‫مرحًبا‪ ،‬أنا ابراهيم بوحيمد مستشار في االمن السيبراني وتقنية المعلومات‪ ،‬يسعدني أن أقدم لكم‬

‫هذا الكتيب الذي يجمع ملخصات مهمة حول عالم الشبكات‪ .‬في هذا العصر الرقمي ‪ ،‬أصبحت‬
‫الشبكات جزًءا ال يتجزأ من حياتنا اليومية ومن عمليات االتصال بين األشياء واألفراد‪.‬‬
‫يهدف هذا الكتاب إلى توفير مصدر موجز ومركزي لفهم أساسيات الشبكات ومفاهيمها المهمة‪.‬‬
‫سواء كنت مبتدًئا يبحث عن معرفة أساسية أو محترًفا يتطلع الستعراض مفاهيم معينة‪ ،‬فإن هذا‬
‫الكتاب يمكن أن يكون لك دلياًل مفيًدا‪.‬‬
‫سيتيح لك هذا الكتاب الوصول إلى معلومات مفيدة حول مواضيع مثل انواع الشبكات‪ ،‬وأمان‬
‫الشبكات‪ ،‬وإدارة الشبكات‪.‬‬
‫نأمل أن يكون هذا الكتاب مصدًرا قيًما لكم وأن يساعدكم في فهم عالم الشبكات بشكل أفضل وفي‬
‫تطوير مهاراتكم في هذا المجال‪ .‬دائًما ما تكون معرفة الشبكات ذات أهمية كبيرة‪ ،‬سواء لالستخدام‬
‫الشخصي أو المهني‪.‬‬

‫نتمنى لكم رحلة ممتعة ومفيدة في عالم الشبكات‪.‬‬

‫للتواصل معي واالطالع على المزيد من المحتوى التقني اللذي اقدمة‬
‫‪https://twitter.com/buhaimedi‬‬
‫‪/https://www.linkedin.com/in/ibrahim-buhaimed‬‬
‫‪https://www.buhaimed.com‬‬
 Network Topologies – Cheat Sheet – Part-1 v1

Physical Network
Topology Types

1. P-P 2.Bus 3. Ring 4. Star 5. Mesh 6. Tree 7. Hybrid

(Hub/Spoke)
www.networkwalks.com

1. Point-to-Point Network Topology Advantages Dis-advantages

✓ Fastest topology (because no broadcast is required on direct connections) ✓ It can only be used for small areas where computers are in close proximity &
✓ Most reliable than all other types of the connections short distance
www.networkwalks.com

2. Bus Network Topology Advantages Dis-advantages

✓ It is cheap as it requires less cabling ✓ It is more prone to problems. If main cable goes down then whole network is
✓ Doesn’t need any special equipment, It is Less complex disturbed

3. Ring Network Topology Advantages Dis-advantages

✓ More secure due to ring redundancy ✓ Scalability and expansion in existing network is a bit difficult & requires more
✓ Easy to Troubleshoot, Easy to Install skill

4. Star Network Topology Advantages Dis-advantages

✓ Easier to manage, Easier to locate node and cable problems ✓ Single point of failure
✓ Well suited for expansion into high-speed networking ✓ Requires more network cables

5. Mesh Network Topology Advantages Dis-advantages

✓ Most stable & fault tolerant ✓ Most expensive, as it requires more cabling & infrastructure
✓ Cable fault & device fault tolerant
www.networkwalks.com

6. Tree Network Topology Advantages Dis-advantages

✓ It is a loop free topology & is used mostly in Layer2 Networks ✓ Single Point of Failure in case the Backbone goes down
✓ It is an easy to scale network

7. Hybrid Network Topology Advantages Dis-advantages

✓ We can achieve combined advantage of individual member topologies if ✓ It becomes complex if the network is no properly designed
properly designed

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 IPv4 & Subnetting – Cheatsheet – Part q Version 2.1

Key Attributes
Current Standard: RFC791 (Sep 1981)
Address space: 32-bit
Total no. of addresses: 232 = 4294967296 = 4.3 Billion
Notation: Dotted Decimal Types of IPv4 Addresses by
Official/full name: Internet Protocol version 4 Assignment Method

q Static IP w Dynamic IP
addresses addresses
TYPES OF IPV4 BY OPERATION METHOD

www.networkwalks.com

Unicast A single sender sends data to a single receiver

Broadcast A single sender sends data to all devices on the local network

Multicast The sender sends data from its unicast address to a group of addresses

Anycast The sender sends data to the logically closest device in the network
www.networkwalks.com
www.networkwalks.com

Types of IPv4 Addresses by visibility: Public, Private

Class Private Networks Subnet Mask
Class A 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 255.0.0.0
Class B 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 255.240.0.0
Class C 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 255.255.0.0

Types of IPv4 Addresses by IP Versions

Class Address Range Network /Host Part Default Subnet Mask Detail
Hosts = (224 – 2) = 16,777,214 = (16M)
Class A 1.0.0.1 – 126.255.255.254 N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0 Networks = (27 – 2) = 126
127.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255 reserved
Hosts = (216 – 2) = 65,534
Class B 128.1.0.1 – 191.255.255.254 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0 Networks = (214 – 2) = 16,382
Hosts = (28 – 2) = 254
Class C 192.0.1.1 – 223.255.254.254 N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 Networks = (221 – 2) = 2,097,150 (2M)

Class D 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255 Reserved for multicast groups

Class E 240.0.0.0 – 254.255.255.254 www.networkwalks.com Reserved for future use & R&D

Types of IPv4 Addresses by IP Versions

IPv4 32-bit address space & gives us 4.3Billion addresses
IPv6 128-bit address space & gives us 340 undecillion addresses
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 TCP/IP Model – Cheat Sheet (Network Walks) – Part-1 v1.2

What is TCP/IP Model ???

“TCP/IP Model is a standardised Reference Framework for conceptualising data
communications between networks”
✓ Relevant RFC: RFC1122
✓ Also called ’Internet Model’ or ‘DoD Model’ Protocols at each TCP/IP Layer

TCP/IP Model Layers & their Functions www.networkwalks.com

www.networkwalks.com
Encapsulation: “Preparing & passing the data by any Upper layer
to the layer below it, is called Encapsulation”
(Means, going from the application layer all the way down to the physical layer)

TCP 3-way Handshake Process Decapsulation: “Decoding data while going Upwards from the
physical layer till application layer is called decapsulation”

TCP/IP Model OSI Model

www.networkwalks.com

OSI Model Vs TCP/IP Model www.networkwalks.com

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Mostly used for reference purposes only Practical Model in use today
Released in 1984 by ISO Released in 1970s by DARPA Devices at each TCP/IP Layer
Each layer participates in Error Handling Only Transport Layer handles Errors
Not so simple Model (7 Layers) Simple Model (4Layers only)
Session Layer does Connection Management Transport Layer does Connection Mgmt
Data Formatting is done by Present. Layer Data Formatting is done by Application Layer
Uses Horizontal Approach Uses Vertical Approach
--- www.networkwalks.com Trans Layer uses 3WHS + Sliding Windows
Transport Layer is Connection Oriented Trans Layer can be Connection Oriented or not
Netw Layer can be Connection Oriented or not Network Layer is always Connectionless
Services & protocols are clearly defined Services & protocols are not clearly separated
A protocol independent Model A Protocol dependent Model
Hosts do not handle network operations Hosts participate in most network protocols
www.networkwalks.com

Transport Layer Ports Important Ports on Transport Layer

Category Range Comments

Used by system processes
Well Known 0 - 1023 e.g. FTP(21)
For specific services e.g.
Registered 1024 - 49151 Port 8080

Private 49152 – 65535 For Private purposes

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 IPv4 & Subnetting – Cheatsheet – Part w Version 2.1

Notation Subnet Mask No. of addresses (hosts) Wildcard

/32 255.255.255.255 1 0.0.0.0

/31 255.255.255.254 2 0.0.0.1
/30 255.255.255.252 4 0.0.0.3
/29 255.255.255.248 8 0.0.0.7
/28 255.255.255.240 16 0.0.0.15
/27 255.255.255.224 32 0.0.0.31
/26 255.255.255.192 64 0.0.0.63
/25 255.255.255.128 128 0.0.0.127
/24 255.255.255.0 256 0.0.0.255
/23 255.255.254.0 512 0.0.1.255
/22 255.255.252.0 1,024 0.0.3.255
/21 255.255.248.0 2,048 0.0.7.255
/20 255.255.240.0 4,096 0.0.15.255
/19 255.255.224.0 8,192 0.0.31.255
/18 255.255.192.0 16,384 0.0.63.255
/17 255.255.128.0 32,768 0.0.127.255
/16 255.255.0.0 65,536 0.0.255.255
/15 255.254.0.0 131,072 0.1.255.255
/14 255.252.0.0 262,144 0.3.255.255
/13 255.248.0.0 524,288 0.7.255.255
/12 255.240.0.0 1,048,576 0.15.255.255
/11 255.224.0.0 2,097,152 0.31.255.255
/10 255.192.0.0 4,194,304 0.63.255.255
/9 255.128.0.0 8,388,608 0.127.255.255
/8 255.0.0.0 16,777,216 0.255.255.255
/7 254.0.0.0 33,554,432 1.255.255.255
/6 252.0.0.0 67,108,864 3.255.255.255
/5 248.0.0.0 134,217,728 7.255.255.255
/4 240.0.0.0 268,435,456 15.255.255.255
/3 224.0.0.0 536,870,912 31.255.255.255
/2 192.0.0.0 1,073,741,824 63.255.255.255
/1 128.0.0.0 2,147,483,648 127.255.255.255
/0 0.0.0.0 4,294,967,296 255.255.255.255

