deformation are common on steep slopes. Heiken 1971) reported thatthe steep Inner slopes of che erater walls in most of the cull 3cones he studied are covered with near-vertical well-bedded tuif. The beds ar lee than one metre thick and show normal or reverse grading. and ‘must have been plastered on to the crater wall disring the waning phases of eruption. The cen ‘ets of such vents are commonly filled with mas sive wll breeea, Tulfrings and tf cones deposited under water are characterised by cuf breccias which lack bed ding, accretionary lapilli, duneslorm cra. bedding and bomb sag craters, Middle to Lower Vent At deep levels the vent breccia is commonly massive to crudely layered, and large blocks of hostrockand cuff ring material may be suspended ‘within it. The breecia which is similar in appear ance tothe massive nterbeds of breccia within the tullapron, consiss of angular [ragments gener ally rouhd one co several centimetres in diameter supported ina rock flour matrix of similar composition Layering where present is on a gross scale reflecting differences in averageclast sie and last and matrix composition, ang contacts between such layers are generally gradational. Less com= monly up (0 two or three bands per metre of intercalated clastrich and clast-poor horizons may be present. Grading where discernable is generally not consistent even along one horizon, and internal structures areabsent. Dipsare gener ally fairly steep in the middle to lower portion of the pipe (Figure 7 & Plate 15). Around the mar= sins ofthe pipe zones of sheared vent breccia and brecciated host rocks are common. This breccia may be either last: or matrix-supported With increasing depth evidence of fluidisation is likely to be more pronounced. In some instant ces dykeslike bodies of fluidised breceia material may be found intruding the earlier vent breccia and large included blocks. Breccias produced ot ‘modified by fluidisation characteristically com ‘ain abundant small (less than one centimetre) wwell-ounded clasts, The bottoms of these pipes commonly pass downward into the intrusive body which was responsible for the initiation of hydrovoleanism, Commonly more than one intrusive phase 1s present, with dykesand domes intruding the vent breccia at various stages in is development. Upper Ven The upper portion of the vent commonly con tains sedimentary sequences consisting of inter: bedded tuffaceous siltstone and coarser epiclastic breccia layers (Figure 7 and Plate 18). Compac: tion of the vent material may result in steepening, of dips and local overturning ofthe strata. Where subsidence has been relatively uniform through ‘out the pipe the sata will dip radially inwards in the outer part ofthe pipe, while toward thecentre dips may flatien out and change inflection. Inthe inner portion of the pipe, slump folds raay be present. Subsidence of large blocks into the pipe and emplacement of domes up through the pipe ‘may also lead to disruption of layering within the pipe. Where domes have intruded the eontempor ary surface they are commonly surrounded by aprons of talus or crumble breccia consisting of blocks of intrusive material ina matrix of similar composition i Confusion Between Various Textures Since deposition within maar crater lakes occurs in a quiet lacustrine environment and ‘most ofthe material isderived from erosion of tulf ng material, the layering in crater lake sequen: ces may be confused with coarse surge deposits ‘These subaqueous lake beds can be distinguished by the lack of dune-farm bedding and accretion ary lapilli, and by theipresence of rhythmic layer ing of fine tuffaceous and organic-rch horizons, In cases where steeply-dipping layering reflects either successive deposits of ejecta which have setiled back into the vent after each eruption oF ‘maar fll sediments, beds show a gradual shallow Ing in dip towards the center and a change in inflection at that point. Theinternal structures in base surge deposits and maar sediments serve distinguish «wif apron material formed by base surge from breccias with other types of layering (discussed below), t Heiken (1971) reported the presence of steep 10 veruically-dipping concentric tuff beds in the upper portion of a vent. Apparently these beds were plastered onto the crater walls during the waning stages of eruption. ‘The absence of inter nal structures in these layers distinguishes them from those discussed above Where concentric layering is steeply-dipping to vertical everywhere within the pipe itis likely to hhave formed as a result of differential shear pro- duced by flow within a fluidised breccia calumn In such eases the inner layers will be successively younger and may show intrusive relationships. and may not show any internal structure 15HYDROTHERMAL EXPLOSION BRECCIAS Descrip' Hydrothermal explosions are common phen: ‘omena in most boiling spring areas of geothermal fields such'as the Taupo voleanic zone of New Zealand and Yellowstone National Patk, U.S.A. Hydrothermal explosion breccias are also found in other geological situations: for example Sill Coeet al. (1984 report the presence of gold miner- alisation associated with hydrothermal explosion breccias in the tuff ring of a maar volcano. Explosion craters have diameters ranging from, several metres up to several hundred metres. anda Limited vertical extentof less than 200 metres, The fallout pron of "debris ring” forms @ circular mound up to 200 metres wide around the peri phery of the crater and is comprised of material Ejected in the explosive vents responsible for crater formation Processes Involved In Hydrothermal Explosion Breccia Formation Mulfler eral. (1971) considered hydrothermal ‘explosions to form by the following mechanism: Hydrothermal explosions are