Nonlinear Dyn

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11071-018-4126-0

REVIEW

An overview on the appearance of the Sommerfeld effect

and saturation phenomenon in non-ideal vibrating systems
(NIS) in macro and MEMS scales
José M. Balthazar · Angelo M. Tusset · Reyolando M. L. R. F. Brasil ·
Jorge L. P. Felix · Rodrigo T. Rocha · Frederic C. Janzen ·
Airton Nabarrete · Clivaldo Oliveira

Received: 10 March 2017 / Accepted: 4 February 2018

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V., part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract This paper was written in honor of Prof. from 2004 to 2017. New and old studies of NIS, with
Viktor Olimpanovich Kononenko from Ukraine and limited power supply (small DC motors or electrody-
takes into account reports of recent progress about non- namical shakers), are usually used in laboratory tests,
ideal vibrating systems (NIS) published in the period and therefore, the investigation of mutual interactions
of driven and driving sub-system is very important. In
J. M. Balthazar (B) this paper, main properties of NIS have been reviewed,
Aeronautics Technological Institute, São José dos Campos, such as the Sommerfeld effect, i.e., jump phenomena
SP, Brazil and the increase in power supply that is required by
e-mail: jmbaltha@gmail.com
an excitation source operating near resonance; the pos-
A. M. Tusset · R. T. Rocha · F. C. Janzen sibility of saturation phenomenon occurrence, i.e., the
Federal University of Technology - Paraná, Ponta Grossa, transference of energy from higher frequency and lower
PR, Brazil amplitude to lower frequency and higher amplitude
e-mail: a.m.tusset@gmail.com
mode; and the existence of regular (periodic motion)
R. T. Rocha and irregular (chaotic motion) behaviors, depending on
e-mail: digao.rocha@gmail.com
the value of control parameters (voltage of a DC motor).
F. C. Janzen This paper is divided into two goals: on the one hand
e-mail: fcjanzen@utfpr.edu.br
will be treated about NIS and on the other hand will be
R. M. L. R. F. Brasil provided an overview of the main engineering appli-
Federal University of ABC, Santo André, SP, Brazil cations, analyzing their physical phenomena involved
e-mail: reyolando.brasil@gmail.com and the adequate methodologies to deal with them.
J. L. P. Felix
Federal University of Fronteira Sul, Cerro Largo, RS, Brazil Keywords Limited power supply · Non-ideal
e-mail: Jorge.felix@uffs.edu.br vibrations (NIS) · Energy transfer · Sommerfeld
effect · Saturation phenomenon · Emergent problems
A. Nabarrete
Aeronautics Technological Institute, São José dos Campos,
SP, Brazil
e-mail: nabarret@ita.br 1 Introduction
C. Oliveira
Federal University of Grande Dourados, Dourados, MS,
In the design of structures, it is needed to investigate
Brazil the relevance of dynamics in order to predict struc-
e-mail: ClivaldoOliveira@ufgd.edu.br tural responses due to the excitations. Accordingly, the