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 Networking Devices Cheatsheet – Part q Version 1

SWITCH
✓ Switches work on Layer-2 of OSI Model
✓ Switches usually have many Ports
✓ Switches are usually Low Cost
✓ Switches create a single Network of devices
✓ Switches provide High Data Rates
✓ Data Frame Forwarding decisions are made using L2 Frames & MAC
✓ Most of switches don’t need to be configured before use
✓ Operations like best path selection in Routers are carried by ASIC (special hardware)
✓ If a Layer-2 Frame is received by a Switch with unknown destination MAC address, then Data frame is broadcasted
www.networkwalks.com

ROUTER
✓ Routers work on Layer-3 of OSI Model
✓ Routers usually have few Ports
✓ Routers are usually High Cost
✓ Routers connect different Networks together
✓ Routers provide Low Data Rates
✓ Packet Forwarding decisions are made using L3 Packets & IP Address
✓ Most of Routers must be configured before use
✓ Operations like best path selection & Packet forwarding decisions in Routers are carried by Software
✓ If a Layer-3 IP Packet is received by Router with unknown destination IP address, then the IP Packet is dropped
www.networkwalks.com

Correspondence with OSI Model

www.networkwalks.com
IP Address (32-bit)
Computers,
Mobile Phones, RARP
Firewalls, .. ARP

MAC Address (48-bit)

www.networkwalks.com

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 IPv4 & Subnetting – Cheatsheet – Part w Version 2.1

Notation Subnet Mask No. of addresses (hosts) Wildcard

/32 255.255.255.255 1 0.0.0.0

/31 255.255.255.254 2 0.0.0.1
/30 255.255.255.252 4 0.0.0.3
/29 255.255.255.248 8 0.0.0.7
/28 255.255.255.240 16 0.0.0.15
/27 255.255.255.224 32 0.0.0.31
/26 255.255.255.192 64 0.0.0.63
/25 255.255.255.128 128 0.0.0.127
/24 255.255.255.0 256 0.0.0.255
/23 255.255.254.0 512 0.0.1.255
/22 255.255.252.0 1,024 0.0.3.255
/21 255.255.248.0 2,048 0.0.7.255
/20 255.255.240.0 4,096 0.0.15.255
/19 255.255.224.0 8,192 0.0.31.255
/18 255.255.192.0 16,384 0.0.63.255
/17 255.255.128.0 32,768 0.0.127.255
/16 255.255.0.0 65,536 0.0.255.255
/15 255.254.0.0 131,072 0.1.255.255
/14 255.252.0.0 262,144 0.3.255.255
/13 255.248.0.0 524,288 0.7.255.255
/12 255.240.0.0 1,048,576 0.15.255.255
/11 255.224.0.0 2,097,152 0.31.255.255
/10 255.192.0.0 4,194,304 0.63.255.255
/9 255.128.0.0 8,388,608 0.127.255.255
/8 255.0.0.0 16,777,216 0.255.255.255
/7 254.0.0.0 33,554,432 1.255.255.255
/6 252.0.0.0 67,108,864 3.255.255.255
/5 248.0.0.0 134,217,728 7.255.255.255
/4 240.0.0.0 268,435,456 15.255.255.255
/3 224.0.0.0 536,870,912 31.255.255.255
/2 192.0.0.0 1,073,741,824 63.255.255.255
/1 128.0.0.0 2,147,483,648 127.255.255.255
/0 0.0.0.0 4,294,967,296 255.255.255.255

New batch of online Cisco CCNA 200-301 is starting!

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 IPv4 & Subnetting – Cheatsheet – Part q Version 2.1

Key Attributes
Current Standard: RFC791 (Sep 1981)
Address space: 32-bit
Total no. of addresses: 232 = 4294967296 = 4.3 Billion
Notation: Dotted Decimal Types of IPv4 Addresses by
Official/full name: Internet Protocol version 4 Assignment Method

q Static IP w Dynamic IP
addresses addresses
TYPES OF IPV4 BY OPERATION METHOD

www.networkwalks.com

Unicast A single sender sends data to a single receiver

Broadcast A single sender sends data to all devices on the local network

Multicast The sender sends data from its unicast address to a group of addresses

Anycast The sender sends data to the logically closest device in the network
www.networkwalks.com
www.networkwalks.com

Types of IPv4 Addresses by visibility: Public, Private

Class Private Networks Subnet Mask
Class A 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 255.0.0.0
Class B 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255 255.240.0.0
Class C 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255 255.255.0.0

Types of IPv4 Addresses by IP Versions

Class Address Range Network /Host Part Default Subnet Mask Detail
Hosts = (224 – 2) = 16,777,214 = (16M)
Class A 1.0.0.1 – 126.255.255.254 N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0 Networks = (27 – 2) = 126
127.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255 reserved
Hosts = (216 – 2) = 65,534
Class B 128.1.0.1 – 191.255.255.254 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0 Networks = (214 – 2) = 16,382
Hosts = (28 – 2) = 254
Class C 192.0.1.1 – 223.255.254.254 N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 Networks = (221 – 2) = 2,097,150 (2M)

Class D 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255 Reserved for multicast groups

Class E 240.0.0.0 – 254.255.255.254 www.networkwalks.com Reserved for future use & R&D

Types of IPv4 Addresses by IP Versions

IPv4 32-bit address space & gives us 4.3Billion addresses
IPv6 128-bit address space & gives us 340 undecillion addresses
New batch of online Cisco CCNA 200-301 is starting!
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 WLAN (Wireless LAN) – Cheat Sheet – Part 1 Version 1

WLAN Topologies

2. Infrastructure
1. Ad-hoc Mode 3. Others
Mode
www.networkwalks.com

Controller Distributed Split-MAC

IBSS BSS ESS based AP’s Architectures
Cloud Based Autonomous Architectures

IEEE 802.11 WLAN Standards

802.11 802.11b 802.11a 802.11g 802.11n 802.11ad 802.11ac 802.11af 802.11ah
Year 1997 1999 1999 2003 2009 2012 2013 - -

Max Data Rate 2 Mb/s 11 Mb/s 54 Mb/s 54 Mb/s 600 Mb/s 6.76 Gb/s 6.93 Gb/s 26.7 Mb/s 40 Mb/s

2.4GHz,
Freq Band 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz 5 GHz 2.4 GHz
5 GHz
60 GHz 5 GHz 54-790 MHz 900 MHz

Modulation Schemes OFDM SC, OFDM OFDM

DSSS, FHSS DSSS, CCK OFDM DSSS, OFDM SC, OFDM SC, OFDM
& Technologies (+MIMO) (TxB) (MIMO)
BPSK to BPSK to BPSK to BPSK to BPSK to
Modulation Schemes 256QAM 256QAM 256QAM 256QAM 256QAM
BPSK to 256QAM BPSK to 256QAM BPSK to 256QAM BPSK to 256QAM

35m (Indoor) 35m (Indoor) 70m (Indoor) 70m (Indoor)

Range 20m
140m (Outdoor) 120m (Outdoor) 140m (Outdoor) 250m (Outdoor)
10m 35m 1km 1km
www.networkwalks.com

Max Tx Power 100mW 100mW 100mW 100mW 100mW 10mW 160mW 100mW 100mW

WLAN Security Standards

WEP WPA WPA2 (802.11i)
Year 1997 2003 2005

Key Distribution Static Static, Dynamic Static, Dynamic

Key Management - 802.1x, EAP, PSK 802.1x, EAP, PSK

Encryption Type RC4 RC4/TKIP AES

User/Device Auth No/YES YES/YES YES/YES

www.networkwalks.com

WLAN Signal Deteriorations

WLAN Site
Interference Survey Types
✓ Co-Channel Interference
✓ Neighboring Channel Interference, Non-802.11 Interference
1. Active 2. Passive
1. On-site 2. Off-site
Surveys Surveys
Losses
✓ Free Space Path Loss
www.networkwalks.com

Pre-deployment Post deployment

(AP on a stick) (validation)
Physical Objects Deteriorations:
✓ Reflection, Absorption, Scattering
✓ Refraction, Diffraction, Fresnel Zones

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© www.aurumme.com/Atech
 DHCP – Cheat Sheet – Part-1 Version21
Version

Key Attributes
Protocol Type: Layer7 Protocol (Application Layer)
Purpose: IP Address Management
Standard: RFC2131
Founder: Ralph Droms
Carrier Protocol: UDP
Protocol Model Type: Client-Server Model
Port: UDP67 (servers listening), UDP68 (clients listening)
UDP57 (Zone Transfer), UDP58 (DNS Queries)

DORA Process - DHCP Working Principle (with example)

DORA
q DHCP Discover
Source MAC: AAAA, Source IP: 0.0.0.0, Source Port: UDP68
Dest MAC: Bcast(FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF), Dest IP: Bcast(255.255.255.255), Dest Port: UDP67

w DHCP Offer
Source MAC: BBBB, Source IP: 2.2.2.2 , Source Port: UDP67
Dest MAC: Bcast(FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF), Dest IP: Bcast(255.255.255.255) , Dest Port: UDP68