produced when water contained in nearesurface Tockt at emperatures as high as 250°C [lashes fo steam and violently disrupts the confining rocks Hydrothermal eruptions are not o typical volcanic explosion, All the required energy probably comes [rom a deep igneous source this energy is transferred (o the surface by ci culating meteoric water rather than a magna. The energy 1: stared ar heat im hot water and rack within a few hundred metres of surfece Temperatures much higher than surface boil ing mat be achieved at shallow depth because of the increase in borling point with pressure. If near-surface permeability is deceased by deposi tion of hvdrothermal minerals or by acaprock the energy may build up until st is, explosively released. When water at the top of the columa is emoxed the ellecive weight of the column decreases, steam formsand displaces water further feducing the conlining pressure at depth and leading to a chain reaction. Uncontined srstems may only lead to geyser eruptions, but confine: ‘ment and the build up of fluid pressure results in less frequent but more powerful eruptions to pro- duce explosion craters. Successive explosions fesuit inthe {ormation of a breccia: filled crater {rom several tent of mettes to over one kilometre in diameter (Mulfler et al, 1971), Nairn and Wiradiradja (1980) report that at Kawerau, New Zealand, such explosions may extend to 190 ‘metres below surface and have explosion volumes fof as much as one (0 ten million cubie metres. In geothermal fields hydrothermal explosion craters are commonly grouped along major line 6 aments, Hydrothermal fluid overpressures along hormal fault planes or beneath an impermeable ‘aprock leads to local increase in pore fluid pres- sure adjacent ro the fissure (Phillips, 1972); when the fluid pressure within the faulzexceeds thesurm of the confining pressure and the rock tensile strength, the fault and associated fractures will propagate, The new space created, provided the Kinetics are favourable, may causea pressure drop within the fault and the fractures, in carn causing the overpressured wallrocks to explode inward, producing an angular breccia. The igh velocity Sutained by upward-moving pressurised fluids ‘might result in transportand milling ofthe frag: ments to produce 2 breccia with somewhat rounded clasts in a hydrothermally altered rock our matrix Deposition of hydrothermal minerals in newly created fracture spaces can cause self-sealing of the system and may prestage another episode of hydraulic fracturing. Eventually the host rock within the lower parcof thesystem may becut bya Hockwork vein network. Clasts in the debris nm. and the breccia pipe commonly show signs of repeated fracturing and recementing, indicating cyclic overpressuring and explosive release in the Tower part of the system, Model For Hydrothermal Explosion Breccias Figure 8 shows the relationship between hydrothermal explosion breccias and other lea- {res typically found in geothermal fields. Explosion Craters and Associated Breccias ‘airn and Wiradiradja (1980) suggest that crt fers larger than several hundred metres probably Fesult from the coalescence of wor more smaller Structures. The breccia pipes underlying hese craters generally have a limited vertical extent of less than 200 metres electing the depth at which boiling takes place. Breceia materia! within the crater is similar co that observed inthe associated fallout aprons but can be distinguished by the lackof internat bedding structures. At Wau (Sili> toe et al., 1984) the crater and the associated liydrothermal breccia do not form a discrete pipe but manifest themselves as a ramifying set of planes and small anastomosing zone of hydroth femal breccia intruding the host rocks Breceiation occurs preferentially along pre: existing structures such as faults. In moderately shallowly dipping faults the brecciating fluids preferentially penetrate into the hanging wal. fesulting in multiphase stockwork veining and hydrothermal breeciation of the overlying host rock. The breccia typically consistsof rectangular rather than thin slabby clasts in a matnx of hydrothermal mud or epithermal gangue miner als (Plates 14 & 13). Commonly hydrothermalbreccias contain class of stockworked host rock and earlier breccia which are in turn cut by a further generation of stockwork veining, Where hydrothermal explosion breceias have theit roots, in fault zones the faults themselves are commonly {lied with similar gangue minerals. Veins within these faults may also show tepeated brecciation and recementing bs gangve minerals, relecting the cyclic buildup and explosive release of hydrothermal fluids (Plate 16). Hydrothermal brecciation may also occur below and within an impermeable caprock horiton such as a shale bed ‘of a0ne of opaline silica deposited atthe base ol boiling water-table (Figure 8) Above such a tone of epaline silica minor brecciation not related 10 hydrothermal eruptions may result fom collapse vwithin the zone of acid and steam leaching Fallout Apron The fallout apron or “debris ring” as it is ‘commonly called consists of airfallanc base surge Ueposits These are typically poorly sorted and Consist of large angular blocks up to 2 metres in diameter supported ina muddy sand matrix con: taining 2 high proportion of hydrothermal clay (Plate 17), Blocks may be hydrothermally alee and show evidence of early hydraulic jacking and recementing by gangue and ore minerals. Lavers representing individual eruptions may bbe ip 19 12 metres thick (Nairn & Wiradiradja, 1980). Compositional variations between succes: sive lasers reflect satiations in the source of indi- Vidual eruptions. Bedding is generally absent 0 poorly developed. Naien and Wiradirad)a (1980) AU Kaweras report individual