ARCH 121 – INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE I

LECTURE NOTES:
WEEK 1 - Introduction: Definition of Architecture and the Architect:
1. Definition of Architecture
Architecture could be basically defined as ‘the art and science of designing and constructing
buildings’. As a word, ‘architecture’ can carry several other meanings, such as:
1. The product or result of architectural work: buildings, urban areas and landscapes.
2. A style or method of building characteristic of a people, place or time.
3. The profession of designing buildings and other habitable environments by architects.
4. The conscious act of forming things resulting in a unifying or coherent structure.1

In its most simple form, architecture is the design and organization of spaces, and in its most
common form, it is the design of buildings, their interiors and surrounding spaces.
The architect acts a designer, who can work in a wide range of scales, from a scale as large as the
planning of a city, up to a scale as small as the design of a chair.

Ching, F., Visual Dictionary of Architecture

2. Etymology of the Word ‘Architecture’

Etymologically (in terms of the root of the word), the word ‘architecture’ comes from the Greek
arkhitekton (ἀρχιτέκτων), which is a combination of the word arkhi, meaning “chief” or
“master”, and tekton, meaning “mason” or “builder”. In line with the etymology, architecture

1
Ching, F., Visual Dictionary of Architecture

1
used to denote both the process and the product of designing and constructing buildings; and the
architect used to be known as the “master mason” or “master builder” in the past.

3. Origin of Architecture
Architecture is one of the oldest professions in human history. It appeared with human being’s
need of shelter to protect himself from the weather and danger outside. It first evolved as the
outcome of needs (like shelter, security, worship etc.) and means (like the available building
materials and skills). As human cultures progressed, building became a craft and later the
formalized version of that craft, which is practiced by educated professionals, is called
‘architecture’.

The Great Cave of Niah, Malaysia (human remains dating to 40,000 years)

Primitive Maori shelter, New Zeland (Canterbury Museum) (left), Shelter of Chumash and
Ohlone Indians, USA (Photo: Norm Kidder) (right)

4. Natural form, Man-made form, Architectural artifact

As the famous architect Louis Kahn says “architecture is what nature cannot make”. Indeed,
human beings are one of the few animals that can build buildings. Structures that some animals

2
build, such as some birds’, bees’, or white ants’ nests, indeed resemble our buildings in terms of
their structural economy.2 For example a certain bird in South America (Rufous-breasted
Spinetail) builds a two room nest, with rooms tied to each other by a tube like structure. Or, white
blind ants build structures out of mud on the ground. Or, the sea mollusk nautilus builds a shell
around itself out of calcium carbonate. As it grows, this nautilus adds a new and bigger volume to
its shell, and the small, emptied part of the shell is filled with nitrogen, which gives the shell the
quality of floating in the water. These older parts of the shell are left as the record or the heritage
of the animal’s history.

Nest of Rufous-breasted Spinetail, South America (Photo: ProAves Colombia) (left), White ant
nest, Africa (Photo: unknown) (right)

Nautilus shell

Similarly, architecture is the shell of the human species. It is the environment that we build for
ourselves. However, unlike the animals, we as human beings “think” while we are making
buildings. Our act of building our buildings is a conscious process. This is what differentiates
man-made structures from animals’ nests. Animals produce their nests or shells as a result of
their genetic coding. We on the other hand, build our buildings consciously to meet some
requirements and we not only meet those requirements but we give expression to some values
and sensations, such as cultural values.

2
Roth, L. Understanding Architecture

3
Parthenon in Ancient Greece made to honor the Greek goddess Athena (left), Taj Mahal in India
made as a mausoleum to honor the Emperor Shah Cihan’s wife Mumtaz Mahal (right)

As our experience and knowledge develops and as the cultural and environmental circumstances
change, we change and evolve this architectural environment. But if we want to protect our
identity, we should take optimum care in protecting the “shell” of our past. Because that “shell”
(or architecture) of our past is the physical record of our lives, our successes and aspirations. It is
the cultural heritage that is left to us.

As famous thinker John Ruskin said: “Great nations write their autobiographies in three
manuscripts–the book of their deeds, the book of their words, and the book of their art. Not one
of these can be understood unless we read the other two; but of the three, the only quite
trustworthy one is the last.”

As rightly said, architecture is like the history and literature of one nation in built form. It is the
record of the people who produced it and could be “read” as the history or literature of those
people. It is a nonverbal way of communication and it is the quiet record of the people who
produced it. We can understand a culture’s history and literature from their architecture and
likewise if we want to understand the architecture of any period or culture (in the past or today),
we should understand the history and literature (deeds and the words) of that period. (p. 23)

4
 Empire State building, New York (left), Big Donut shop in Los Angeles (right)

This way for example, Empire State building in New York (built in 1932, Shreve, Lam and
Harmon associates) tells us about capitalism and the urban values of 20th century, and the Big
Donut shop in Los Angeles (built in 1954, Henry J. Goodwin), even though it is a bad
architectural example, tells us about the living style of American people, their car dominated life
and desire for savory fast food.

Therefore, architecture is the art that we cannot avoid. We can avoid and not see other arts one
way or another, such as painting or sculpture, but architecture, like it or not, affects us and shapes
our behaviors all time, as we live in and around it. We have the feeling of awe when we are
walking in the hypostyle hall of Karnak temple in Egypt, or under the dome of Suleymaniye
Mosque in İstanbul, or when we see Frank Lloyd Wright’s Falling Water House with all its
beauty within the environment that surrounds it. Or more commonly, we are affected by the color
of the room we are in.

5
Hypostyle hall of Karnak temple, Egypt (left), Suleymaniye mosque by Mimar Sinan, İstanbul
(right)

Falling Water House, Pennsylvania, USA by Frank Lloyd Wright (left), A room painted green
(right)

However architecture is not just art. Architecture deals with form and gives very much
importance to how that form looks, but it also deals with function and how that function affects
form. This is what differentiates the art works, such as sculpture, from architecture. Architects
think also of other things such as function or structure, next to form, beauty and expression.
Moreover, art does not have to be beautiful. Art expresses the sensations, feelings of the artist
through the forms he/she chooses, with or without purpose or beauty. Architecture is not that
free.

6
Fountain by Marcel Duchamp, 1917 (left); Weeping Woman with Handkerchief by Pablo
Picasso, 1937 (right).

5. Fundamentals of Architecture
The earliest surviving written work on architecture is Roman architect Marcus Vitruvius’ De
architectura (Ten Books on Architecture), which was written in the early 1st century AD.

Vitruvius has written in his book that a good building must satisfy three main qualities, which are
firmitas, utilitas, venustas. Referring to firmness, functionality, and beauty, Vitruvius denoted
that a good building should be firm, useful, and beautiful and that the architect should strive to
fulfill each of these three qualities as well as possible.