NW

e DHCP Request
Source MAC: AAAA, Source IP: 0.0.0.0 , Source Port: UDP68
DHCP Client Dest MAC: Bcast(FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF), Dest IP: Bcast(255.255.255.255) , Dest Port: UDP67 www.networkwalks.com
DHCP Server
(UDP68 - listening) (UDP67 - listening)
MAC: AAAA, IP: 1.1.1.1 MAC: BBBB, IP: 2.2.2.2

r DHCP Ack
Source MAC: BBBB, Source IP: 2.2.2.2 , Source Port: UDP67
Dest MAC: Bcast(FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF), Dest IP: Bcast(255.255.255.255) , Dest Port: UDP68

DHCP Message Types

Message Ref. Code Description DHCP DORA Modes
DHCPDISCOVER 0x01 The client is looking for available DHCP servers

DHCPOFFER 0x02 The server response to the client DHCPDISCOVER www.networkwalks.com

The client broadcasts to the server, requesting offered parameters from one server
DHCPREQUEST 0x03 specifically, as defined in the packet
q Unicast w Broadcast
The client-to-server communication, indicating that the network address is already in
DHCPDECLINE 0x04 use Mode Mode
The server-to-client communication with configuration parameters, including BC Flag = 0 BC Flag = 1
DHCPACK 0x05 committed network address

DHCPNAK 0x06 The server-to-client communication, refusing the request for configuration parameter There are two modes of DORA (based on Broadcast Flag in DHCP
The client-to-server communication, relinquishing network address and cancelling Packet):
DHCPRELEASE 0x07 remaining lease Unicast Mode Server sends the DHCP_OFFER & DHCP_ACK on unicast MAC
The client-to-server communication, asking for only local configuration parameters that of client when DHCP BC Flag is set to 0
DHCPINFORM 0x08 the client already has externally configured as an address Broadcast Mode Server sends the DHCP_OFFER & DHCP_ACK on Broadcast
MAC of client when DHCP BC Flag is set to 1
Unicast mode is not recommended when DHCP relay is in use. But if the
client and server are on the same segment, then it is perfectly fine.

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 DHCP – Cheat Sheet – Part-2 Version 1

PAD Option (0)

0
DHCP Relay Agent (82) 82 1 Subnet Mask Option (1)

DHCP
Lease Time (51)
51 3 Router Option (3)
Options

Domain Name Option (15)

15 6 DNS Server Option (6)

12
Host Name Option (12)
networkwalks.com

DHCP State Transitions

IP Address Assignment Methods
DHCP Server assigns IP Addresses based on certain client
Root Manual parameter (e.g. MAC Address)

DHCP Server permanently assigns IP address to clients

q Initializing Automatic from the pool defined by the admin. Same client gets
same IP even after disconnect/connect
DHCPDISCOVER
DHCP Server assigns IP address to clients from the pool
DHCPOFFER

w Selecting Dynamic defined by the admin till the lease time defined by admin.
Same client gets different IP after disconnect/connect
www.networkwalks.com
DHCPREQUEST

e Requesting
DHCPACK DHCP Frame Format
1 8 16 24 32
DHCPREQUEST DHCPRELEASE
r Bound OpCode HW Type HW Add Length Hops
DHCPNACK

Transaction ID
Seconds Flags
CIAddr (Client IP Address)
YIAddr (Your IP Address) ≈
www.networkwalks.com

DHCPACK DHCPACK
SIAddr (Server IP Address)
t Renewing yRe-binding ≈
GIAddr (GW IP Address)
CHAddr (Client HW Address) - 16B
DHCPREQUEST
SName (Server Name) - 64B ≈
Boot Filename- 128B
www.networkwalks.com
Options – 214B max ≈
Variable
Length

L2 IP TCP/UDP L7
Header Header Header Header L7 Data

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/Network Walks Visit our website & You Channel for more FREE resources like Cheatsheets,
Workbooks, Labs, Interview Questions, Quiz, VCE exams

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Your Feedback, Comments are always Welcomed: info@networkwalks.com © www.aurumme.com/Atech
 DHCP – Cheat Sheet – Part-3 Version 1

DHCP Configuration Example

R2
METHOD-1 Using a Cisco Routers as DHCP Server DHCP Client
2.2.2.2/32
Server R1(config)# service dhcp
12.12.12.0/24
R1(config)# ip dhcp pool atech123
R1(dhcp-config)# network 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0
R1(dhcp-config)# default-router 192.168.1.1 www.networkwalks.com

R1(dhcp-config)# dns-server 192.168.1.1

DHCP Client DHCP Server
R1(config)# ip dhcp excluded-address 192.168.1.100 3.3.3.3 1.1.1.1/32

Client R2# interface fa0/0

R2# ip address dhcp

DHCP Client at ATech

4.4.4.4

METHOD-2 Using a Server as DHCP Server

DHCP Security Threats DHCP Security Mitigations

www.networkwalks.com
Recon Attacks: Expose important data for next level attacks planning ✓ Configure DHCP Snooping on L2 Switches to stop Corrupt DHCP Server to offering
DHCPOFFER
DHCP MiTM Attacks: Corrupt DHCP Server makes the DHCP Clients set
their Default GW as Attacker device ✓ Use the DHCP Relay (Option82) for extra security in distributed DHCP server/relay
environments
✓ Implement strict Network Admission Control Policies for users
✓ Always place DHCP Server inside Firewall

DHCP DoS Attacks: Attacker floods the ✓ Always keep a secured back-up copy of the DHCP Database &
cache file to restore in case of failure attacks
DHCP Server with DHCP Queries from Bots
& make it un-available for legitimate users ✓ Filter Layer3 IP Traffic to restrict illegitimate requests from specific
visitor devices and certain IP addresses (use IP whitelists and
DHCP starvation Attacks: DHCP requests blacklists) to avoid DHCP DoS Attacks
are broadcasted with Spoofed MAC
✓ Implement strict Firewall rules at Layer7 (e.g. Protocol violations,
addresses causing the DHCP Pool to
Request Limit violations,…) to avoid DHCP DoS Attacks
exhaust
✓ Continuously monitor, log & audit security events and pay
attention to attack alerts to avoid DHCP DoS Attacks

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 DNS (Domain Name System) – Cheat Sheet – Part-1 Version 1

Key Attributes
Protocol Type: Layer7 Protocol (Application Layer)
Purpose: Name to IP conversion
Standard: Current: RFC1034/1035 (1987), First: RFC882/883 (1983)
Structure: Hierarchical
Founder: Paul V. Mockapetris
Carrier Protocol: TCP, UDP
Port: TCP53 (for Zone Transfer), UDP53 (for DNS Queries)
Protocol Model Type: Client/Server Model

DNS Working (with example)

(.) Root Name Server

I don’t know, please go

What is the IP of What is the IP of y
Query
to .com NS
google.com?
google.com? u
Referral

I don’t know, please go

e
Query i to google.com NS
Query
TLD Name Server
Referral
q Answer r o (e.g. .com.)

w
Local Cache d t DNS Resolver
Local Cache
Client a Query
√ IP of google.com is sAnswer
8.8.8.8 I know, IP is 8.8.8.8
Authoritative Name
www.networkwalks.com Server (e.g. google.com.)
Recursive Iterative
Query Queries

*Recursive Query means: I will definitely *Iterative Query means: I will try.
answer you; no matter wherever I have to go. Either I will give you answer OR I will refer
OR I will tell you clearly that I do not know you to someone who can answer

www.networkwalks.com

DNS Server Types

A DNS Server that has the original source files of a domain zone files & doesn’t need to go any other Database. Primary Auth DNS
Authoritative Server has Full Read/Write Access while Secondary Auth DNS Server has Read-Only Access

A DNS Server that does NOT have the original source files of a domain zone files & either depends on its cache or need to go any other
Non-Authoritative Database for final/auth answer. Also called Cache-Only DNS Server

Domain Name Types DNS Query Types

Fully Qualified Domain Name: Contains full name of a Host. It is
FQDN
www.networkwalks.com

terminated by NULL string. e.g. www.atechacademy.com.

q Recursive w Iterative e Inverse
Partially Qualified Domain Name: Starts from a node but doesn’t Queries Queries Queries
PQDN reach Root. It is NOT terminated by NULL string e.g. www.atech
If the DNS server cannot resolve a query, If the DNS server cannot resolve a query, Used to resolve the IP Address to a FQDN
it sends query to other DNS Servers on it sends a referral to another server
behalf of the DNS Client. message to the resolver.
This is generally used by Clients Generally used by Servers

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 DNS (Domain Name System) – Cheat Sheet – Part-2 Version 1

DNS ANSWER TYPES

Negative No IP exists for this Name

Authoritative Answer from an authoritative DNS Name Server

Non-Authoritative Answer from any other server than the Authoritative NS

Referral The answer that refers to another server

www.networkwalks.com

DNS Root Servers

NO HOSTNAME IP ADDRESSES MANAGER
1 a.root-servers.net 198.41.0.4, 2001:503:ba3e::2:30 VeriSign, Inc.
2 b.root-servers.net 199.9.14.201, 2001:500:200::b University of Southern California (ISI)
3 c.root-servers.net 192.33.4.12, 2001:500:2::c Cogent Communications
4 d.root-servers.net 199.7.91.13, 2001:500:2d::d University of Maryland
5 e.root-servers.net 192.203.230.10, 2001:500:a8::e NASA (Ames Research Center)
6 f.root-servers.net 192.5.5.241, 2001:500:2f::f Internet Systems Consortium, Inc.
7 g.root-servers.net 192.112.36.4, 2001:500:12::d0d US Department of Defense (NIC)
8 h.root-servers.net 198.97.190.53, 2001:500:1::53 US Army (Research Lab)
9 i.root-servers.net 192.36.148.17, 2001:7fe::53 Netnod www.networkwalks.com

10 j.root-servers.net 192.58.128.30, 2001:503:c27::2:30 VeriSign, Inc.