bedding generally fore than one metre in ghickness, while at Wau individual beds are up to several metres thick (Plate 18). Bedding structures include wedging, pinch and swell structures, and dune-form bed: ing as well as more common subparalel bed- ding. The wave-form bed structures and lack of impact sage astociated with many large blocks within the breccia beds have been interpreted as ‘evidence of deposition by base surges. Elsewhere within the apron impact sag craters associated ‘with large blocks indicate an air-fall origin ‘At Wau, the original thickness of the fallout jpron was in excess of 50 metres. According 10 fairn and Wiradiradja (1980) the fallout apron thins rapidly away from source, although some large diameter blocks travel further than lapilli and ash-sized material. Itappears that large ejecta rapidly separate from the explosion jet above the ‘ene into ballistic trajectories, Confusion Between Various Textures ‘The presence of hydrothermally altered clasts and hydrothermal clay ia thematrix ofthe fallout pron contrasts with the breccia found in cuff rings surrounding mat volcanoes which is generally unaltered. Commonly hydrothermal breccias contain clasts of stockworked host rock and eater breccia ‘which are ia turn cut by a further generation of Stockwork veining. This syle of stockwork vein- ing differs from porphyry-type deposits in that individual veins are thicker and show feavures ‘spieal of epithermal mineralisation such as crustilorm bandingFigure 9. Zone of brecciated rock produces by movement along an irregularly-shaped fault surface Note thac the movement can be in any direction and not necessarily horizontal as depicted above. Examples ate common in almost any brittle fracture’ vein ssstem, Figure 10. Zone of brecciation produced ata fault wedge, Fragments are frequently large and only slightly rotated. Note that movement may be in any direction,FAULT-RELATED BRECCIA PIPES Description Pipestike forms of brecciated rock are very ‘common along fault zones both simple and com: plex. The brittle fracture and fault movement result in a combination of block jostling and small fragment rotation which forms a coluran of anascomosing permeable zones available for min: eralising fluids. Most such pipes are small in ice but mineralised pipes in places form ore bodies of several million tonnes. Recognition ol this style is frequently difficule because of three common problems. Confused concepts concerning the varie of mechanisms which produce this stvle of breccia Difficulty in establishing the scale of breccia Sion in the field 5, Difficulty in recognising breeciation through 3 mask of overprinting hydrothermal alters tion, erratically distibuted infill, and super: imposed later fault movements, This problem {s further compounded by weathering oxida ‘don in the near-surface environment. Iris not possible to cover in brief the many fault variations responsible for forming brecciated ones of rock chat eventually adopt a pipe-like form. Some of the most common fault types and ‘mechanisms of brecciation are 1. Pipesof brecciated material forming within a single fracture tone (Figure 9, 2. Pipes of brecciated material forming as a result of one of more phases of movement slong muluple fracture ones 2a, Wedge adjustment Figure 10) 2. i Pipesof brecciated material formed at fault {intersections (Figure II) This commonly invoked mechanism is an fact relatively rare. However, the intersection one is vommonly'a zone of both small and large scale jastling, which may be reactivated by anv regional of local ectonism iy Pipes of brecciated material formed by block shuflle accompanied by intersection and wedge adjustment (Figuces 12 13) This stele is extremely common and although occurring at all scales, [re {quentls produces large jostied fragments ‘sith ont local ateas of small scale grossly rotated fragments. The resulting fluid pathicavs ate comples. Block shullle caused by retraction eymoid Looping of fractures as they cross competent incompetent layers (Figure 14). Papes of this, nature can oceur at anv otientation and may vars beoween hortontal oF vertieal depend: ing ot circumstance. They commonly vanish along plunge owing to 2 change of fracture Angle (Figure 13 While ieeexamples given above appeat simple enough. there is frequently a problem in 0 establishing scale. When brecciation occurs at a relatively large seale. its difficult co gain a clear perspective in the field. The central region isha. facteristically a zone of alteration, commonly overprinted by Laver barren fault readjustment Individual major blocks are only mildly jostled and extremely difficult recognise as they exceed the seale of observation in small mine openings. The best field approach is to assume that any pipe-like form s potentially of lault orygegand to Seek appropriate evidence, If possible ane should ‘move to the outer zones ofthe pipe wherpaltera- tion is ess intense, anda circumnavigation of the ‘mineralised one will then reveal the nature of the fracture zones entering the pipe region. Small Scale pipes form very commonly via the above ‘mechanismsane thus any small pipeisa favoured ‘eandidate fora fault elated origin. Figures 910 16, show the seale typical of each breccia type. Pipe forms resulting from large block shuttle- faulting of uncertain origin have been illustrated in Figure 16. This is typical of therather unusual W-Mo pipe forms found at Wolfram Camp, Bam: ford Hill, Eight Mile Hill and other localities in north Queensland (P. Blevin, pers. comm.) Problems of Recognition Problems of recognition of structural pipes are commonly due to alteration, irregular infil and oxidation. In many cases the multiple fluid pathways created by block jostling allows such ensy