Since ancient times, these basic elements of architecture (firmness, functionality and beauty)
have remained essentially unchanged. Accordingly, architectural products (or buildings) should
still be firm, which means that they should stand up firm and solid, and remain in good condition;
they should still be functional, which means that they should be useful and function well for the
people using them; and they should still be beautiful, which means that they should please the
senses of the people who view and use them.

Therefore, architecture should try to reach the optimum combination of firmitas, venustas and
utilitas, meaning the firmness of structure, beauty of the form (and space), and the functionality
of the building. For this reason the profession of architecture is in between the arts, the science
and the humanities. Therefore, the architect should equip him/herself with the knowledge of
many branches of study, such as aesthetics, building technology, sociology etc., to be able to
produce architectural works that meet the needs of people properly.

7
 Utilitas
Function

Humanities

Art Architecture Science

Beauty Firmness
Venustas Firmitas

Therefore, the ultimate test of architecture is made with the following questions:
1. Is the building functional? (Could it be used effectively and easily?)
2. Is the building firm? (Is its structure firm enough to carry all the weights it should carry,
such as its own weight, its users’ weights, and the forces of the wind and the earthquake?
And, Are its materials durable enough to withstand many years of use?)
3. Is the building beautiful? (Does the building give visual delight to the user and the viewer;
is it aesthetic and pleasing?)

(Source: Ching, F., Architecture: Form, Space and Order)

8
 (Source: Ching, F., Architecture: Form, Space and Order)

6. Scope of Architecture
As the etymology indicates, the architect has to act as the “master builder” and see the building
both as an object of design and as a process of building. Therefore, he/she has to have a full
command of both the form, function, and structure of the building, and also other factors such as
the site characteristics, materials, lighting, heating and acoustic conditions, color and texture of
buildings.

First of all, architecture takes place at a site or a context. The site of an architectural project
affects and determines very important characteristics about the project, such as its layout,
orientation, approach, views, relationship with the environment, and materials (as they would
differentiate according to the climate).

9
Secondly, to be able to create comfortable environments for people, architecture takes care of the
lighting, heating and acoustic conditions of the building, as well as the color of spaces and the
texture of the materials. It considers how light affects and travels within the building, how the
building is heated or ventilated, how it reacts to sounds (acoustics), what colors it should have,
and the textural sensations evoked by the materials used in it. After all, a completed building is a
sensory experience.3 (farelly, p. 8-11)

Besides these, architecture can also carry a symbolic function. It can have a symbolic content to
be conveyed to its users or viewers. This symbolic content could be perceived easily in religious
and governmental buildings. A courthouse for example could be made to be intimidating
consciously, or a religious building could be built to create the feeling of awe. Moreover,
architectural works could act as icons of cities, such as Eiffel Tower in Paris or Chrysler building
in New York.

Reichstag (German Parliament Building), Germany

Reims Cathedral, Reims, France

3
Farelly, Mimarligin Temelleri

10
 Eiffel Tower in Paris (left) or Chrysler building in New York (right)

7. Architectural production and creativity

Architectural production is a process that includes the stages of thinking, designing and drafting.
This process starts with the development of a “concept”. A concept is the initiating idea of the
project and can be formed by way of considering several factors, such as the function and site
conditions of the project, a possible structural system, or the historical and cultural context of the
site.

This “concept” starts to take “form” by including the “functions” attached to it. Then, this “form”
is further shaped “structurally” and “materially”. Finally, the form is realized in three dimensions
by taking care of the sound related (acoustics), light related (illumination) and spatial
considerations.

As other design disciplines, architecture is an act of problem solving that requires a creative
thinking process. These problems need creativity because they do not have predetermined
methods (as in mathematical formulas or theorems) for their solutions. Each designer/architect
has to find their own methods themselves for each and every different design problem.

When a designer is given a design problem, his depth and range of design vocabulary affects both
how he understands the problem and also how he shapes his answer. If one’s understanding of a
design vocabulary is limited and the range of possible solutions to the problems are also limited.

The concepts and methods for different design problems can be formed by getting inspired from
past architectural solutions and architects, by getting inspired from nature by analogy or
metaphor, or most favorably by total innovation of new forms and structures. Architectural
creativity exists when the architectural work is both original and appropriate.

11
An example to inspiration to past forms: Pantheon, Rome, Italy (126 AD) (left), Jefferson
Memorial, Washington DC, USA (1943)

An example to an analogy to nature: A picture of an armadillo (left), The SECC Conference

Center in Glasgow, Scotland (by Foster and Partners in 1995-1997) (right)

Examples to creativity and originality in architecture: Villa Savoye Poissy by Le Corbusier,

1929-31(left), Farnsworth House by Mies van der Rohe, 1951 (right)

12
Examples to creativity and originality in architecture: Falling Water (Kauffman) House by Frank
Lloyd Wright, USA (left), National Congress of Brazil by Oscar Niemeyer, Brasilia, 1958 (right)

8. Course Description and Objectives

As the “art of building”, architecture has its own language. In order to read and write in a
language you should first know the letters, words and the grammar of that language. Same
applies here. In order to learn architecture, you have to learn its letters, its vocabulary (or basic
elements) and the grammar (composition principles) that brings them together. Once you learn
these fundamental components, you can read and write anything in architecture.
The aim of this course is to introduce you with the elements and principles of architectural design
in order to support you in your design studies. For this reason, this course will introduce you with
the basic elements of form and space and show you how they are manipulated and organized in
the development of a design concept.

13
ARCH 121 – INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE I
WEEK 12: Structure in Architecture
From: Roth, L., Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning

1. Structure in Architecture
What makes the building stand up is its structure. As we have discussed in the first class,
structure is one of three fundamentals of architecture that Vitruvius listed, next to function
and aesthetics. Up until now, we have discussed the principles and concepts that could be
grouped under the subject of aesthetics. Starting with this class we will talk about the other
fundamentals of architecture, which are structure and function.
We can distinguish between two types of structure:
a. Physical structure: which is the real structure, or the literal bones of the building that
carries the weight of that building, and,
b. Perceptual structure: which is what we see and feel when we look at a structure. For
example, a building could be structurally very solid and its structure could be very
adequate for carrying the load of that building. However, its columns may look so thin
and slender to us that it seems to us very delicate as if to be in danger of a collapse.

Or a column may be much larger than structurally necessary just to give us the feeling
that it is indeed big enough for the job. Such is the case with the thick columns of the
Temple of Poseidon in Italy.

Physical structure: steel frame structure and reinforced concrete frame structure

Physical structure: timber frame structure

1
 Perceptual structure: Temple of Poseidon at Paestum in Italy (550 BC): The stone columns
larger than structurally necessary, try to convey the impression of strength.

Perceptual structure could also be exemplified by the comparison of two buildings: Lever
House in New York (by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill) and the neighboring New York
Racquet and Tennis Club (by McKim, Mead and White).
We see the contrast in these two buildings between the heaviness of massive masonry wall
that expresses structure and the lightness of the wall of glass that hides the structure. The wall
of New York Racquet and Tennis Club looks stronger than need be and gives us the assurance
of structural excess, whereas the actual physical columns of Lever House are covered by a
suspended skin of green glass and there is no perceptual clue as to what holds the building up.