11 k.root-servers.net 193.0.14.129, 2001:7fd::1 RIPE NCC
12 l.root-servers.net 199.7.83.42, 2001:500:9f::42 ICANN
13 m.root-servers.net 202.12.27.33, 2001:dc3::35 WIDE Project
DNS Zone Types
q Forward w Reverse
DNS Working (with example) Lookup Zones Lookup Zones

Primary Primary

Root .
Secondary Secondary
www.networkwalks.com

TLD
(Top Level Domain)
net org com mil edu gov
ADI ADI

Second Level Domain e.g. google

Stub Stub

Sub-Domains (or FQDN) www smtp ftp

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 Network Security – Cheat Sheet – Part q Version 1

Exploit Threat
Exploit is the mechanism to take advantage of a Threat is an event or circumstance which causes
vulnerability, to compromise the functionality of a damage to systems by exploiting a vulnerability.
system. For example Poor encryption For example virus, trojan, malware & Phishing

EXPLOIT THREAT
Vulnerability Risk
Vulnerability is a weakness which can be Risk is the probability of a threat or event
exploited by an attacker in its benefit. For to happen. For example mis-configuration,
example SW bugs & weak passwords VULNER Virus, Worm & Ransomware
ABILITY RISK

ASSET ATTACK

Asset Attack
Asset is anything which is valuable to the Attack is the action taken by an attacker to
organization. For example Computers & Data of harm an asset. For example Phishing attack,
a company called Network Walks DoS attack, Malware attack

C
C
CONFIDENTIALITY

I
INTEGRITY
A
AVAILABILITY
networkwalks.com

✓ Develop a written security policy for your company

✓ Always keep patches up to date (I have also updated the Network
Walks Academy Server recently)
✓ Always shut down unnecessary services and ports
✓ Use strong passwords and change them often
✓ Implement strict control on physical access to systems
✓ Always identify the weakest link in your network
✓ Avoid unnecessary web page inputs & educate your users
✓ Always prefer HTTPs over HTTP & educate your users
✓ Educate employees on risks of social engineering
✓ Always encrypt and password-protect sensitive data
✓ Implement security hardware and software (Firewall, Antivirus, …)
✓ Perform regular Backups of important systems, devices & critical data
Network Security ✓ Always do the Network Segmentation (implement security zones)
Best Practices ✓ Perform forensics analysis for user activity regularly
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 SNMP – Summary Cheat Sheet (ATech Academy) – Part1 Version 2

Key Attributes SNMP Network Architecture

Protocol Type: Layer7 Protocol (Application Layer)
Standard: RFC1155, RFC1157, RFC3415
SNMP Manager
Purpose: Network Management (NMS)
Carrier Protocol: UDP
Versions: 3 (SNMPv1, SNMPv2c, SNMPv3) GET/ SET/ GET-
BULK/ GET-
Port: UDP161 (Requests/Responses), 162 (Notifications) NEXT / INFORM
Hierarchy Type: OID Based Tree Hierarchy
Protocol Model Type: Client Pull + Server Push Model
Trap Trap
GET-RESPONSE Trap Trap Trap

R1 R2

SNMP Versions SNMP Agent

MIB
SNMP Agent
MIB
SNMP Agent
MIB
SNMP Agent
MIB
SNMP Ag.
MIB

SNMP v1 SNMP v2c SNMP v3 www.networkwalks.com

Year Released 1988 1993 1999

Standard RFC1155-1157 RFC1901-8, 2578 RFC1905-06, 3411-18

Community Community www.networkwalks.com SNMP Components
Authentication Username, MD5, SHA
String String SNMP Manager Centralised Software for Network Management
Encryption No No DES, AES Network Elements (a SW on them) that are
64-bit counters Not Supported Supported Supported
SNMP Agent managed e.g. routers, switches, hosts etc
SNMP Database data exchange between the
MIB Manager and the Agent remains structured

SNMP Message Types

SNMP Agent Types

q Extendible w Monolithic
Agents Agents
www.networkwalks.com

SNMP Configuration Example on Cisco

nw_R1
12.12.12.0/24 .1
Fa0/0 R1
12.12.12.99/24
SNMP Manager (NMS)

SNMPv3 Security Levels

R1(config)#snmp-server community atech1 ro noAuthPriv No authentication, No privacy
R1(config)#snmp-server host 12.12.12.99 version 2c atech1 authNoPriv Authentication with No privacy
R1(config)#snmp-server enable traps authPriv Authentication with Privacy
www.networkwalks.com

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© www.aurumme.com/Atech
 Network Security – Cheat Sheet – Part w Version 1

AAA SECURITY MODEL

A UTHENTICATE WHO is permitted

networkwalks.com
A UTHORISE WHAT is he permitted to do (e.g. at NW)
A CCOUNTING WATCH him what he is doing

www.networkwalks.com
RADIUS Model

networkwalks.com

RADIUS Server at
networkwalks.com
ASA or other

TACACS+ Model (Cisco)

Arman Arman

TACACS+ Server at
networkwalks.com

networkwalks networkwalks

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 Network Security – Cheat Sheet – Part e Version 1

Asymmetric Encryption

John
at Network Arman
Walks

Clear Encryption ENCRYPTED Decryption Clear

Arman’s Public Key Arman’s Private Key

Symmetric Encryption

Shared Secret Key

networkwalks.com

Encryption Decryption
networkwalks.com
$139 nEtworkwaLksCcna69f0….. $139

WLAN Security Standards

WEP WPA WPA2 (802.11i)
Year 1997 2003 2005
Key Distribution Static Static, Dynamic Static, Dynamic
Key Management - 802.1x, EAP, PSK 802.1x, EAP, PSK
Encryption Type RC4 RC4/TKIP AES
User/Device Auth No/YES YES/YES YES/YES www.networkwalks.com

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 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) – Cheat Sheet Part q

Key Attributes
Protocol Type: Layer3 (Network Layer)
Purpose: Troubleshooting & Error Reporting
Standard: RFC792 (1981)
Founder: Jon Postel

ICMP Message Types

Name Type Purpose
Echo Reply 0 Query (0)
Destination Unreachable 3 Error Reporting (0-15)
Redirect 5 Error Reporting (0-3)
Unassigned 1,2,7 --
Echo Request 8 Query (0)
Router Advertisement 9 Query (0)
Router Solicitation 10 Query (0)
Time Exceeded 11 Error Reporting (0-1)
www.networkwalks.com

Parameter Problem 12 Error Reporting (0-2)

Timestamp 13 Query (0)
Timestamp Reply 14 Query (0)
Deprecated 4,6,15-18 --
Reserved & others 19-255 --

Echo & Echo Reply Message

ICMP Packet Format 0 1 2 3

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| Type | Code | Checksum |
ICMP
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ Header
| Identifier | Sequence Number |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| Data |≈ ICMP
Data
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+

L2 Header IP Header IP/L3 Data

www.networkwalks.com

ICMP Utilities
www.networkwalks.com

Utility Detail
PING An ICMP based Network utility used to test the reachability of devices

TRACEROUTE An ICMP based Network utility used to test & discover the pathway of packets

PMTUD An ICMP based Network utility used to determine the MTU size of Network path

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 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) – Cheat Sheet Part w

How ICMP Ping works?

Play video

www.networkwalks.com

How ICMP Traceroute works?

Play video

www.networkwalks.com

ICMP Security Threats ICMP Security Mitigations www.networkwalks.com

ICMP is insecure and hard to secure because ICMP messages can originate from any Always disable the ICMP requests to your network
system on the Internet. from OUTSIDE
Reconnaissance & Scanning Attacks: Attacker uses ICMP Always disable the ICMP Protocol on network
Sweeps & traceroute for thorough scan of the network
devices where not necessary
DoS Attacks: Attacker floods the target network/system with
ICMP messages resulting in degraded or no availability
Other Attacks (Smurf Attacks, Ping of Death Attacks
ICMP based Attacks to other protocols like TCP, HTTP,…)

*Please refer to the attached video animation for better understanding

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 OSPF – Summary Cheatsheet – Part w Version 2

OSPF Neighbors
To become OSPF neighbors, OSPF routers must be agree on:
1. Area ID
2. Same subnet
3. Hello Interval and Dead Interval
OSPF Packet Format
4. Area Type (Stub, NSSA) 8 16 32
5. Authentication (Optional)
6. Router IDs must be unique Version Type Length
Router ID
Area ID
Neighbor Vs Adjacency: Checksum Auth Type
*Neighbor & Adjacency are two different terms in OSPF. Authentication

www.networkwalks.com
Two routers in OSPF are called NEIGHBORS if they are exchanging Hello Authentication
Packets.
Two Routers in OSPF are called an ADJACENCY if they are exchanging
Hello Packets as well as Database. DATA