accest for fluids chat wallrock alteration becomes effec: tively pervasive. Within rocks susceptible to mas- sive alteration’ replacement (carbonate, basal ull etc) the ere zone may be extremely large and Iselfectively a combination ota breccia pipe anda replacement deposit. Intense alteration replace- ‘ment masks the nature of the fragments. AS men: tioned above some assistance in recognition is provided by moving to the periphery of the min= ‘eralised zone, but the central parts requice care in Identifying the main fluid pathways and distin- guishing infill from alteration, Alteration and. or ‘oxidation may mask the breccia blocks from cas- ual observation but the rocks normally retain their fracture textures. Intenselv broken zones Took more blocky. knobby, and fractured than da areas of large fragments. heat 2ones ate sil is {ble although individual faults mav be only short and seemingly in random directions. The open Spaces created by breceiation are infilled to pro- Guce patches, vughs. shor lenses, minor veins ete which fail to interconnect at the observational Seale. Thus isolated pockets of mineralisation raise suspicion, and in practice this may be manifest ‘as "gopher-style" excavation where small-scale mining has occurred. In some cases the alteration minerals are the same asthe infill minerals (sevicite+quarts sericite-quartz ese) and although infill is normally. coarser than alteration extensive rock slabbing may be required to gain 2 good perspective(1 Faing] inoerh (8) Foutnng? (naer! (61 Rarmeolonen seer) | | mo | ES i [Peceoten [nce ) Ul Ly | tcheameiinwrnetunen) ol tewae ann, Figute LJ, Development of pipe-shaped ore bod via renewed movement on intersecting fractures, small and large scale from Tatlor. 1973),cram tone of finear foing Figure 12. Pipes of brecciated material formed by black shuffle at fault intersections with wedge sdjsteen shuttle blocks Prewre £3. flock suite when a single biolt becomes a gan of multiple faulting. In some cases the Dnlock sluttfe may be due to a sander ving sntrusiveFigure 14. Expansion of a fracture as it crosses a different unit with resultant block jostle and integular. expanded permeability | ae | | Re Figure 15. Two sections of plan views of the same fauit at different paints along its lent ‘intersecting 2 bed of different competency. Note that asthe [raccure orientation charges tie brecciated zone (Ai may vanish (B)“The problem of recognising breccias and dis- inguishing alteration trom infil at the hand Spetimen scale can be approached via compre- ieigine rock slabbing. Teis essential to collect Targe specimens in the field, from several locali- idetwithin the suspected breccia, Vughs recognis- Sole in hand specimen can be used asa base point for infill recognition. The vughs are characteris- tically wiangular elongate and cuspate inoutline Und commonly contain indications of euhedral rystallisauion, Exen where vughs are fully Sniilied. the later phases become interstitial between previous euhedral phases and again tt: angular textures are common. Careful observa: tion of the local geology provides valuable clues to tragment identification as most alteration reflees both the grain size and the original rock exture. In particularly difficult cases it is worth: While etching the specimen with hydrofluoric Zeid. or investigating selected staining techy siques, [tis aso wise o carefully observe wea: thered surface exposuces in the field, since tis isa atural etching process which often highlights {he zones of infill from alteration.Figure 16, (A) Large scale jostling produces irregular cavities which are subsequently infilled by ‘fluids. The result is irregular tortuous pipes of infill which are often seemingly blind and of Lunpredictable orientation. Pipes of this ype are suspected at Wollram Camp, North Queens and (B) 25RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MINERALISATION AN BRECCIATION Introduction Rarely does the mineralisation hosted by brec- cia pipes appear to be exactly synchronous with and intimately related to brecciation. Normally the breccia pipe merely provides 2 favourable structural setuing for the mineralisation. Often Similar-style mineralisation with a. different structural setting eg. vein. replacement or dise serinations, is present elsewhere in the region, not associated with brecciation. ‘The grade of mineralisation within a breccia pipe appears to bea function of permeability and porosity. Where a breccia is permeable hydroth- ermal fluids can pass through the pipe reacting ‘with the matrix and clasts to produce an altera- toon assemblage. Ore minerals may be deposited as disseminated grains within the matrix. If the brecciated rock ss reactive it may become com: pletely replaced by the alteration ore assemblage In this situation where a proportion of the origi ral breccia material can be removed the grade of ore is likely (0 be proportionally higher. Grades are also likely to be higher in the case where Cavities or open fractutes ate present as the spaces may be filled by ore minerals. Since systematic permeability and porosity differences. berween Various breccia types influence the grade of min- tralisation. the models discusted in the previous Sections ean provide useful guide ro theexplora tion of breccia pipes Mineralisation in Hypabyssal Breccia Pipes Mineralisation in hypabyssal pipes generally shows one or mote of the characteristics asso: Gated with porphyry-iype deposits eg. Kidston (Buker, im prep.) und Redwell Basin (Sharp. 