Perceptual structure: New York Racquet and Tennis Club (by McKim, Mead and White)
shows the heaviness of massive masonry wall (right) and Lever House in New York (by
Skidmore, Owings and Merrill) shows the lightness of the wall of glass that hides the
structure (left).

2
We grow up with a good sense of gravity and how it affects objects around us. As babies, we
must figure out how to raise our bodies and move on two legs. So we have a clear concept
that objects not supported will fall straight down. And that is the essence of architectural
structure – making sure that objects (buildings) do not fall to earth, despite the pull of
gravity.
Therefore we develop an early ability about how gravity works on objects. For example when
we see pyramids in Egypt, we sense that they are naturally stable objects, whereas when we
see something like Shapero Hall of Pharmacy (Wayne State University, Detroit), we feel a
sense of instability.

Sense of stability: Pyramids in Egypt

Sense of Instability: Shapero Hall of Pharmacy (Wayne State University, Detroit)

The sense of weight was consciously tried to be expressed by some architects in some
buildings. One example to it is Frank Furness’ Provident Life and Trust Company Building in
Philadelphia (now demolished), which expressed the immense sense of weight.

Sense of weight: Frank Furness’ Provident Life and Trust Company Building

3
How forces are handled in buildings also appear in different ways. There could be a careful
balance between the vertical and horizontal structural elements in which neither dominates -
there is an equilibrium of forces, as in Parthenon, Athens. Or, there could be the dominance of
thin vertical supports and a multiplicity of vertical lines, as in Gothic churches (example:
Beauvais Cathedral, France). In Gothic churches, this verticality conveys the image of
weightlessness, the reach towards God and the visual denial of the actual heavy weight of the
building.

A careful balance between the vertical and horizontal structural elements in which neither
dominates - there is an equilibrium of forces: Parthenon, Athens.

The dominance of thin vertical supports and a multiplicity of vertical lines, as in Gothic
churches: Beauvais Cathedral, France, 42.7 m above the ground.

There are various structural elements and systems (taşıyıcı eleman ve sistemler) that carry the
loads in different ways. As the two most basic systems, we can talk about:
a. The masonry systems in which the walls are carrying the loads, and
b. The frame systems in which the building has a structural system (built out of
reinforced concrete, steel or timber) that carries all the weight.
However, there are also other systems, such as cable structures, shell roofs, pneumatic
structures, space frames etc.
In the following paragraphs we shall talk about the most basic structural elements and systems
in detail:
A. Main structural systems:
a. Masonry (load bearing) systems (yığma taşıyıcı sistem)
b. Frames - Post and Lintel (or the column and beam) systems
B. Structural elements and some other structural systems:
4
 a. Post and Lintel (or the column and beam)
b. Arch
c. Vault
d. Dome
e. Trusses
f. Space Frames
g. Geodesic Domes
h. Shells
i. Suspension Structures
j. Membrane (Tent) and Inflated Structures

A. Main structural systems:

A.a. Masonry (load bearing) wall (yığma taşıyıcı duvar):
The most primitive way of carrying the load of the building and the roof is using the walls as
load bearing elements. In this structural system, which is called masonry system, the walls
carry all the weight of the building and the roof.
Basically, masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound
together by mortar. The common materials of masonry construction are brick, stone, marble,
granite, travertine, limestone, concrete block, glass block, stucco, and tile.
When we want to open door and window openings in load bearing masonry walls, we place a
small beam over the door or window opening (that is made out of wood or metal), which is
called a lintel (lento in Turkish), or an arch that covers the top of the opening.

5
Stone masonry and brick masonry buildings

6
 A.b. Frame Systems
In frame systems, the building has a structural system (built out of reinforced concrete, steel
or timber) that carries all the weight. The basic unit of a frame system is post and lintel
(column and beam). Now before talking about frame systems, we shall talk about post and
lintel in detail:
B.a. Post and Lintel (or the column and beam)
Instead of carrying the load of the building and roof with load bearing walls, we can use posts
(or columns) and lintels (or beams). The column and beam, or post and lintel system is as old
as the history of human construction. Such a system is called a trabeated system (which
comes from the Latin word trabs that means beam).
Two of the most straightforward examples of post and lintel construction is the Stonehenge in
England and the Valley Temple, at the east of the pyramid of Khafre, Giza, Egypt (2570 and
2500 BC). Here square lintels of red granite rest on square posts of same material.

Stonehenge, England

7
 Valley Temple, at the east of the pyramid of Khafre, Giza, Egypt (2570 and 2500 BC).

Valley Temple, at the east of the pyramid of Khafre, Giza, Egypt (2570 and 2500 BC).

All beams are pulled down by the force of gravity. Since all materials are flexible to some
degree, beams tend to sag of their own weight, and sag even more, when the loads are applied
on it. This means that the upper part of the beam is compressed along the top surface, while
the lower part is stretched and is said to be in tension. In cantilevers the situation is exactly
reversed (extending the beam over the end of the column, results in a cantilever): as the
extended beam sags due to the pull of gravity, the upper part is stretched (put in tension) and
the lower portion is compressed.

8
Wood, iron and steel resist tensile stresses well. For this reason, beams of these materials
could span long distances. When the span distance and the load they are carrying are too
much, then the beams crack at the bottom, deform at the top and collapse.
Stone and concrete have less tensile strength then wood, iron and steel, so they cannot span
long distances as wood, iron and steel beams. A wooden beam over a certain span can carry a
load that would crack a stone beam carrying the same load.
The solution that is developed for concrete beams is to place something within the concrete
that will take the tensile forces. This was done by the Romans as well as in modern times, by
placing iron (and now steel) rods in the formwork into which the liquid concrete is then
poured. The result is reinforced concrete. As the dotted lines show in the figure below, the
steel is placed where the tensile forces accumulate: on the bottoms of beams and on the top of
the cantilevers.
The classical column types, or classical orders of Greeks and Romans, work by way of post
and lintel system. As we have talked in the previous classes, the Greeks developed three
column types, which are the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. To these the Romans added the
Tuscan, which they made simpler than Doric, and the Composite, which was more ornamental
than the Corinthian.
Each order, or column type, has three basic parts: the base, the shaft and the entablature. The
column rises from the three stepped temple base, which is composed of the one layer of
stylobate (stulos means column and bate means base), and two layers of stereobate.
In all the column types, the basic unit of dimension was the diameter of the column. From the
diameter of column, the dimension of the shaft was derived, as well as the dimensions of the
capital, the pedestal below and the entablature above. The spaces between the columns were
also based on the diameter of the column.
Doric columns (or doric order), the most massive of all the columns, are 6-7 times as tall as
their diameters. Doric entablature is 2 and 1/2 times as tall as the diameter. Generally, the
shaft of the doric order rises directly from the stylobate and has no base. The shaft has 20
flutes. The capital has a necking, an outward swelling echinus and a square abacus slab.
Each order has its distinctive entablature formed of three parts. The Doric order is made up of
(1) the lower architrave, (2) the middle part that is called frieze, which consists of decorated
triglyphs and the metopes between them, and (3) the uppermost cornice.
Ionic columns are more slender than Doric columns. They are 8 and 1/3 times as tall as their
diameters. They rise from a base and have 24 flutes. The capital has curved volutes. The
entablature has again an architrave, a frieze that is generally filled with sculptural reliefs, and
the cornice.
Slightly more slender Corinthian columns are 8 to 10 times as tall as their diameters. They
rise from a base and have 24 flutes. The capital is very tall and has two or three bands of
acanthus leaves decorations. The entablature is similar to Ionic order.
The Romans also used the three Greek orders and added them the Tuscan order (by modifying
the Doric order) and the Composite order (by modifying the Corinthian order). The romans
also introduced a decorative adaptation of columns: merging the column with the wall to
create half columns, which is called the engaged column. They have also created a flat
column like projection on walls, which is called as pilaster.