OSPF Neighbor States / Process

OSPF Packet Types

HELLO DBD LSR LSU LSAck

Database Descriptor Link State Request Link State Update Link State Acknow.

www.networkwalks.com

OSPF Multicast Addresses

IP Multicast
Description
www.networkwalks.com Address
All OSPF routers(DR/BDR/DROTHER) send Hello on
224.0.0.5 224.0.0.5
(01005E-000005) All OSPF routers(DR/BDR/DROTHER) listen on
224.0.0.5
All DROTHER(non-DR/BDR) routers send their LSAs to
224.0.0.6
OSPF Route Types 224.0.0.6 All DR/BDR listen on 224.0.0.6
Code Description (01005E-000006) All DR/BDR send LSU/LSA on 224.0.0.5
O OSPF (Normal/Intra Area)
This is used for DR/BDR election & usage (by DR/BDR)
O IA OSPF Inter-area www.networkwalks.com

N1 OSPF NSSA External Type 1 (Adds the Internal Costs)

N2 OSPF NSSA External Type 2 (Doesn’t add the Internal Costs)
E1 OSPF External Type 1 (Adds the Internal Costs)
E2 OSPF External Type 2 (Doesn’t add the Internal Costs)
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© www.aurumme.com/Atech
 OSPF – Summary Cheatsheet – Part r Version 2

OSPFv3 (IPv6)

OSPFv3 Key Attributes

Official Release: OSPFv3 (IPv6) – RFC2740 (1999), RFC5340
Protocol Type/Class: IPv6 / Link-State
Address Format: 128-bit
Router ID & Area ID: 32-bit
Algorithm/Type: SPF (Dijkstra) / IGP
Metric: Cost (Bandwidth)
Adjacency address: IPv6 Link Local Address (FE80::/10) (IPv4 In OSPFv2)
Authentication Supported? YES (IPv6’s IPSec)
Hierarchy Type: 2-Level hierarchy with Area0 at the Core OSPFv3 Multicast Address
ABR/ASBR Model: YES
No. of packet types: 5 (Hello, DBD, LSR, LSU, LSAck) Scope Multicast Address
Interface Types: Broadcast, P2P, P2Mp, NBMA, Virtual Links
Router Types: IR, BR, ABR, ASBR FF02::5 All OSPF Routers
Flooding Scope Bits: U/S2/S1 FF02::6 All OSPF DR Routers
Reference BW: 108 www.networkwalks.com
Header Size: 16 Bytes (which is 24 Bytes for OSPFv2)
Multiple Instances Per
Link Supported? YES
Protocol processing: Per Link (not per subnet as for OSPFv2) OSPFv3(IPv6) LSA -Vs- OSPFv2(IPv4) LSA
OSPFv3 OSPFv2
LSA# LSA Type LSA# LSA Type
OSPFv3 Route Summarization 0x2001 Router LSA 1 Router LSA
0x2002 Network LSA 2 Network LSA
Summ Type Detail 0x2003 Inter Area Prefix LSA 3 Network Summary LSA
Inter-Area Route ̵ Configured on ABRs 0x2004 Inter Area Router LSA 4 ASBR Summary LSA
Summarization ̵ Recommended contiguous ranges 0x4005 AS-External LSA 5 AS-External LSA
0x2006 Group Membership LSA 6 Multicast Group Membership LSA
̵ Injected into OSPFv3 domain using route 0x2007 Type-7 LSA 7 NSSA External LSA
External Route
redistribution 0x0008 Link LSA - New 8 External attributes LSA (for BGP)
Summarization ̵ Prone to overlapping range issues 0x2009 Intra-area Prefix LSA - New 9/10/11 Future use - AS Opaque
waqas@aurumme.com

OSPF Configuration & Verification on different Vendors

Usage Cisco Juniper Huawei Nokia/ALU Tellabs/Coriant

<R1> system-view
[R1] router id 1.1.1.1 #config t
Basic OSPF R1#config t [edit] [R1] ospf 1 A:R1# configure router router-id 1.1.1.1 R1(config)#router ospf 1
[R1-ospf-1] area 0 A:R1# configure router ospf R1(config-router)##ospf router-id 1.1.1.1
Configuration R1(config)#router ospf 1 user@host# set protocols ospf area 0.0.0.0
[R1-ospf-1-area-0.0.0.0] network 1.1.1.1 A:R1>config>router>ospf# area 0 R1(config-router)#network 1.1.1.1/32 area
R1(config-router)#router-id 1.1.1.1 interface ge-0/0/0 255.255.255.255 A:R1>config>router>ospf>area# interface "system" 0.0.0.0
R1(config-router)#network 1.1.1.1 255.255.255.255 area 0 user@host# set protocols ospf area 0.0.0.0 [R1-ospf-1-area-0.0.0.0] network 12.12.12.0 A:R1>config>router>ospf>area>if# back R1(config-router)#network 12.12.12.0/24 area
R1(config-router)#network 12.12.12.0 0.0.0.255 area 0 interface lo0.0 0.0.0.255 A:R1>config>router>ospf>area# interface "PORT12" 0.0.0.0

www.networkwalks.com

www.networkwalks.com
R1#show ip ospf neighbor user@host# show ospf neighbor A:R1# show router ospf neighbor
Basic OSPF R1#show ip ospf interface user@host# show ospf interface A:R1# show router ospf interface R1#show ip ospf neighbor
<R1> display ip routing-table A:R1# show router ospf routes R1#show ip ospf interface
Show R1#show ip route ospf user@host# show ospf route
<R1> display ospf peer A:R1# show router ospf database R1#show ip route ospf
Commands R1#show ip ospf database user@host# show route protocol ospf <R1> display ospf interface Fa0/0/0 A:R1# show router ospf status R1#show ip ospf database
R1#show ip protocols, R1#show ip ospf user@host# show ospf database <R1> display ospf routing 1.1.1.1 A:R1# clear router ospf neighbor R1#show ip ospf
R1#show ip ospf neighbor detail user@host# show ospf neighbor extensive <R1> display ospf brief *info at any context R1#show ip route

Network Walks Reference Topology 1

.1 12.12.12.0/24 .2
R1 Fa0/0 Fa0/1 R2
Lo: 1.1.1.1/32 Lo: 2.2.2.2/32

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© www.aurumme.com/Atech
n OSPF – Summary Cheatsheet – Part e Version 2

Point-to-Point

R1 R2

Broadcast
R2

R1 R3

R4
OSPF Network/Interface types that can Inter-operate
Side A Side B Can Inter-Operate? Comments Non-Broadcast
Broadcast Broadcast www.networkwalks.com
R2
Non-broadcast Non-broadcast
Point-to-Point Point-to-Point

www.networkwalks.com
R1 R3
Can work after Hello/Dead
Broadcast Non-broadcast Timers Adjustments

Can work after Hello/Dead R4

Point-to-Point Point-to-Multipoint Timers Adjustments

OSPF LSA Types

www.networkwalks.com
LSA Type1 Router LSA [by ALL RT] Totally
LSA Type2 Network LSA [by ALL DR] Stub Stub
BB / NSSA
LSA Type3 Network Summary LSA [by ABR]
Normal
LSA Type4 ASBR Summary LSA [by ABR]
LSA Type5 External LSA by ASBR [by ASBR]
LSA Type6 Multicast (Group membership) LSA
LSA Type7 NSSA External LSA [by ASBR] NSSA
LSA Type8 External attributes LSA (for BGP)
LSA Type9/10/11 Future use - AS Opaque

Links to previous parts of the series:

Link to OSPF Part1: Part1
OSPF Area Types Link to OSPF Part2: Part2
Configuration
Area Detail
(on Cisco)
Backbone Area ⁻ BB Area is Transit Area #area 0
(Area0 / Transit Area)
Standard/Normal Area #area 0
⁻ No ASBR allowed
Stub Area ⁻ A default route is substituted for external routes
#area 0 stub
⁻ ASBR allowed (RFC 1587)
⁻ LSA7 are generated by ASBR & are converted to
NSSA (Not So Stub Area) LSA5 by ABRs to be flooded to the rest of the
#area 0 nssa
OSPF domain
⁻ Cisco Proprietary #area 0 stub no-
TSA (Totally Stub Area) ⁻ No ASBR allowed summary

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n OSPF – Summary Cheatsheet – Part q Version 2

Key Attributes
Protocol Type/Class: IP / Link State
Algorithm: SPF (Dijkstra’s)
Type: IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol)
Metric: Cost (Bandwidth)
Eq Cost Routes handling:
No. of packet types:
CEF Load Balancing
5
DR/BDR in OSPF
Admin Distance: 110
Reference BW: 108 1. High No. of Adjacencies
Problems
Standard: RFC2328 (OSPFv2), RFC2740 (OSPFv3/IPv6) 2. Excessive LSA flooding
Multicast Address: 224.0.0.5, 224.0.0.6
Protocols: IP Solution DR/BDR Model
Transport: IP (Port89)
V-Link Support: YES
DR/BDR Election Criteria:
DR i. Highest OSPF Interface Priority
ii. Highest Router ID (if OSPF interface priorities are equal)
OSPF Router ID Selection Criteria BDR Router with the Second Highest OSPF Interface Priority