1978), Pre-breceia mineralisation, where present, commonly consist of stockwork veinlets and/or disseminations within the early intrusives and host rocks. Clasts ofthis mineralisation may be present within the breccia, and if no sign of such ‘mineralisation is present at the level of erosion ten presumably it occurs at greater depth The bulk of the pipe may be comprised of aalered but only poorly mineralised mill breccia, TThe reason for the generally low grade of miner: alisation throughout this breccia i the relatively low porosity (space available) in spite of sulli cient permeability o allow hydrothermal fluids to pass through and alter the matrix and class Ore-grade mineralisation is likely to be localised inareas of higher initial porostty within the pipe [Figure 17 (A)). In the upper section of the pipe the areas of high porosity are likely tobe the 2one of shatter and collapse breccia immediately above the main columa of breccia. The zone of sheeted fractures surrounding the pipe is a possible site for ore im the middle section of the pipe (Sillitoe dand Sawkins. 1971), Ore-grade breceia may also 28 be present along the margins of the pipe where imbricated breccia fragments with 2. vertical orientation are abundant (Llambias and Maloi- Cini, 1969), The reason for this seems be that the orientation of the slabs preserves any initial high permeability during subsequent compaction ‘The zone of intersection of pre- or ayn-breccia structures such as faults or dykes with the pipe ‘margin isalsoa favourable site for ore deposition Pre-brecdia stockwork mineralisation may be present in the lower section of the pipe. Post-breccia inteusives may create secondary porosity if they are forcefully intruded into the pipe (Koide k Bhattacharji, 1975). Zones of Secondary porosity are most likely to form around the margins of the pipe and in an inverted cone centred on the top ofthe intrusion (Figure 17(B)) “car in prep.). Replacement and disseminated ‘alisation is also likely to be associated with breccia intrusives. Mineralisation associated ‘ .. post-breccia intrusives could be present at ans level in the pipe. Mineralisation in Maar Volcanoes Mineralisation in maar voleanoes is generally ‘of an epithermal characier. However in some cases deeperslevel porphyry-type mineralisation sknown tounderlieand be temporally associated ‘with maar mineralisation. In such situations lasts of porphyry-type mineralisation may be present within the breccia, The vent breccia commonly contains a high proportion of fine-grained rock flour matrix.and Is therefore often low in porosity and permeabil- ity. For this reason the mineralisation is generally located around the margins ofthese breccia pipes in areas of structurally induced porosity (Figure 18), Certain features of maar development suchas 1a prolonged period of development, clustering of feveral pipes, and an astociation with large faults, all contribute to the enhancement of favourable Structural sites for ore deposition. The margins of the pipe may show evidence of repeated re- bbrecciation leading to a zone of high permeabil- ity. Atthe Balatoc Plug. Philippines. theiniersec- tion of steeply dipping veins with the pipe ‘margin led tothe lormation of steeply plunging. ore zones in this area (Damasco and De Guzman, 1981). ‘The ore was clearly introduced via the veins, atesting to the low permeability of the vent breceia. The ring faults may also act as conduits and host to mineralisation, especially where they intersect structurally competent walleocks. Fluids ascending channelways around the vent margin may become ponded beneath impermeable vent breccia or tuif apron material leading to local replacement-siyie mineralisation eg. Lepanto (Baker. 1983), Situations similar to that at Wau may develop where semi-detached blocks bounded between an exterior fault and the mat may subside causing gently dipping fissures 10isation withina hy} meability and} post-breccia incrus 8 abyssal breccia pipe. (Ai Controls re-breceia mineralising processes. (3) Contcl ves from Baker. 1984sand in prep.) For details 2Tine become pense Dekseth impermeable vent Biateie ond tall eprom coer sp0ce souhermat Stevclsanon i et og meter \ eon produced by the a siden toraing : ‘own so0ce ord eplocament pitharmal | inaratetpr witnn ond odiocer! ro | the breccia porgin ond ring fouls pocohyry type dieminoted /stckwork Eineralitation suracioted with porohyrien inthe deeoer part oF Figure 18, Some of the main controls on mineralisation found within maar volcanoes (from Baker, Tai. For details of geology refer to Figuee 7fellout apran with Siegen" ‘minerolsed lows ‘Tocned fore cosine nice Srectoted in places stockwork vaning ond bre Inthe hanging wall st vers | Figure 19. Relationship between epithermal mineralisation and hydrothermal explosive breceia- ‘ion «trom Baker, 1984, and in prep). For details of geology refer to Figure 8 29‘open and become filled with ore (Figure 18)(Silli= tocet al., 1984). Other styles of epithermal miner. alisation common o geothermal terrains and not necessarily related to brecciation may also be present within maars, Mineralisation Associated With Hydrothermal Explosion Breccias Hydrothermal explosion breccias are an inte- gral partof many geothermal systemsandassuch are likely o be associated, atleast spatially, with epithermal mineralisation, Figure 19 shows some of therelationships likely coexist between brecei- ation and. mineralisation. Epithermal veins ‘commonly show signs of repeated brecciation due acyclic self-sealing and overpressuring. In shallowly-dipping faults the hanging wall may contain stockwork mineralisation due o repeated hydraulic jacking by the overpressured hydroth- ermal fluids trapped in the vein (Sillitoe eal. 1984), The breceia pipes themselves are likely (0 be small. irregular in shape and consist of clasts supported ina matrix of hydrothermalclay. They ‘may contain clasts of mineralised vein material ‘The nature of these pipes does not make them particularly