9
10
11
12
 Doric order: Parthenon, in Athens, Greece, 432 BC (left), and

Doric order: The Temple of Hephaestus and Athena Ergane. It is the best preserved
ancient Greek temple. Located at the north-west side of the Agora of Athens.

Ionic order: The Temple of Athena Nike in Athens. One of the most famous Ionic
buildings in the world. It is located on the Acropolis, very close to the Parthenon.

Ionic order: The Temple of Athena Nike in Athens. One of the most famous Ionic
buildings in the world. It is located on the Acropolis, very close to the Parthenon.
13
 Corinthian order: The Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens

Corinthian order: The Temple of the Sybil in Rome is a good example of the
Corinthian order: The Romans used the Corinthian order much more than did the Greeks.

Corinthian order: Maison Carrée, Nîmes, southern France (Roman building)

Tuscan order: John Wood the Younger’s Hot Bath (1776-1778)

14
Tuscan order: Bernini’s St Peter’s Basilica (left)

Composite order: Baths of Diocletian, Rome

Engaged Column

Engaged Column

15
 Pilaster

A.b. Frames
As we had seen, the most basic unit of a frame system is the post and lintel. If posts and
lintels are extended in three dimensions (continued in x and y axes), the result is a frame
(cerceve). Frame systems could be built out of stone ( The Valley Temple in Egypt above),
reinforced concrete, steel or timber.

Reinforced concrete frame

Reinforced concrete frame

16
Reinforced concrete frame: Rue Franklin Apartment- First reinforced concrete apartment by
Auguste Perret in France

Reinforced concrete frame: Le Corbusier’s Domino House drawing

Reinforced concrete frame: Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoye

Steel frame

17
 Steel frame

Steel frame: Mies van der Rohe’s Seagram building, New York

Timber frame

18
 Timber balloon frame

Timber frame: Safranbolu houses

B. Structural elements and some other structural systems:

a. Post and Lintel (or the column and beam) (We had already discussed this)
b. The Arch

Arch is another method of spanning an opening. Like a lintel, the arch (kemer) can be made of
stone but it has two great advantages: (1) the masonry arch is made up of many smaller parts,
which are the wedge shaped voussoirs, so the necessity of finding a large stone lintel is
eliminated, and (2) the arch can span much greater distances than a lintel, because of its
geometry. The gravitational forces are transferred from the voussoirs to wall below. The
uppermost voussoir is called the keystone.
The arch is made by placing the voussoirs above a wooden framework, when all the voussoirs
(both on left and right) are placed, the keystone is put in place and that instance the arch
becomes self-supportive. Then the wooden framework can be removed. The base of the arch
tends to spread outwards if it is not supported by wall or other supportive elements, such as
other arches. There are several arch types.
Arches and vaults (information below) were first used systematically by the Ancient Romans.
Romans were the first to apply the technique to a wide range of structures.

19
If several arches are placed end to end, the resulting form is called an arcade. Arcade is a
strong structure because every arch supports each other and prevents each other to spread
outwards. When this is done the arches can be placed on piers or individual columns, since
the lateral forces that make the bases of the arches spread out are cancelled. The lateral forces
are eliminated at the ends of the arcade by building thicker piers at the end or placing the
structure in a canyon. The Romans used arcades very much (especially in building aqueducts).
One example is Pont du Gard, in Nimes, France, a combination of bridge and aqueducts. The
arches in this structure span 19.5 m and the total length of the bridge is 274.3 m.

Triumphal Arch in Tyre, Lebanon (left), and Arc de Triomphe in Paris, France

20
 Arcade

Pont du Gard, in Nimes, France

Pont du Gard, in Nimes, France

c. Vault
If the arch is extended in one direction, the result is a vault (tonoz). If a semicircular arch is
extended the result is a tunnel or barrel vault (besik tonoz).
Solid barrel vaults produce dark interiors. To overcome this, the Romans developed the groin
vault (capraz tonoz) by adding two barrel vaults to the main vault at right angles, so that they
are intersected.

21
But groin vault also had a distadvantage that it worked well only over square plans. To
overcome this, in 1100 in England, the architects have developed the ribbed vault, which
consisted free standing diagonal arches (the ribs) that were placed at the intersection of
separate vaults. They were increasing the strength of the intersection and for this reason the
architects were able to cross rectangular plans with ease.

22
 Ribbed vault

Barrel vault: Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France

The painted barrel vault at the Abbey Church of Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe

23
A reconstruction of the interior of the Baslica of Maxentius, Rome is a demonstration how
Romans could cover vast public spaces with concrete vaults

A reconstruction of the interior of the Baslica of Maxentius, Rome is a demonstration how

Romans could cover vast public spaces with concrete vaults

Groin vault: Palladio's Palazzo della Ragione, Vicenza (left) and Abbaye Saint-Philibert,
Tournus

24
The aisle of the Abbey Church at Mozac has a groin vault supported on transverse arches
(left); Groin vault of the nave, 12th century. Gourdon Church, Burgundy, France.

The ribbed vaults at the Saint-Etienne, Caen (left) and the aisles at Peterborough Cathedral
with quadripartite ribbed vaults.

Rib vault: Cathedral of Reims, France (left), and Notre dame de Amiens in France (right)
25
 d. Dome
If an arch is rotated in three dimensions, we get a dome. The dome too was much used by the
Romans.