123

vibrating processes can be divided into the following
types: free, forced, parametric and self-excited vibra-
tions. It is remarked that two or more vibrations may
interact with each other in the same oscillatory system.
Moreover, a plenty of vibrating phenomena of real
systems can be neither solved nor even explained based
on linear theory; therefore, it becomes important to
consider nonlinear characteristics into the mathemat-
ical models of such systems. The main difficulty in
comparing to the linear systems is, mainly, the absence
of validity of superposition principle. Note that every
nonlinear vibrating system must be solved individually
and then special methodologies must be developed for
each class of a considered nonlinear vibration problem.
Nevertheless, despite great advances in the vibrat-
ing (oscillatory) theory, some kind of vibrations that
are still found cannot be well explained by the current
theory of vibration. New dynamical phenomena and
differences between periodic and chaotic motions, in
each simplification level, need to be emphasized and
analyzed, creating new approaches to classical cases,
with success, through a large number of new and rele-
vant publications, in the last years.
On the other hand, in recent decades, a great num-
ber of research works, as seen in the current literature,
have been dedicated to new materials research and their
usage in new structural components. Among the new
materials, some of them have shown a high potential
level for applications in all engineering areas, which
are, shape memory alloys (SMAs), magnetorheological
(MR) materials, dielectric elastomers, polymers, thin
films and functionally graded materials and other com-
posites. Hence, the researches have been led to applica-
tions of these materials from microscale and nanoscale
structures to large space structures. These structures are
usually rather slender leading to an eminently nonlin-
ear behavior, including new sorts of nonlinearities and
forces.
Therefore, this paper is written including some top-
ics of nonlinear and chaotic phenomena found in mod-
ern and emergent engineering practice, specially to the
field of complex electromechanical systems.
Here, these topics will be overviewed, based on the
scientific literature in English language written, in a
systematic way, including new results of a special class
of nonlinear elastic structures. These kinds of vibrating
systems consist of electrical, mechanical and acoustic
sub-systems. They are of special importance for the
engineering, because of the majority of engineering
123
J. M. Balthazar et al.
systems that have, at least, one electromechanical sub-
system in their composition.
It is remarked that there are three different groups in
which electromechanical systems fall into: traditional
electromechanical systems (macroscale), the micro-
electromechanical systems (MEMS) and the nano-
electromechanical systems (NEMS). Note that MEMS
and NEMS technologies are still in their beginning,
with global research and development actively ongo-
ing. Note that, often many practical electromechanical
devices may be modeled by coupled equations and they
can be understood in the concept of mechanical systems
of lumped masses, electric and magnetic circuits.
This work has the interest of a discussion of the
existence of a complete interaction between mechan-
ical and electrical coupling quantities and also in the
investigation of the relevant dynamics, in order to pre-
dict the structural response due to the excitations, in
macro- and microscales, in honor of Prof. Kononenko,
from Ukraine.
According to Prof. Kononenko’s book [1], entirely
devoted to the subject of this work, in general, most
of studies that involve electromechanical vibrating sys-
tems were based on hypotheses that the external excita-
tions are produced by an ideal power source with well-
known time history, magnitude, course, frequency, or
even in random problems with known characteristics.
However, the reality is that excitation sources are non-
ideal, due to their limited power supply, limited inertia
and their frequencies varying according to the imme-
diate state of vibrating (oscillating) system. It is well
known that non-ideal vibrating systems (NIS) are for
whose power supplies are limited. As the power sup-
ply becomes more limited, the behavior of the vibrating
systems starts from ideal systems (IS).
Consider the following experiment. An electric
motor with unbalanced rotor is mounted on a frame
which is not stiff enough to be considered as rigid.
Therefore, the rotation of the rotor causes vibration
of the whole structure. Assume the motor is voltage-
controlled, that is, normally the increase in input volt-
age leads to the increase in rotation speed, etc. In that
case motor would behave as an ideal system. However,
when such motor with unbalanced rotor is mounted
on a compliant frame, an unexpected phenomenon
may occur. When input voltage is gradually increased,
the rotation frequency increases until it reaches the
whole system’s resonant frequency. Surprisingly, fur-