favourable hosts to mineralisation Lnless they become modified by later stockwork- ing of acid leaching processes. Mineralisation in Fault-Related Breccias Figure 20 shows a generalised sketch of the relationships between breccation and mineral sation in fault-related breccia pipes. On a broad Seale alteration and mineralisation are often most intensely developed in the central partof the pipe However, in detail, the ore shows an anastomos- ing distribution reflecting original variations in permeability and porosity. Large barren areas within otherwise ore grade rock may represent tunbrecciated blocks. The presence of reactive rocks may locally enhance the grade of ore. The fauks adjacent to the breccia pipe may contain similar mineralisation, Where high grade veins ‘were mined in the past, lower-grade but higher. tonnage breccia-hosted mineralisation may nave been left unexploited ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to acknowledge Austamax Resources and Ms J. Lumsden (or assistance in drafting of ligures, Mrs. 8. Downing for typing the text. and Mrs P. Bristow and Mrs L. Laivins for typesetting the slocument, We also wish to acknowledge W.P. Laing. RM. Carter. P. Pollard and G.W. Morrison of the Geology Department at James Cook University of North Queensland for offering many improvernents (0 the manuseript. We thank W-C. 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Chem. of the Earth, v9, 29-42,unos “ pryssand) HON "yueaat anew aay Tae ciavs NOLLANWA TYRWAHLOWaATL aWaMLMa7eveN ‘avssaavaant NOLLINDOOIY WAHL OL ONILV Tad SOLLSIYALOVUVHD ASOHL NO SISVHAWA HLIM Sddld VIQIIUA TVWYAH.LOUGAH JO SAUNLVAd YOLVW JO AYVNNAS UXIGNaddVAPPENDIX 2 EXPLANATION OF BRE‘ “IA TERMS USED IN THIS PAPER ‘Accretionary laplli: Round concentrically zoned lapilli-sized particles composed of ash material, formed by accretion of dust particles onto small fragments of rock or water Groplets which con- dense due 1o adiabatic cooling of expanding base surge clouds. oF less commonly from flushing of an ash cloud by rain, ase surge: Initially used to describe debrisladen eruption clouds moving out radially {rom the base of @ phreatomagmatic eruption column. Similar clouds have been observed associated with shallow underground nuclear tests, The base surge apparently forms as the expanding {gases at the explosive centre first vent vertically nd then, with continued expansion, rush out ‘wards horizontally over the rim of the crater. The base surge cloud moves horizontally with an inivial velocity of around 50 metres per second and is capable of carrying clastie material many Kilomewtes from the vent. Deposits comprise interbedded breccia and cui beds. characteristi- ‘ally containing accretionary lapilli and dune- form bedding. Collapse breccia: Clast-supported breccia formed by collapse of adjacent wallrocks into a breccia pipe. Clasts typically have poorly rounded edges and are commonly tabular in shape, influenced 10 Some extent by the pre-existing fabric ofthe rock Generally insufficient rock lous mates present tolill the cavities, which later may become filled ‘sith hydrothermal materials. Only a smal pro- portion of rock flour matrix is present Crenulate quarts-layered tock: Crenulatelayersof ‘quartz interbanded with ehyoliteor porphyry, the Quartz crystal terminations all pointing downw- ard into what was the remaining melt. This ox. tute 1s caused by Muctuations in the partial pres- sure of fluorine during crystallisaion. which causes conditions in the melt to fluctuate bewween (quartz and feldspar stability fields. Decompressive shock texture: Wedge-shaped and fiat or curved tabular clasts in a tourmaline * quartz cement. This occurs where volatiles rapidly escaping from the upper portion of an intrusive leave overpressured fluid within the pores and fractures ofthe intrusive and adjacent Pes"rocks, ‘This results in tabular and wedge ved clasts bursting explosively {rom the adja ts Walls and fractures into the reservoir area recently evacuated by the fluid, Similar bursting of largedevached blocks within the uid reservoir results in clasts becoming concentrically exloliated Diatreme: The terms diatreme and mear volcano ql are used synonymously following many 36 authors including Cloos (1941) and Lorene (1975). Often the term is used when referring (0 the partly eroded brecciavllled vent ofan original maar voleano. Dune-form cross-bedding: Low angle (less than 15°) cross-bedding within tuff beds, characteristic of base surge deposits. Fluidisation: Occurs when eithera liquid ora gas is passed upward through a particulate bed initially buoving the particles up in a condition Similar (0 that observed in quicksand. Wich increasing fluid velocity particles become agi- tated and then «ansported by the gas or liquid Upward through the centre and dowa along the frargins of the fluidised cell. Particles become abraded during this process. with rounding of lasts and production of a significant amount of tock flour matrix. With prolonged milling clasts may become near-spherical in shape. Hydrothermal explosion breccia: Breccia typi- cally consisting of poorly rounded clasts in a matrix of hydrothermal mud or epithermal gangue minerals, Commonly hydrothermal brec: ias contain clasts of stockworked host rock and farlier breccia which may in turn be cut by a further generation of stockwork veining. Hydrothermal explosion breccias are produced when water contained in ear-surface rocks at Temperatures a8 high as 250°C flashes to steam and violently disrupts the confining rocks. There fre two manifestations of hydrothermal explo- sion breccias, as follows: Subsurface breccia: Where hydrothermal explo sion breccias have their roots in fault zones the faults themselves ate commonly filled with