The largest and most impressive dome created in Roman times was the Pantheon in Rome
(AD 120-27). Originally it was a pagan temple (before Christianity). The clear span under the
dome of Pantheon is 43.4 m. The dome is made up of concrete and its thickness is 1.2 m at the
top. The thickness of the dome is increased at its base for preventing the spreading outwards
and it is 6.4 m thick. On top of the dome there is a big opening, called the eye (or the oculus),
which is 9.1 m in diameter. The wall under the wall (drum wall) is also 6.4 m thick and
supports the 5000 tons of weight of the dome. The wall is hollowed by niches that are 4.3 m’s
deep.
The weight of the concrete in Pantheon was varied by the Roman architects by means of the
materials used to make up the concrete. As we had seen before, the concrete in our time is a
soft material when it is first prepared, which is a mixture of water, broken rocks and sand
(aggregate) and cement. It is placed into a formwork until it is dry. In the concrete of the
Pantheon, the rock aggregate was varied from the heaviest at the base of the dome to the
lightest at the top.

Pantheon in Rome (AD 120-27)

26
Floor plan and Cross-section of the Pantheon in Rome showing how a 43.3 m-diameter sphere
fits under its dome.

The interior of the Pantheon in the 18th century, painted by Giovanni Paolo Panini

Pantheon in Rome (AD 120-27)

27
Of course there is a difference between the Roman concrete and the concrete we use today.
The Romans used pozzuolana instead of cement, which is a volcanic ash that underwent a
chemical reaction and turned into an artificial stone when mixed with water. Therefore the
Roman concrete was made up of water, broken rocks and sand (aggregate) and pozzuolana.
The concrete we used today was developed in 1824 in England by Joseph Aspdin and consists
of water, sand (aggregate) and cement. When it was first made, the dried out concrete
resembled the natural limestone of Portland, England and the inventor Aspdin called the
cement he developed as Portland cement. Cement is still called with this name today.
As it has been mentioned before, concrete is very strong for compression (pressure) but very
week for tension (pulling out). For this reason, both the Romans and us in our time, add
tensile membranes into concrete when it is soft. Romans added iron bars and we add iron or
steel bars within the formworks of concrete since mid-19th century. The steel or iron bars are
placed where the tensile forces are much greater (at the top of the cantilever and at the bottom
of the beams).
The domes naturally require circular plans underneath them. Any building with a circular
ground plan, which is covered by a dome, is called a rotunda. The Pantheon is a famous
rotunda. But circular plans are generally disadvantageous for adding adjacent spaces next to
the domed space. For this reason in 4th century AD, the Byzantine architects have developed a
way of placing a dome over a square plan. They have achieved this by using curved triangle
shaped elements which are called as pendentives (singular: pendentive. Turkish: pandantif).
(The four curved segments that make the transition from the square plan below to the circular
plan above are the pendentives.) By this way they were able to put a circular dome over a
cubical space. An excellent example to the use of pendentives is Hagia Sophia Church (Aya
Sofya) in Istanbul, designed by Isidoros of Miletos and Anthemios of Tralles. The space
enclosed in Hagia Sophia is huge: it is 32.6 meters across, but with the extended domes it
reaches to 76.2 m’s. the base of the dome is 40.2 m’s high from the ground.
The weight of the dome spreaded the dome outwards when it was first constructed (and after
the earthquakes) and it was collapsed two times. It was built again and this time to prevent
spreading, very big buttresses (destek payandalari in Turkish) have been built against the
pendentives.
If there is a square plan and it is connected to an octagonal or spherical base of the dome, the
dome is connected to the square plan by squinches. A squinch (tromp in Turkish) is a
construction filling in the upper angles of a square room so as to form a base to receive an
octagonal or spherical dome.

28
Pendentives: Hagia Sophia (Church of Divine Wisdom) in Istanbul (532-537 AD)

29
Pendentives: Hagia Sophia (Church of Divine Wisdom) in Istanbul (532-537 AD) designed
by Isidoros of Miletos and Anthemios of Tralles.

Squinches

30
 Squinches supporting a dome in Odzun Basilica, Armenia, early 8th century (left)

e. Trusses
The Romans also used another structural element, which is the truss. The traditional truss was
made up of timbers arranged in triangular shapes or cells. The triangle, by way of its
geometry, cannot be changed in shape without distorting or bending one of its sides. Because
of this the trusses, which are formed by triangles, are very strong and durable against loads.
One good example of a wooden truss in medieval times is the roof of Westminster Hall,
London, built in 1394-99, which spans 20.7 m’s. It has the hammer-beam type of truss. Today
trusses are generally made by using steel.

Westminster Hall, London, built in 1394-99, which spans 20.7 m’s

Westminster Hall, London, built in 1394-99, which spans 20.7 m’s

31
There are different types of trusses, developed in different times (in 19th century, they were
often named by the name of the engineer who developed them):

32
 Wooden truss and steel truss

When built up of steel members, truss can span huge distances and cover big areas. One of the
first examples to such a use of steel truss is Gallery des Machines, which was built for the
international exhibition held in Paris in 1889. It spanned a 114.9 m’s of distance.

Steel truss: Gallery des Machines, which was built for the international exhibition held
in Paris in 1889

Steel truss: Gallery des Machines, which was built for the international exhibition held
in Paris in 1889

33
 Butterfly truss in Saynatsalo Town Hall by Alvar Aalto

Trusses are also used extensively in bridges

A three dimensionally trussed structure is called a pylon

The HSBC Main Building, Hong Kong has an externally visible truss structure (architect:
Norman Foster) (left); The Hong Kong Bank of China Tower has an externally visible truss
structure. (right)

34
 f. Space Frames
If truss is extended in three dimensions, we attain a new structure called the space frame. It is
being used since 1945 to span very big distances. It can also cantilever big distances. One
early example to it is McCormick Place, Chicago, by C. F. Murphy and Associates in 1968.

Space frame

Space frame: McCormick Place on the Lake, Chicago, C. F. Murphy and Associates, 1968
(spans 45.7 m’s)

35
 Space frame: McCormick Place on the Lake, Chicago, C. F. Murphy and Associates, 1968
(spans 45.7 m’s)

The use of three dimensional trusses that carry the roof: R. Kemper Memorial Arena by
Murphy and Associates, Kansas City, Missouri, 1975. Designed by Helmut Jahn (spans 104.2
m’s)

The use of three dimensional trusses that carry the roof: R. Kemper Memorial Arena by
Murphy and Associates, Kansas City, Missouri, 1975. Designed by Helmut Jahn (spans 104.2
m’s)

g. Geodesic Domes
A truss can be curved in three dimensions to form a geodesic dome. It was invented by the
architect Buckminster Fuller in 1945. Like the steel truss it is formed by triangular steel
elements. One of the first geodesic domes of Fuller is in United States Pavilion for the
international exhibition in Montreal, Canada, built in 1967.

36
 Geodesic dome

Geodesic dome: Montreal Biosphere or United States Pavilion for the international exhibition
in Montreal, Canada, built in 1967 by Buckminster Fuller.

Geodesic dome: Montreal Biosphere or United States Pavilion for the international exhibition
in Montreal, Canada, built in 1967 by Buckminster Fuller.