Most of Routers (including Cisco) derive the Router ID in the following

precedence order: Priority:
1. Manually configured Router ID OSPF Priority Range: 0 to 255
2. Highest Loopback Address 1 = Default Priority
3. Highest Physical IP Address on the Router 0 = Means the Router will never become DR/BDR
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OSPF Router Types

OSPF Cost
IR BR ABR ASBR
(Internal Router) (Backbone Router) (Area Border Router) (AS Boundary Router) Cost Formula
All interfaces in the same area At least one interface in BB
Area/Area0
A Router connecting different Areas A Router connecting different AS’s
Reference BW 100 Mb 108
OSPF Cost = = =
Interface BW/Speed Link Speed Link Speed

OSPF Default Cost

OSPF Timers (Intervals) Interface Type Interface / BW Ref BW Cost
Default Hello Default Dead FE (100M) 100,000 10^8 1 (=10^8 /100,000 /1000)
OSPF Network Type Eth (10M) 10,000 10^8 10 (=10^8 /10,000 /1000)
Interval Interval
E1 (2M) 2048 10^8 48 (=10^8 /2048 /1000)
Broadcast 10 seconds 40 seconds
T1 (1.54M) 1544 10^8 64 (=10^8 /1544 /1000)
Non-broadcast 30 second 120 seconds 64 kbps Serial 64 10^8 1562 (=10^8 /64 /1000)
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Point-to-Point 10 seconds 40 seconds

Point-to-Multipoint 30 seconds 120 seconds

Point-to-Multipoint 30 seconds 120 seconds

Non-broadcast
Loopback N/A N/A

*For most of the vendors: Dead Intervals = 4 x Hello interval

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 STP (Spanning Tree Protocol) – Cheat Sheet – Part1 Version 2

Key Attributes
Protocol Type/Class:
Standards:
Network Protocol (Layer2)
IEEE 802.1D/W/S/Q, Cisco STP Example Topology
(Def on Cisco=PVST)
Function: L2 Loops Prevention, Root Bridge
Adapt to network changes & failures
Algorithm: STP by Radia Perlman DP
SW1 DP
Multicast Address: 01:80:C2:00:00:00 Fa0/2 Fa0/1

Port States: STP=5, RSTP=3 STP Cost Br ID: 32769.0001.C998.35C6

STP Cost
=19
Port Roles: STP=3, RSTP=4 =19

Fa0/1 Fa0/1
RP RP
Fa0/2 Fa0/2
DP X BP
STP Operations SW2
Br ID: 32769.0002.4AB3.3923
STP Cost =19
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SW3
Br ID: 32769.0003.E499.257C

1. Elect Root Bridge (RB) Download the Packet Tracer Lab file of this STP Topology for practice: Link
▪ First, one Switch is elected as Root Bridge which has lowest bridge ID

2. Select Root Ports (RP)

▪ One RP is selected on each Switch which has:
Lowest cost to RB > Lowest Br ID of neighbor Switch

3. Select Designated Ports (DP) STP Bridge ID

▪ One DP is selected for each segment which has: 4 12 48
Lowest cost to RB > Lowest sender Bridge ID > Lowest sender Port
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Priority > Lowest sender physical Port Number Pri Ext Sys ID MAC Address
4. Block all remaining Ports
▪ All remaining non-Root and non-Designated Ports are blocked Br ID = Priority.MAC
e.g. Br ID = 32768.AAAA.AAAA.AAAA
*Ext SysID is usually the VLAN no. in case of PVST

STP Path Selection Rules STP Port Roles

1. Bridge with lowest Root ID becomes the root
STP RSTP
2. Always prefer the neighbor with the lowest cost to root Root Root
3. Always prefer the neighbor with the lowest Bridge ID Designated Designated
4. Always prefer the lowest sender Port ID Alternate
Blocking
Backup
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STP Port States

BPDU Types www.networkwalks.com
STP RSTP BPDU Duration
Disabled – –
1. CBPDU (Configuration BPDU) Blocking Discarding Rx 20 sec
Used for Spanning Tree computation Listening Rx/Tx 15 sec
Learning Learning Rx/Tx/Learn 15 sec
2. TCN BPDU (Topology Change Notification BPDU)
Forwarding Forwarding Rx/Tx/Learn/Fwd –
Used to announce changes in the network topology www.networkwalks.com

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 STP (Spanning Tree Protocol) – Cheat Sheet – Part2 Version 2

STP Versions
STP
Version / Feature PVST PVST+ RSTP RPVST+ MST
(Legacy STP / CST)
Algorithm Legacy ST Legacy ST Legacy ST Rapid ST Rapid ST Rapid ST
802.1s, 802.1Q (2003 /
Standard 802.1D (1998) Cisco Cisco 802.1w (2004) Cisco
2005)
No. of STP One instance per
1x Instance One instance per vlan 1x Instance One instance per vlan Configurable
Instances vlan
Trunking types
N/A ISL 802.1Q, ISL N/A 802.1Q, ISL 802.1Q, ISL
supported
30–50 seconds 6 seconds (3 Hello 6 seconds (3 Hello 6 seconds (3 Hello
Failover Timer www.networkwalks.com
intervals) intervals) intervals)

STP Link Costs STP Timers (Intervals)

Data Rate STP Cost RSTP Cost
4 Mbps 250 5,000,000 Hello Forward Delay Max Age
10 Mbps 100 2,000,000
16 Mbps 62 1,250,000
Listening + Learning Time before Br Port
100 Mbps 19 200,000 BPDU sending Interval
time saves its CBPDU info
1 Gbps 4 20,000
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2 Gbps 3 10,000
10 Gbps 2 2,000 Range: 1-10s Range: 4-30s Range: 4-60s
100 Gbps N/A 200 (Def=2 sec) (Def=15 sec) (Def=20 sec)
1 Tbps N/A 20 www.networkwalks.com

STP Toolkit (Features)

STP Convergence Optimization Features
Port Fast Bypasses Listening+Learning states (Recommended on Access Ports only)
Uplink Fast Provides fast convergence (3-5s) after a direct link failure
Backbone Fast Provides fast convergence (by Max_Age) after an indirect link failure

STP Filter Features

BPDU Filter Stops a port from sending/receiving BPDUs
BPDU Guard Shutdowns a PortFast enabled port if a BPDU is received
Root Guard Prevents external SWs from becoming Root

STP Loop Prevention

Loop Guard Prevents an alternate or root port from becoming designated in the absence of BPDUs
UDLD (Unidir. Link Detection) Monitors the physical configuration of the cables and detect unidirectional links www.networkwalks.com

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 Multi-Vendor Comparison
OSPF Configuration & Verification on different Vendors - NW

NW Reference Topology 1

.1 12.12.12.0/24 .2
R1 Fa0/0 Fa0/1 R2
Lo: 1.1.1.1/32 Lo: 2.2.2.2/32

CONFIG / Tellabs
Cisco Juniper Huawei Nokia/ALU
VENDOR (Coriant)

<R1> system-view
#config t
R1#config t [edit] [R1] router id 1.1.1.1 A:R1# configure router router-id 1.1.1.1
R1(config)#router ospf 1
[R1] ospf 1 A:R1# configure router ospf
R1(config)#router ospf 1 user@host# set protocols ospf area 0.0.0.0 R1(config-router)##ospf router-id 1.1.1.1
Basic OSPF [R1-ospf-1] area 0 A:R1>config>router>ospf# area 0
R1(config-router)#router-id 1.1.1.1 interface ge-0/0/0 R1(config-router)#network 1.1.1.1/32 area
Configuration R1(config-router)#network 1.1.1.1 255.255.255.255 area 0 user@host# set protocols ospf area 0.0.0.0
[R1-ospf-1-area-0.0.0.0] network 1.1.1.1 A:R1>config>router>ospf>area# interface "system"
0.0.0.0
255.255.255.255 A:R1>config>router>ospf>area>if# back
R1(config-router)#network 12.12.12.0/24 area
R1(config-router)#network 12.12.12.0 0.0.0.255 area 0 interface lo0.0 [R1-ospf-1-area-0.0.0.0] network 12.12.12.0 A:R1>config>router>ospf>area# interface "PORT12"
0.0.0.0
0.0.0.255

A:R1# show router ospf neighbor

R1#show ip ospf neighbor user@host# show ospf neighbor R1#show ip ospf neighbor
<R1> display ip routing-table A:R1# show router ospf interface
R1#show ip ospf interface user@host# show ospf interface R1#show ip ospf interface

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<R1> display ospf peer A:R1# show router ospf routes
OSPF Show R1#show ip route ospf user@host# show ospf route R1#show ip route ospf
<R1> display ospf interface Fa0/0/0 A:R1# show router ospf database
Commands R1#show ip ospf database user@host# show route protocol ospf
<R1> display ospf routing 1.1.1.1 A:R1# show router ospf status
R1#show ip ospf database
R1#show ip protocols, R1#show ip ospf user@host# show ospf database R1#show ip ospf
<R1> display ospf brief A:R1# clear router ospf neighbor
R1#show ip ospf neighbor detail user@host# show ospf neighbor extensive R1#show ip route
*info at any context
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 Multi-Vendor Comparison
OSPF Configuration & Verification on different Vendors - NW

NW Reference Topology 1

.1 12.12.12.0/24 .2
R1 Fa0/0 Fa0/1 R2
Lo: 1.1.1.1/32 Lo: 2.2.2.2/32

CONFIG / Tellabs
Cisco Juniper Huawei Nokia/ALU
VENDOR (Coriant)