sim= ilar gangue minerals. The vein within the fault ‘may also show evidence of repeated brecciation ‘and recementing by gangue minerals reflecting the cyclic. build-up and explosive release of hydrothermal fluids. Hydrothermal brecciation ‘may also occur below and within an impermeable ‘aprock horizon such as a shale bed of a zone of ‘paline silica deposiced at the base of @ botling ‘water-table horizon, Subserial breccia: Breccia within the fallout apron is comprised of similar material wo that formed below surlace, ejecied by the explosive events responsible for crater formation. Layers fepresenting individual eruptions may vary from Tio 10 metres thick. Compositional variations between successive layers reflect variations in the source of individual eruptions. Bedding. gener- ally absent or poorly developed, includes such ‘kractutesas wedging, pinch and swell structures. and dune-(orm bedding. as well asmorecommon subparallel bedding. The wave-form bed struc tures and the lack of impact sags associated with,many large blocks within the breccia beds have been interpreted as evidence of deposition by base surges. Elsewhere within the tuff apron impact sag craters are commonly associated with large blocks indicating an air-fal origin Hydrothermal explosion crater: Craters have diameters ranging from several metres up to sev feral hundred metzes. and a vertical extent of less than 200 metres. The fallout apron or “debris ring” surrounding the vent forms 4 circular mound up 10 200 meires wide around the periphery ofthe crater and is comprised of mate: rial ejected in the explosive events responsible for ‘crater formation Hudrothermal explosion craters are produced when water contained in near-surlace rocks at femperatures as high as 250°C flashes 10 steam and violently disrupts the confining rack. Hidrothermal eruptions are not a typical vol- canicexplosion. All the requiced energy probably comes froma deep igneous source, but this energy Is transferred co the surface by circulating meteo- rie water rather than be a magma. The energy is stored as heat in hot water an rock within a few hundred metres of suriace Hypabyssal breccia pipe: Cylindrical to cattot- ed bodies of breeciated wallrock and intru sise rockish. ranging in diameter from tens of metres 10 over one kilometre and with a vertical exient up to several orders of magnitude that of the diameter. The geological seiuing of mans of these bodies suggests thes formed between 0.5 and km below the surface in intimate relationship, with late-stage magmatic processes Imbricated breccia: Slabsshaped clasts supported ina prelerced imbricate orientation iniarock flour matrix. The imbrication varies from near vertical atthe margins to llav-lying further into the pipe. Ii results from the progressive spalling oll of slabby blocks from the fractured pipe margin into he breccia Intrusion breccia: A breccia forming a sheath or cap around the top of an intrusive magma, con: sisting of angular to poorly rounded clasts of wsallrock supported ina rock flour matrix o sira- ilar composition. tt forms as a result of the high pore fluid pressure and generation of steam at the head of an intrusion, which disaggregates the wallrocks by cataclastic low an grain boundary sliding. This enables viscous magma to hore ts was upward, Maar voleano: Low-lying circular vents ranging from several hundred metres to over one kilome: lee in diameter, commonly lilled with water and surrounded by a narrow ring of ejecta composed ‘of & mixture of brecciated host rack and juvenile Nolcanic material. Maat voleanoes form by the eruption of meveoric water explosives lashing to steam when ittomes intocontaci with theascend. ing magma. The process has been relerred to as phireatormagmatic eruption by Lorenz (1975) and as hvdrovoleanism by Sheridan and Wohlew 1988), Tuff rings are more commonly associated with smaats than tu cones. Ifthe floor extends below the original ground surface they may be called ‘maar voleanoes Mill breccia: Consists of subangular to rounded. tlongate 1oequant clasts supported ina rock flour matrix produced by the milling and comminu: tion of the clast material. Clastscan show a range in composition and shape. generally with a ait degree of rounding. Processes which are capable of producing a considerable degree of milling. such as fluidisation. are requited to produce this kind of breccia. Mill breccia is sometimes celerred fo.as an intrusion breccia (quv.) because of 18 cross-cutting relationship to adjacent rock types, Pebble breccia dyke: Breccia dyke consisting of a mixture af rounded clasts supported in a tock flour matrix. Its formed when fluidisation takes place ina restricted space. such as fracture along Which solatiles are escaping. Pebble breccia dvke formation is intimately asso- ciated with the escape of volaules during breccia ‘on and therefore is likely to be synchronous with the main stage of breceia pipe formation. Hence pebble breccia dekes are likely to be preserved in the upper portions of 4 pipe above the column. Within porphyry systems pebble breccia dvkes are generally observed to be latestage cutting the Stockwork mineralisation. This is eonsistent with ‘our model wherein hydraulic Jacking, resulting, in stockwork fracturing isa precursor to breeciation, ° Shatter breccia: Angular clasts showing very litle displacement relative to each other and cemented by a single generation of bydrothermal infill ‘minerals. Where the breccia column has failed to breach the surface the rock overlying the breccia ‘column may shatter as it gently subsides into the pipe. Also referred (0 a5 jig-saw breccia, mosaic breccia, crackle breceta and tensional breccia ‘The amount of displacement between fragments may increase downward. grading