Geodesic dome: The Climatron greenhouse at Missouri Botanical Gardens, built in 1960 and
designed by Thomas C. Howard

37
 h. Shells
Another structural type is the shell. Generally constructed of concrete, shells are durable and
strong because of their curved geometry. With their curved shapes, shells are naturally strong
structures, allowing wide areas to be spanned without the use of internal supports, giving an
open, unobstructed interior. They can be very strong and safe. And they can be very thick and
heavy or extremely thin and light. Shells can be curved or folded in one direction (folded
plate).

Shell structure: Oceanografic Valencia (left) and Heinz Isler Concrete Shell

Shell structure: Chapel Lomas de Cuernavaca. Designer: Felix Candela

Shell structure: Kresge Auditorium, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, by architect Eero

Saarinen, in 1953.

Shell structure: Kresge Auditorium, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, by architect Eero

Saarinen, in 1953.

38
Shell structure: TWA Flight Center Building by Eero Saarinen, John F. Kennedy International
Airport, New York (spans 64.6*88.7 m’s). The cantilevers are very big: 24.9 m’s.

Shell structure: TWA Flight Center Building by Eero Saarinen, John F. Kennedy International
Airport, New York

Shell structure: : Oceanografic Valencia (left); Los Manantiales Restaurant at Xochimilco by

architect-engineer Félix Candela, 1958 (the concrete applied by hand over steel wire mesh.
The concrete thickness is only 10 cm.)

Shell structure: Los Manantiales Restaurant at Xochimilco by architect-engineer Félix

Candela

39
Shell structure curved in one direction (folded plate): Minneapolis International Airport, 1962

Shell Structure: Assembly Hall, University of Illinoi, Urbana, 1961. The dome consists of a
folded plate that spans 120 m’s. The lateral forces at the end of the shell are taken by a huge
steel belt at its end.

i. Suspension Structures
Beginning from 19th century the suspension bridges are began to be built of iron chains or
steel cables. The classic example of a modern suspension bridge is the Brooklyn Bridge, built
in 1867-83, by John Augustus Roebling, in New York. In this bridge steel wire was used in
the cables.

40
Suspension bridge: Brooklyn Bridge, built in 1867-83, by John Augustus Roebling, in New
York. In this bridge steel wire was used in the cables.

Suspension bridge: Bogazici Bridge (1970-73) spans 1.560 m.

Suspension bridge: Bogazici Bridge (1970-73) spans 1.560 m.

Suspension bridges could also be cable-stayed:

41
 The Millau Viaduct , France

Firth of Forth Bridge in Scotland (left), Campo Volantín footbridge, Bilbao, Spain, Santiago
Calatrava (right)

El Alamillo Bridge, Spain, by Santiago Calatrava

Since 1955, the principles of cables in tension have started to be used in buildings too. A
suspended cable is in the form of a curve, just like a parabola, and it is an ideal structural
form, because it is entirely in tension. Its geometrical reverse, which is a parabolic arch is in
full compression, and it is also an ideal structural form. The architect has attained the shape of
his vaults in La Sagrada Familia Church in Spain, by holding the cables downwards.

42
 Look at this experiment with strings upside down and you will see La Sagrada Familia
Church in Spain by Gaudi

Look at this experiment with strings upside down and you will see La Sagrada Familia
Church in Spain by Gaudi

La Sagrada Familia Church in Spain by Gaudi

Tension is used by way of using cables in buildings that carry the roof. The cables are
supported by way of beams or columns at the ends. One such example is Eero Saarinen’s
Washington Dulles Airport Building, 1958. He created two rows of outward leaning
coulumns that carry two parallel beams on the two long sides of the building. Between these
parallel beams, the cables are suspended. Concrete slabs were placed on these suspended
cables to form the roof.

43
 Eero Saarinen’s Washington Dulles Airport Building, 1958

Eero Saarinen’s Washington Dulles Airport Building, 1958

Another example is Federal Reserve Bank in Minneapolis by Gunnar Birkerts, in 1971. This
building was required to have an uninterrupted space in the ground floor, therefore architect
was not allowed to put any columns in the area below. For this reason he has developed the
idea to carry the entire building on cables suspended form the tops of two towers at the ends,
just like a suspension bridge. At the roof, a huge truss is used to keep the towers apart.

Federal Reserve Bank in Minneapolis by Gunnar Birkerts, in 1971

Buildings could also be suspended by cables from a single column support. An example is
Westcoast Transmission Building, Vancouver, Canada, 1968-69.

Westcoast Transmission Building, Vancouver, Canada, 1968-69.

44
 Cable tensile structure: Renault Distribution Centre, Wilshire, UK (Norman Foster and
Partners)

j. Membrane (Tent) and Inflated Structures

Since early 1960’s, tent membrane structures and inflated (pneumonic) structures have started
to be built. The German architect Frei Otto created membrane structures in which the tent is
supported by masts carrying a net of interwoven cables stretched and anchored in the earth.
To this net, the membrane was attached. Good examples to this are Otto’s German Pavilion
for the international exhibition in Montreal Canada, 1967; and 1972 Munich Olympic
Stadium.

Tent-membrane structures

Otto’s German Pavilion for the international exhibition in Montreal Canada, 1967

45
 Otto’s German Pavilion for the international exhibition in Montreal Canada, 1967

1972 Munich Olympic Stadium

Millenium Dome, 2000, London

Another new building type is inflated (pneumatic) structures. They are generally made for
covering the spaces (like swimming pools or fair spaces) temporarily. There are two types of
inflated (pneumonic) structures according to their method of working: (1) the structures which
are kept inflated by keeping the air pressure within the structure high by pressurized fans, and
(2) the structures that have a double wall inflated tubes, which do not require constant
pressure arrangement.

46
 Inflated (pneumatic) structures – type 1: the structure is kept inflated by keeping the air
pressure within it high by pressurized fans

Inflated (pneumatic) structures – type 1: the structure is kept inflated by keeping the air
pressure within it high by pressurized fans

Inflated (pneumatic) structures – type 2: the structure has a double wall with inflated tubes,
which does not require constant pressure arrangement (Yukata Murata’s Fuji Pavillion, 1970,
World’s Fair, Japan)

Therefore designing is also the selection of the structural system. The selection of
structure defines your architectural design. It defines your spaces and sugggests either
massiveness or lightness.

47
ARCH 121 – INTRODUCTION TO ARCHITECTURE I
WEEK 13: Function in Architecture
From: Roth, L., Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning

1. Function in Architecture
As described by Vitruvius in 25 BC, architecture should reach to an optimum combination of
firmitas, utilitas and venustas, meaning firmness, functionality and beauty. Functionality
meant the arrangement of rooms and spaces so that there is no difficulty to the use of building
and so that a building is perfectly suited to its site. Firmness meant that foundations were solid
and that the materials of the building well selected. Beauty meant that the appearance of the
work is pleasing and in good taste. This Vitruvian triad is still a valid summary of the
elements of good architecture.
Therefore, the ultimate test of architecture is made by asking these questions:
1. Does the building function well and is it suitable for its site? (functionality)
2. Is the building built well enough to stand up and are its materials durable? (firmness)
3. Does the building appeal to senses?