ther increase in input power does not lead to the increase
An overview on the appearance of the Sommerfeld effect
in the rotation speed. Instead, the vibration amplitudes
raise drastically, and the motor seems to be “stuck” in
resonance. Finally, if the input power is increased even
further, after passing some threshold a kind of “jump”
occurs and the system suddenly returns to the normal
operation mode. This phenomenon occurs when vibra-
tions of the entire system have influence on the motor’s
torque and therefore rotational speed, which is a clear
example of a non-ideal system.
Usually, this mentioned dynamic process is called
Sommerfeld effect [1] discovered in 1904 [2] and com-
mented by Prof. Kononenko in his book [1], entirely
devoted to the subject, i.e., the problem of an unbal-
anced equipment in the passage through resonance,
considering an operational speed higher than lower fre-
quencies of vibration of the supporting structure, may
not be able to supply the need of power. Hence, for this
property, a large part of its energy is used in shaking
the structure and not in accelerating the rotation of the
shaft.
Hence, the insertion of real torque versus speed
curves for non-ideal motors makes the system as non-
linear and capable of providing multiple steady-state
periodic motions, whose stability must be evaluated,
i.e., the vibrations provide an energy sink.
In summary, manifestations of a non-ideal energy
source are represented by jump phenomenon and the
increase in power required by a source operating near
resonance. Such manifestations are referred by the so-
called Sommerfeld effect.
This above-referenced phenomenon [1] suggests
that the vibrational responses yields an energy sink,
inducing the vibration of the structure instead of oper-
ating the machinery. Therefore, one of the issues often
faced by designers is how to operate a system through
resonance and avoid this kind of energy sink.
In reality, it will be needed to analyze the existence
of a full interaction between mechanical and electrical
field quantities, because quasi-periodic solutions are
representative of this property [1]. Then, based on this
property, it is possible to carry out an extension of clas-
sical NIS to macro- and MEMS types of machineries.
Additionally, it is of importance to note if the
dynamic characteristics of a two-degree-of-freedom
structure were chosen to have two-to-one internal res-
onance between its two modes of vibration. In this set-
ting, when the excitation frequency is near resonance
with the second natural frequency, the amplitude of this
mode increases until a critical level and become satu-
rated. When it happens, the surplus vibration energy
acquired in this mode is transferred to the other mode
[3], experiencing a sudden increase in its amplitude.
Such energy is transformed from lower amplitude and
higher-frequency motion into higher amplitude and
lower-frequency motion, that is a transformation which
is, depending on the case, is potentially dangerous. This
is the so-called saturation phenomenon, and it is high-
lighted some old results using the phenomenon in NIS
[4–6], among others.
Next, four more recent papers are presented, using
saturation phenomenon to energy-harvesting applica-
tion.
In [7], the authors presented an analytical and
numerical analysis of the energy transfer from the
dynamic interaction and energy transfer between the
two vibration modes of a non-ideal two-degree-of-
freedom structure excited by a non-ideal unbalanced
motor. The frequencies of these modes were set in
a two-to-one internal resonance condition. Excitation
was provided by eccentric rotating mass motor captured
in external resonance. The structural system consid-
ered consisted of two oscillators (blocks) weakly cou-
pled each other by a quadratic spring, exciting the big-
ger block with an unbalanced motor of limited power
supply with time-variable frequency. The analytical
method showed the interaction between the two modes
of vibration of the blocks and the existence of a transfer
of energy from the bigger to the smaller when the natu-
ral frequencies are set in 2:1 ratio. Thus, the numerical
simulations showed the real interaction between the
displacements of the blocks, which proved the transi-
tion from low amplitude and high frequency to high
amplitude and low frequency. Due to high amplitudes
of motion, it is possible to look for a way to harvest
energy in a future work.
One of the most promising devices for energy har-
vesting is the piezoelectric material, which is a solid
theme of study. In [8], the authors explored satura-
tion phenomenon in a portal frame structure of two
degrees of freedom considering a nonlinear piezoce-
ramic ceramic [102] coupled to a column. The ver-
tical coordinate of the lumped mass at mid-span of
the beam possesses its natural frequency twice of its
horizontal’s natural frequency, which is the column’s
vibration, and it is base-excited in the vertical direction
with the same beam’s natural frequency, and thus, sat-
uration phenomenon occurred, transferring the surplus
energy of the beam’s vibration to the column, obtaining
123