into an angular clastsupported breccia commonly referred to a8 collapse breccia av.) Sheeted fracturing: Set of concentric fractures around the edge ofa breccia pipe, whose orienta- Uuon is roughls parallel (o the margin of the pipe Ic results from the competency contrast between the host rock and the unlihified breccia, which produces brittle fatlute of the unsupported host rock during compaction of the breccia material Stockwork veining: Randomly to semi-randomly ‘oriented veins, whose complex eross-cutting rela tionships suggest multiple generations of vein- ing. Inextreme examples the rock will appear to he breceiated 7In a hypabyssal breccia pipe stockworking is probably due to overpressuring during boiling, Pihich hydraulically (ractures the surrounding Tock. A classic example is the mineralised vein ystems characterising porphyry-type deposits Where stockwork veining is present in shallower situations associated with hydrothermal explo- Non breccias. the gangue minerals in the veins hhavean epithermal character. 38 ‘Tuff cone: A low-lying circular vent surrounded Byraring of ejecta, with a high topographic pro: file and steep external slopes constructed from vwet cohesive as. “Taff ring: A low-lying circular vent surrounded Daring‘ ejecta, with alow topographic protile ad gentle excernal slopes constructed from dry ash.PLATES0 Plate 1. Stockwork fracturing consisting ofa sequence of intersecting microveinlets. Note how the intense stockworking is grading into breccia. This texture can be considered to be produced by hydraulic jacking in the upper portion of, intrusive and adjacent host rocks by overpressured hydrothermal fluids. (Anastasia, North Queensland), Plate 2. Decompressive shock texture in tourmaline breccia. Note thin wedge shaped clasts supported in a matrix of quartz + tourmaline cement. Breccia~ thon occurs when the ripid escape ol volatiles (rom fractures and voids results sn creation of a space and a drop in pressure, causing the overpressured ‘wallrocks to explosively burst off the walls of fractures and voids. (Wheal Remiry, Cowal). Plate 3. Decompressive shock texture consisting of curved fragments cemented ina tourmaline + quartz cement. Formed by a similar process as for Plate 2 but clasts have explosively burst from large blocks rather than 2 flat surface, (Wheal Remiry, Cornwall, courtesy of PJ. Pollard) Plate 4. Mill breccia typically found in the central portions of breccia pipes, consisting of subangular to rounded clasts of mixed assemblages supported Ja tock flour matrix. (Mount Turner, North Queensland; Baker and Hor- ton, 1982), Plate. Sheeted fractures in the wall rocks adjacent tothe pipe. possibly formed by a ‘number of processes including subsidence and hydraulic fracturing. (Wheal Remfry, Cornwall Plate 6. Imbricated breccia showing alignment of tabular clasts Supported in arock flour matrix. Commonly found adjacent to the pipe where portions of sheeted-fractured margin have spalled into the breccia. (Seventy Mile Moun tain, North Queensland; Claussen, 1984),Plate 7. Shatter breccia consisting of angular clasts showing only limited displace: ment relative to each other, cemented by a hydrothermal quartz fill. The breccia is interpreted as Jorming br shattering of host rocks as they subside mio the pipe, [Wheal Remfrs, Cornwall) Plate 8, Pebble breccia dvke consisting of rounded clasts of mixed assemblages ina rock {lour matrix, produced by milling of clasts by fluidisation within a fracture along which volatiles are escaping. (Mount Turner, North Queens: land: Baker and Horton, 1982), Plate 9. Tepical tuff ring material around a maar volcano consisting of interbedded twill beds and breccia. Tull beds commonly vary in thickness from 1 040 cm. (Wau, Papua New Guinea: Sillitor etal. 1983), Plate 10. Bomb sag crater formed sub-aerially due 10 the impact of a ballistic projectile. (Reelbourne Hole, U.S.A. courtesy of G.W. Morrison). Plate 11. accretionary lapilli within tuff bed material. Individual lapillisized grains consisting of concentrically banded fine-grained ash material formed 1hy accretion of dust onto water droplets condensing in an expanding base sue cloud. (Lepunto, Phillippines} Plate 12, Lane angleune-form cross-bedding «ically present in the finer-grained has of base surge deposits, Note that the angle of crassebeds 3s less than 13°, heelbmunie Hole, USA. courtesy af GAT, MoxrisonPlate 13. Interbedided finely layered siltstone (with organic-rich layers) and epiclas- ticbreccia. typically found in the upper portion of a maar vent. Steepening of dips is due to subsidence in vent. (Wau, Papua New Guinea: Sillit etal 1983) Plate 14, Hydrothermal explosion breccia from the near-surface upper level of network oferypiocrystalline quarte veins, The breccia is composed of angular clast-supported ‘ull Iragmenis in a matrix of hydrothermal clay and crypto: crystalline quart. (Dellemar, U.S.A.) Plate 15, Hydrothermal vein breccia illustrating multiphase brecciation and min- eralisation, The breccia is composed of rhyolite. sulphide and earlier vein ‘lasts in a matrix of eryplocrystalline quar and sulphides. (Borealis, Nevada), Plate 16, Epithermal vein breccia showing evidence of repeated brecciation. Note the erustiform overgrowths of manganese gangue minerals. (Chikotok, Indonesia Plate 17, Typical breccia {rom the ejecta apron of a hydrothermal eruption breccia, consisting of large angular blocks in a muddy sandy matrix containing @ high proportion of hydrothermal clas. (Way. Papua New Guinea: Siitoe et she 83 Plate 18, Bedding lavering reflecting compositional variations in the ejeeta apron ‘ols hydrothermal eruption bieeeia, Individual beds may be up 104 mette or thar in thickinews «Want, Papas New Guinea: Sillitor etal. 1984