In this lecture, we shall look at the first condition of architecture, which is function. Function,
or the pragmatic utility of an object/work of architecture, says that the object/work of
architecture is fitted to a particular use.

2. Function and Form in Architecture

We had said before that architecture is the art of playing with forms (solids) and spaces
(cavities). Some architects start their designs by playing with forms (solids) and some of them
start by playing with spaces (cavities). However, for the creation of a good architectural
product, both of them are necessary. Great architects play with them at the same time.
Likewise, and very relatedly, some architects start their designs by thinking about the formal
appearance of the building and some of them start by thinking about the functional operation
of the building. However, again, for the creation of a good architectural product, both of them
are necessary. Great architects think about both of them (form and function) at the same time.
The form in architecture differentiates according to the function and structure of the building;
and structure and function is determined by the form.

1
 2.a. Form Following Function
As we have said some forms are created by thinking about the functional operation of the
building. They are shaped according to the internal activities or purpose of the building. Such
forms tend to be more practical. This category of design development is described as ‘form
following function’.
‘Form follows function’ was a phrase developed by American architect Louis Sullivan. It
meant that the form of any building should be defined by the activities/functions that were to
be carried out inside it, rather than any historical precedent (example) or aesthetic ideal. It
implied that decorative elements, which are called as ‘ornaments’, were needless in buildings.
The phrase became the motto of Modernist architects after the 1920s.
Sullivan designed the world’s first skyscrapers using these functionalist design principles. His
approach was concerned with form following function and the buildings he produced were
driven by functional necessity.
The concept of functionalism was further developed by Austrian architect Adolf Loos. He
wrote as ‘ornament is crime’, and argued that any decoration on a building was both
superfluous and unnecessary. The thinking of both architects created new and modern
responses to architectural design.

Louis Sullivan

Wainwright Building (left) and Guaranty Building (right) by Louis Sullivan

2
 Adolf Loos

Adolf Loos: Muller House, Prague, Czech Republic

Adolf Loos: Muller House, Prague, Czech Republic

Adolf Loos: Muller House, Prague, Czech Republic

3
 Adolf Loos: Rufer House, Vienna, Austria

The Modernists adopted both of these phrases—“form follows function” and “ornament is
crime”—as moral principles, and they have seen industrial objects, machines and factories as
brilliant and beautiful examples of plain, simple design integrity.
Modernist architecture first arose around 1900 and primarily sought for the primacy of
function in architecture, the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. It said
that the forms should be shaped as a result of the functions of the buildings, instead of by
traditional aesthetic concepts. Therefore modernist architecture adopted ‘functionalism’ in
architecture, which is a principle saying that architects should design a building based on the
purpose of that building. The zeitgeist (spirit of the age or spirit of the time) of modernism
influenced architecture, art, and fashion of the 20th century.
Modernists were inspired by industrial objects, machines and factories, since they were
designed by function in mind. They presumed that buildings should also work like good
working machines and developed a concept called ‘machine aesthetics’ to describe the formal
understanding of such buildings. They have attempted to have such a machine aesthetics in
their own buildings.

Machine aesthetics

The first examples of this type of architecture were the AEG Turbine Factory, Berlin, 1908-09
by Peter Behrens and Fagus factory by Walter Gropius in Germany. In both of these, the form
of the building was determined totally by the internal industrial processes that the building
contained. In 1926, The Bauhaus school built in Dessau also demonstrated this principle in its
workshop wing.

4
AEG Turbine Factory, Germany, Industrial architecture

AEG Turbine Factory, Germany, Industrial architecture

Fagus factory by Walter Gropius in Germany

5
 Fagus factory by Walter Gropius in Germany

The Bauhaus Dessau

By the 1920s the most important figures of modern architecture had established their
reputations. The three ‘founders’ are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and

6
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. By the 1940s modernism
became the dominant architectural style throughout the world.

Le Corbusier (one of the founders of Modern architecture) stated that the new age demanded a
new house and he said that “the house is a machine for living in”.

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s famous phrase is “Less is more”.

Walter Gropius

Louis Sullivan, the owner of the inspirational phrase of Modern architecture “form follows
function”, designed the first skyscrapers of the world toward the end of 19th century. He
developed the shape of the tall steel skyscraper in late 19th century when the technology, taste
and economic forces at the time made it necessary to drop the traditional styles of the past. If
the shape of the building wasn't going to be designed according to traditional styles,
something had to determine form, and according to Sullivan it was going to be the
purpose/function of the building. Like this he developed the idea “form follows function”.
To design his skyscrapers he first examined what they would enclose and found that there
were 4 distinct zones, which were: (1) basement that contained the machinery and storage, (2)

7
ground floor that contained the entrances, the elevator lobby, and the shops at the street sides,
(3) the central section that contained the office cells arranged around the elevator, and (4) the
upper floor that contained the elevator machinery, water tanks and storage. Sullivan argued
that the vertical form of the building should express each of these functions (3 above the
ground). The example to it is Guaranty Building in Buffalo, NY (1894).

The Guaranty Building (now called the Prudential Building), designed by Louis Sullivan and
Dankmar Adler, in Buffalo, New York (1894). The three zones of Sullivan's design are visible
in the large open windows of the ground zone, the thin vertical elements of the office zone
and the arches and curves of the terminating zone at the top of the building.

Another architect that expressed the function through the form was the Finnish Architect
Alvar Aalto. In the Library for the Benedictine Monastery at Oregon (1967-71), he designed
each space in the best way to accommodate its use, placed them where they ideally need to be,
and joined them to form a harmonious whole. When looked from the exterior you can
understand the function of each space: the fan shaped reading rooms fan out from the
circulation zone, rectilinear office rooms and a wedge shaped auditorium.

8
Library for the Benedictine Monastery at Oregon (1967-71) by Alvar Aalto.

9
Another approach to functionalism was to give the forms flexibility so that they would be able
to house different and changing functions. Mies van der Rohe was the architect who
championed this view. Rohe’s IIT Crown Hall Building is a demonstration of this idea. The
huge single room is designed flexibly to contain any function. Rohe stated that he did not fit
form to function but created a flexible form to house any function.

Rohe’s IIT Crown Hall Building

Lastly however, it should be said that architecture and life in buildings are not that
mechanical. Architecture is more than functional utility or structural display- it is the
container that shapes human life. The architect Louis Kahn explained this very well: “when
you make a building, you make a life. It comes out of life, and you really make a life. It talks
to you. When you have only the comprehension of function of a building, it would not
become an environment of a life.”