<R1> system-view
#config t
R1#config t [edit] [R1] router id 1.1.1.1 A:R1# configure router router-id 1.1.1.1
R1(config)#router ospf 1
[R1] ospf 1 A:R1# configure router ospf
R1(config)#router ospf 1 user@host# set protocols ospf area 0.0.0.0 R1(config-router)##ospf router-id 1.1.1.1
Basic OSPF [R1-ospf-1] area 0 A:R1>config>router>ospf# area 0
R1(config-router)#router-id 1.1.1.1 interface ge-0/0/0 R1(config-router)#network 1.1.1.1/32 area
Configuration R1(config-router)#network 1.1.1.1 255.255.255.255 area 0 user@host# set protocols ospf area 0.0.0.0
[R1-ospf-1-area-0.0.0.0] network 1.1.1.1 A:R1>config>router>ospf>area# interface "system"
0.0.0.0
255.255.255.255 A:R1>config>router>ospf>area>if# back
R1(config-router)#network 12.12.12.0/24 area
R1(config-router)#network 12.12.12.0 0.0.0.255 area 0 interface lo0.0 [R1-ospf-1-area-0.0.0.0] network 12.12.12.0 A:R1>config>router>ospf>area# interface "PORT12"
0.0.0.0
0.0.0.255

A:R1# show router ospf neighbor

R1#show ip ospf neighbor user@host# show ospf neighbor R1#show ip ospf neighbor
<R1> display ip routing-table A:R1# show router ospf interface
R1#show ip ospf interface user@host# show ospf interface R1#show ip ospf interface

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<R1> display ospf peer A:R1# show router ospf routes
OSPF Show R1#show ip route ospf user@host# show ospf route R1#show ip route ospf
<R1> display ospf interface Fa0/0/0 A:R1# show router ospf database
Commands R1#show ip ospf database user@host# show route protocol ospf
<R1> display ospf routing 1.1.1.1 A:R1# show router ospf status
R1#show ip ospf database
R1#show ip protocols, R1#show ip ospf user@host# show ospf database R1#show ip ospf
<R1> display ospf brief A:R1# clear router ospf neighbor
R1#show ip ospf neighbor detail user@host# show ospf neighbor extensive R1#show ip route
*info at any context
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 WLAN (Wireless LAN) – Cheat Sheet – Part 1 Version 1

WLAN Topologies

2. Infrastructure
1. Ad-hoc Mode 3. Others
Mode
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Controller Distributed Split-MAC

IBSS BSS ESS based AP’s Architectures
Cloud Based Autonomous Architectures

IEEE 802.11 WLAN Standards

802.11 802.11b 802.11a 802.11g 802.11n 802.11ad 802.11ac 802.11af 802.11ah
Year 1997 1999 1999 2003 2009 2012 2013 - -

Max Data Rate 2 Mb/s 11 Mb/s 54 Mb/s 54 Mb/s 600 Mb/s 6.76 Gb/s 6.93 Gb/s 26.7 Mb/s 40 Mb/s

2.4GHz,
Freq Band 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz 5 GHz 2.4 GHz
5 GHz
60 GHz 5 GHz 54-790 MHz 900 MHz

Modulation Schemes OFDM SC, OFDM OFDM

DSSS, FHSS DSSS, CCK OFDM DSSS, OFDM SC, OFDM SC, OFDM
& Technologies (+MIMO) (TxB) (MIMO)
BPSK to BPSK to BPSK to BPSK to BPSK to
Modulation Schemes 256QAM 256QAM 256QAM 256QAM 256QAM
BPSK to 256QAM BPSK to 256QAM BPSK to 256QAM BPSK to 256QAM

35m (Indoor) 35m (Indoor) 70m (Indoor) 70m (Indoor)

Range 20m
140m (Outdoor) 120m (Outdoor) 140m (Outdoor) 250m (Outdoor)
10m 35m 1km 1km
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Max Tx Power 100mW 100mW 100mW 100mW 100mW 10mW 160mW 100mW 100mW

WLAN Security Standards

WEP WPA WPA2 (802.11i)
Year 1997 2003 2005

Key Distribution Static Static, Dynamic Static, Dynamic

Key Management - 802.1x, EAP, PSK 802.1x, EAP, PSK

Encryption Type RC4 RC4/TKIP AES

User/Device Auth No/YES YES/YES YES/YES

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WLAN Signal Deteriorations

WLAN Site
Interference Survey Types
✓ Co-Channel Interference
✓ Neighboring Channel Interference, Non-802.11 Interference
1. Active 2. Passive
1. On-site 2. Off-site
Surveys Surveys
Losses
✓ Free Space Path Loss
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Pre-deployment Post deployment

(AP on a stick) (validation)
Physical Objects Deteriorations:
✓ Reflection, Absorption, Scattering
✓ Refraction, Diffraction, Fresnel Zones

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 LLDP Protocol – Summary Cheat Sheet – Part-1 Version 2

Key Attributes
“LLDP is a vendor-neutral Layer2 Protocol used by network devices for advertising their
identity, capabilities and neighbors for discovery at Layer2”

Protocol Type: Layer2 Protocol

Standard: IEEE 802.1AB - 2005
(similar to Cisco CDP, Nortel’s NDP, Microsoft’s LLTD)
Purpose: Node Discovery
Info Storage Location: MIB (Management Information Database)
Carrier/Transport Protocol: Ethernet Frames IEEE802.3 LLDP Data Unit (LLDPDU)
Multicast Address: 01:80:c2:00:00:0e
In LLDP, information is carried by Layer-2 Ethernet Frames which
contain packages called LLDPDU (LLDP Data Units).
✓ Each LLDPDU is a sequence of Type-Length-Value (TLV)
structures
✓ LLDPDU’s are sent by devices from each of their interfaces
LLDP Timers (Intervals) at a Fixed Interval
Timer/Interval Detail ✓ Each Layer-2 Frame contains one LLDP Data Unit (LLDPDU)

Hello Time Fixed interval at which the device sends LLDP updates to
(LLDP Packet Freq) neighbors. Default LLDP Hello Time = 30s

The duration that a receiving device should maintain LLDP

Hold Time neighbor information before aging it. Default LLDP Hold Time =
120s
LLDPDU Types
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Re-initialization The delay time for LLDP to re-initialize on any interface. Default
Time LLDP Re-initialize Time =2s
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q Normal w Shutdown
LLDPDUs advisory LLDPDU

Mgmt info of local node Shutdown Goodbye msg

(plz everyone delete my info,
I’m leaving)

LLDP Frame Format LLDP DU

Mandatory
Mandatory TLV's TLV's

S
T/L Chassis Port ID Optional End of LLDP MED
Preamble F DA SA TTL LLDPDU FCS
D (0x88cc) ID TLV's TLV “An enhancement to LLDP that operates between endpoint
devices such as IP phones and network devices such as switches”
7Byte 1B 6Byte 6Byte 2Byte Variable Length 2B 4Byte LLDP-MED supports below TLVs:
✓ LLDP-MED capabilities TLV
Ethernet Frame www.networkwalks.com
✓ Network policy TLV, Power management TLV
✓ Inventory management TLV, Location TLV

LLDP TLV Types

TLV Type
TLV Name Usage in LLDPDU
Value
0 End Of LLDPDU Mandatory
1 Chassis ID Mandatory
2 Port ID Mandatory LLDP Operation
3 Time To Live Mandatory
Modes
4 Port Description Optional
5 System Name Optional
6 System Description Optional
7 System Capabilities Optional q Tx only w Rx only e Tx & Rx
8 Management Address Optional
9 -126 Reserved Undefined Only Transmit LLDP Frames.
Do not process received Frames &
Only Process the received LLDP
Frames.
Perform full Transmit &
Receive Operations
discards them
127 Organizationally Specific TLVs Optional Do not send LLDP Packets www.networkwalks.com
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n VTP (Virtual Trunking Protocol) – Summary Cheat Sheet – Part w Version 2

VTP Pruning
“A VTP feature used to eliminate or prune this unnecessary traffic
to save Network BW”
VTP Message Types
✓ By default, VTP pruning is disabled
Advertisement VTP message generated by VTP clients to
✓ In VTP v1 & v2, when we Enable or Disable VTP pruning, it is propagated to Requests request VLAN information from VTP Server
the entire domain and accepted by all the devices in that domain. In VTP
version 3, the domain administrator must manually Enable or Disable VTP VTP message containing Summarised VLAN
Summary
pruning explicitly on each device information. This is sent out every 300sec by
Advertisements default or when a configuration change occurs
✓ Enabling VTP pruning on a VTP server enables pruning for the entire
management domain. Subset VTP message sent when a configuration change

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✓ VLAN 1 is always pruning ineligible (means traffic from VLAN 1 cannot be Advertisements occurs on the server switch
pruned) A message sent when the VTP Client first joins a
VTP Join
✓ By default, VLANs 2 through 1000 are pruning eligible VTP domain, informing the VTP Server(s) about
Message the new client www.networkwalks.com

VTP Modes
VTP Server VTP Client VTP Transparent OFF
Create/Modify/Delete VLANs Yes No Yes (but local only) Yes

Source VTP Messages Yes Yes No No

Listen to VTP Messages Yes Yes No -

Forward VTP Messages Yes Yes Yes No

Synchronizes itself Yes Yes No -
Forwards advertisements Yes Yes Yes www.networkwalks.com

VTP Configuration Example on Cisco

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Task: Configure VTP on all four Switches (SW1-SW4) with below detail:
VTP Version: 2, VTP Domain Name: NETWORKWALKS, VTP Password: nw123
VTP mode: SW3=Server, SW1/SW2/SW4=Client Network Walks SW Topology 2
VLAN101 VLAN100

Solution:
On SW1/SW2/SW4:
SW(config)# vtp version 2 ....Configure VTP version 2
SW(config)# vtp mode server
SW(config)# vtp domain NETWORKWALKS ....VTP Domain Name
SW(config)# vtp password nw123
nw_SW1 nw_SW2
On SW3: VTP Client VTP Client
SW3(config)# vtp version 2
SW3(config)# vtp mode server
SW3(config)# vtp domain NETWORKWALKS
SW3(config)# vtp password nw123

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Verifications: nw_SW3 nw_SW4

SW# show vtp status VTP Server VTP Client
SW# show vtp counters

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 CDP – Summary Cheat Sheet (ATech Academy) – Part1 Version 2

Key Attributes
Protocol Type: Layer2 Protocol
Standard: Cisco Proprietary
(similar to IEEE 802.1AB –2005, Nortel’s NDP, Microsoft’s LLTD)
Purpose: Node Discovery
Multicast Address: 01:00:0C:CC:CC:CC
Supported over GRE Tunnels: YES
TTL: 180s
Carrier/Transport Protocol: Ethernet Frames IEEE802.3
All media types that support SNAP (LAN, Frame Relay, ATM)
CDP Versions
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CDP Timers (Intervals) q CDP v1 w CDP v2

CDP Hello Fixed interval at which the device sends CDP updates to Initial version with capability to Recent release with more features
Timer neighbors (Default 60s) collect info about connected device like Tracking mismatches of Native
VLAN & Duplex

CDP Hold The duration that a receiving device should maintain CDP
Timer neighbor information before aging it (Default 180s)
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CDP Frame Format

CDP Frame

LLC CDP PDU

S TLV’s
T/L Organization
Preamble F DA SA (0x88cc)
DSAP 1B SSAP 1B Control 1B Code 3B PID 2B Version 1B TTL 1B Checksum 2B (Device ID, SW Ver,
Platform, …)
FCS
D
7Byte 1B 6Byte 6Byte 2Byte 2B 4Byte

Ethernet Frame
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CDP Security
CDP Spoofing Attacks: Attackers use forged CDP Packets to collect L2 topology info & cause DoS attacks. Therefore, it is recommended to disable
CDP on interfaces that connects non-Cisco devices to avoid CDP Spoofing Attacks. The steps involved in this attack are as in below:

1. An attacker sends packet with multicast MAC (01:00:0c:cc:cc:cc) as destination and various spoofed or fake MAC Addresses as source

2. When a Cisco Device receives these frames it starts to add the information in CDP table
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3. The table starts to get larger because the attacker may send thousands of CDP frames to the device

4. Finally, the device is unable to handle this much of frames & crashes (DoS Attack)

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n OSPF – Summary Cheatsheet – Part t Version 2

OSPF Neighbor Process & LSDB Exchange

.1 12.12.12.0/24 .2

R1 R1 to R2 link comes UP R2
1.1.1.1 www.networkwalks.com 2.2.2.2
DOWN DOWN

HELLO (Multicast to 224.0.0.5)

INIT
(Multicast to 224.0.0.5) HELLO
INITIAL PHASE

INIT

q HELLO (Unicast to R2 on 12.12.12.2 with neighbors list)

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2-WAY
(Unicast to R2 on 12.12.12.2 with neighbors list) HELLO
2-WAY
Neighbors formed & neighbor table has been built

DR/BDR Election (if relevant)

DBD (Unicast to R2 on 12.12.12.2 saying that I will become the Master)

EXSTART
(Unicast to R2 on 12.12.12.2 saying that I will become the Master) DBD
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EXSTART
Master/Slave Roles decided

DBD (LSA headers)

EXCHANGE
(LSA headers) DBD
EXCHANGE
ADJ. & SYNC. PHASE

…
…
…

w LSR
LOADING
LSR
LOADING
LSU
LSAck
LSU
LSAck

… www.networkwalks.com
…
…

FULL FULL
Full Adjacency formed & Synchronised

*There is also an extra state called ATTEMPT which applies only to NBMA interfaces

OSPF Tables
Neighbour Table All Adjacent Routers List

Topology Table LSA’s Table (complete info about the networks in same area)

Routing Table Best Routes www.networkwalks.com

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 VTP (Virtual Trunking Protocol) – Summary Cheat Sheet – Part q Version 2

What is VTP? “VTP is a Cisco Proprietary Layer-2 Protocol for easy

& centralised Management of VLANs”

Key Attributes VLAN101 VLAN100

Protocol Type: Layer2 Protocol
Standard: Cisco Proprietary
(Competitive Open Standards: GVRP, MVRP)
Purpose: Centralized VLAN Database
nw_SW1 nw_SW2
Link Types Supported: Cisco ISL, 802.1Q, IEEE 802.10 and LANE trunks VTP Client VTP Client
Versions: 3 (v1, v2, v3) – Default=v1

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nw_SW3 nw_SW4
VTP Server VTP Client
VTP Topology

VTP Domain
“A set of interconnected switches under the same administrative
responsibility sharing the same VTP Domain Name”
VTP Config Revision Number
✓ A switch can belong to only one VTP Domain
✓ VLAN configuration changes for a domain are always at Global level “A 32-bit number that indicates the level of
✓ By default, a switch is in the VTP no-management-domain state until it receives an revision for a VTP Frame”
advertisement for a domain over a trunk link or until we configure a Domain Name
✓ We cannot create or modify VLANs on a VTP Server until a management domain ✓ Length: 32-bit Number
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name is specified or learned ✓ Range: 0-4.2B (increments by 1)

✓ Before adding a new VTP client switch to a VTP domain, always verify that its VTP ✓ Each VTP device tracks its own VTP configuration
configuration revision number is lower than the configuration revision number of

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revision number
the other switches in the VTP domain
✓ A switch always ignores advertisements that have a
different VTP domain name or an earlier
configuration revision number

VTP Versions
VTP v1 VTP v2 VTP v3
Server, Client,
Supported Modes Server, Client, Transparent Server, Client, Transparent, OFF
Transparent
Authentication Types Supported Clear Text Password Clear Text Password Encrypted Password
1-1001 for Server/Client 1-1001 for Server/Client
Supported VLAN ID Range 1-4094 for Transparent
1-4094 for Transparent 1-4094 for Transparent
Private VLANs Not Supported Not Supported Supported
Extended VLANs (1006-4094) Not Supported Not Supported Supported
VLAN update mechanism Revision Number Primary Server Primary Server

VLAN storage DB vlan.dat file vlan.dat file www.networkwalks.com

vlan.dat file

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 DTP (Dynamic Trunking Protocol) – Cheat Sheet – Part-1
Version 2

What is DTP?
“DTP is a Cisco Proprietary Layer-2 Protocol for Trunk Negotiations”
DTP is enabled by default on Trunk Ports in Cisco equipment & both ends of a
Trunk Links should support DTP for it to work.

DTP Port Modes

Access (DTP OFF) Permanent non-trunking mode
Key Attributes Trunk (DTP ON) Permanent trunking mode
Protocol Type: Layer2 Protocol Dynamic Auto Wait for the other end to ask to become Trunk
Standard: Cisco Proprietary
Purpose: Trunk Negotiation at two ends of a Layer2 link Dynamic Desirable Force the other end to become Trunk

Nonegotiate (Access) Disable DTP & become Access www.networkwalks.com

Nonegotiate (Trunk) Disable DTP & become Trunk

DTP Admin Mode Combinations & resultant Operational Mode www.networkwalks.com

Dynamic Dynamic Nonegotiate Nonegotiate

Admin Mode Trunk (ON) Access (OFF)
Auto Desirable (Access) (Trunk)

Dynamic Auto Static access Trunk Trunk Static access Static access Unexpected Results

Dynamic Desirable Trunk Trunk Trunk Static access Static access Unexpected Results

Trunk (ON) Trunk Trunk Trunk Unexpected Results Unexpected Results Trunk

Access (OFF) Static access Static access Unexpected Results Static access Static access Unexpected Results

Nonegotiate (Access) Static access Static access Unexpected Results Static access Static access Unexpected Results

Nonegotiate (Trunk) Unexpected Results Unexpected Results Trunk Unexpected Results Unexpected Results Trunk
*Admin Mode = Input
Operational Mode = Output

DTP Configuration Commands (Cisco)

nw_SW(config-if)switchport mode access
Network Walks SW Topology 2
VLAN101 VLAN100
nw_SW(config-if)switchport mode trunk
nw_SW(config-if)switchport mode dynamic desirable
nw_SW(config-if)switchport mode dynamic auto
nw_SW(config-if)switchport nonegotiate
NW_SW1 NW_SW2
TRUNK Links TRUNK Links

DTP show Commands (Cisco) TRUNK Links

nw_SW# show interfaces f0/1 switchport
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nw_SW# show interface trunk
NW_SW3 NW_SW4
#show interface status | i trunk

*By default, Ethernet interfaces on most Cisco switches are set to desirable mode

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