2.b. Function Following Form

We had said before that, some forms are created by the external appearance of the building in
mind. Such forms tend to be more sculptural. This category of design development is

10
described as ‘function following form’. However, this kind of thinking in architecture
(thinking about only form in architecture design) is missing, because as we have said, a good
architect should think of both the form and the function at the same time.
The modernist functionalism, which saw the function of a building affect its final shape and
form, produced a reaction, which dictated that function follows form; that the shape of a
building should be the architect’s primary consideration, and any functions and activities that
the building is to house should be accommodated into this form.
One of the earliest architects who embraced the ideals of this kind of an architecture was
Antoni Gaudí; his most famous work, La Sagrada Familia, or the Parc Güell (both in
Barcelona, Spain) use forms in a sculptural way to great dynamic effect. La Sagrada Familia
is extremely ornamental and decorative. It looks like it has been sculpted rather than built and
its stones appear almost liquid-like and display a light, open quality.

La Sagrada Familia, Barcelona, Spain Antoni Gaudí, still to be completed

11
 Parc Güell, by Antoni Gaudi, in Barcelona, Spain

Sculptural-formal architecture is also exemplified by the work of Frank Gehry. Gehry’s

architecture uses the form primarily to determine the building; its materiality and shape are
the main considerations. This design approach requires all the activities of a building to be
fitted into the dramatic shape or form.

Frederick R. Weisman Art Museum, Minneapolis, US Frank Gehry, 1993

12
 This museum is a great example of function following form. Gehry’s architecture uses the
form primarily to determine the building; its materiality and shape are the main
considerations.

Frank Gehry and the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain

Walt Disney Concert Hall, USA (left) and Dancing House in Prague

3. Types of Function in Architecture:

There are different types of function in architecture:
1. Pragmatic function: Accommodation of a specific use in a room or space. (for example,
a room might be used to contain a single bed for sleeping or it might be an office cell
containing a desk)

13
2. Circulatory function: The making of appropriate spaces to direct movement form area to
area. Most buildings contain numerous rooms with interrelated functions. People,
naturally, need to move from one space to another. Therefore, the circulatory function
should also be satisfied well.
In some buildings, such as museums and galleries, this route may be designed as part of
the architectural concept. The route through these buildings might allow, in this instance,
the art or artifacts to be better understood and experienced.

Kimbell Art Museum by Louis Kahn

An example to the thought of circulatory function is Charles Garnier’s Paris Opera

(1861-75). Garnier has analyzed people’s thoughts about the Opera and found out that
they are also going there to see other people and be seen by them, next to listening to
the operas. So he has carefully designed the circulatory spaces (the foyer, the waiting
room and stairs) to let people see other people and be seen.

Charles Garnier’s Paris Opera (1861-75) and its grand foyer

14
 The grand staircase

3. Symbolic function: A building has also a symbolic function and demonstrates its use
by its exterior view. We usually expect a correspondence between buildings
appearance and its use. In the past (among the Romans, Egyptians or Greeks) there
were rules that describe the appearances of buildings for certain uses, but nowadays
we don’t have such rules.

Starting with the Modern Movement in architecture roughly by 1920’s (Modernism),

buildings started to tell us almost nothing about what goes on inside them. For
example, Mies van der Rohe’s two buildings in Illinois Institute of Technology
campus, look similar in terms of their architectural language and materials, but one of
them is the Boiler House and the other is a church. They don’t tell us how their
function differs.

Mies van der Rohe’s Boiler Plant in Illinois Institute of Technology

15
 Mies van der Rohe’s Boiler Plant in Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois
(1949-52)

Mies van der Rohe’s Carr Memorial Chapel, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois
(1949-52)

Mies van der Rohe’s Carr Memorial Chapel, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois
(1949-52)

However, for example, Zion Lutheran Church in Portland, Oregon, 1950, by Pietro
Belluschi, shows the functional character of a religious building without imitating or
recreating the Gothic churches.

16
Zion Lutheran Church Portland, Oregon, Pietro Belluschi: The image of church is created by
the simple use of colored glass and arches in wood; without imitating the traditional churches.

The United States National Capitol Building in Washington (1830) has established an
‘image of government’ in United States. From then on the new government or capitol
buildings in other places were built using its Neoclassical image (one example is
Minnesota State Capitol Building).

United States National Capitol Building in Washington (1830)

Minnesota State Capitol Building, 1905.

Another architectural example that gives the signs of its function is Eero Saarinen’s
TWA Airport Building in New York (1956). By its specific architectural language, the
building conveys symbolically the sensation of flight. The great concrete shells of the
building look like giant wings. The form alone prepares us for the action of flight.

17
 Eero Saarinen’s TWA Airport Building in New York (1956).

However, every building contains a mixture of functions: pragmatic, circulatory,

symbolic or psychological. A garage may contain %10 symbolic function and % 90
pragmatic function, whereas a monument may contain %10 pragmatic function and %
90 symbolic function. There are also buildings that may contain them half and half,
such as a library.

Symbolic function: White House in Washington (left), Buckingham Palace in London (right)

18
 Symbolic function: Sydney Opera House (left) and the Eiffel Tower (right)

4. Psychological function: Good architecture has also physiological and psychological

functions to fulfill. For example, a waiting room in a doctor’s office or a hospital
emergency room are the places where people feel heightened levels of anxiety. An
architect might determine that creating a domestic environment there or to give a view
of garden would help to reduce the level of anxiety.

In Salk Institute for example by Louis Kahn, the architect have consulted the scientists
and the owner of the land Jonas Salk, who himself was a scientist, and found out that
the scientists needed big work areas and laboratories that have purely utilitarian
functions and also small, quiet and private spaces for them to think alone. By holding
these in mind, he designed large spaces for conducting experiments and small private
offices for individual use, which look at the ocean.

19
 Salk Institute by Louis Kahn

Salk Institute by Louis Kahn

Another one of Louis Kahn’s principal ideas about the function of the building was the
distinction between ‘served’ and ‘servant’ spaces. Servant spaces have functional use,
such as storage rooms, bathrooms or kitchens – the spaces that are essential for a
building to function properly. Served spaces might be living or dining rooms or offices
– spaces that the servant areas serve.
The Richards Medical Centre in Philadelphia, US, exemplifies this ideal. The glass-
walled workrooms are ‘served’ by separate, freestanding brick chimneys. Each
‘served’ space has an independent structural frame with a complete set of supports and
its own source of natural illumination.

Plan of Richards Medical Centre Philadelphia by Louis Kahn

20
 Plan of Richards Medical Centre Philadelphia by Louis Kahn

5. Cultural and contextual function: Function is also socially and culturally influenced
and a building’s form is also a response to its physical setting and climate. Every
building has the responsibility to respect and to be in harmony with its
context/environment. The building has to answer to the genius loci (spirit of the place-
a location's distinctive atmosphere) of that place.

21
Turgut Cansever – Demir Holiday Village in Bodrum

22