higher amplitude than in the beam. The authors verified
the nonlinear dependence of the piezoelectric material
and the energy harvesting by exploring the saturation
phenomenon.
Moreover, in [9], the authors presented an appli-
cation of a passive control strategy in the same por-
tal frame of two degrees of freedom. In addition, a
nonlinear piezoelectric material [100] was considered
to vibration energy harvesting. Vertical and horizontal
coordinates were set with a two-to-one internal reso-
nance, which is one of the conditions to saturation phe-
nomenon occurs. Therefore, the main idea was to tune
the vibration of the structure in order to improve the
energy harvesting. The passive controller used in this
work was a nonlinear energy-sink (NES) device, i.e.,
a mass-spring-damper that played a role of tuning the
vertical and horizontal displacements, and, in conse-
quence, improved the energy harvesting. The numerical
results depicted the best configuration of the controller
device showing its efficiency to improve the vibrations
of the structure, which had the goal of improving the
energy harvesting, whose piezoelectric material is used
as a means of low-power energy transduction, with suc-
cess.
The previously mentioned portal frame was stud-
ied in [10] through analytical and numerical analysis
of vibration energy harvesting from the dynamic inter-
action and energy transfer between the two modes of
vibration; however, the portal frame was proposed as a
flexible frame-type kind. Moreover, the structure was
excited directly in the mid-span of the beam by an
eccentric rotating mass motor and with time-varying
frequencies from various directions. The natural fre-
quencies were also set to 2:1 ratio, which characterize
the internal resonance between the modes of vibration.
Afterward, the authors observed that depending on how
the piezoelectric material was installed (or coupled),
different gains were obtained and good performance of
the harvester generator was detected. In addition, the
existence of periodic, quasi-periodic or chaotic oscilla-
tions was observed depending on how critical the sat-
uration phenomenon can be.
Moreover, it is remarked that Sommerfeld effect and
saturation phenomenon in non-ideal vibrating prob-
lems were described by several authors, using distinct
and new approaches to the classical researches, that
were done with success, mainly using the existence
of a full interaction between mechanical and electri-
123
J. M. Balthazar et al.
cal field quantities (quasi-periodic solutions), through
several new publications, in the last years.
Therefore, the main objective of this paper is to
present the nonlinear behavior of non-ideal systems
(NIS) in a systematic and modern way, including
macro- and micro-vibrating systems, bringing them
together and developing some specific points. In all
of them, the Sommerfeld effect was presented and ana-
lyzed by different analytical, numerical and experimen-
tal results with good agreement between them, concern-
ing macro- and micro-(MEMS) non-ideal models.
The rest of this review paper is organized as fol-
lows: In Sect. 2 will be discussed the study of non-ideal
systems in several relevant cases. In Sect. 3, non-ideal
models in macroscale will be discussed. In the follow-
ing, in Sect. 4 will be discussed new applications of
non-ideal systems, and in Sect. 5, some emergent prob-
lems nowadays related to non-ideal systems are pre-
sented and discussed. At last, conclusions of this review
are presented remarking all over the subjects discussed
here. In the following, acknowledgments and the main
references are presented.
2 An outline of non-ideal systems (NIS)
Several references based on the analysis of resonant
behavior of non-ideal vibrating systems were pub-
lished in the current literature. The reader may notice
some examples for comprehensive details and differ-
ent approaches of these kinds of problems, through
[11–17]. Note that in [18], an analytical and numer-
ical analysis of the dynamic interaction of a cantilever
beam with nonlinear behavior of its damping and stiff-
ness was presented. The governing equations of motion
were obtained by Rayleigh Duffing oscillator equation
and a non-ideal motor, which is coupled to the tip end
of the beam.
Some new and promising results on NIS were
recently published using extensive numerical charac-
terization in the bi-parameter space by using Lyapunov
exponents and identified remarkable new organized
distribution of periodic windows, known as Arnold’s
tongues or shrimps [19].
The authors of [20] proved the existence and sta-
bility of periodic orbits in NIS, in [21] the appear-
ance of a Hopf bifurcation was discussed, and in [22],
for the first time, the existence of Neimark–Sacker
bifurcation in a class of non-ideal mechanical sys-
An overview on the appearance of the Sommerfeld effect
tems was proved. In [23], the possibility of finding
Hopf bifurcations through supporting numerical sim-
ulations was investigated, and in addition, they ana-
lyzed global bifurcations, destroying the limit cycles
in NIS. In [24], the authors also considered the appear-
ance in NIS with large slope characteristic. In a recent
paper, the authors of [25] considered the one-mass
two-degree-of-freedom system with non-ideal excita-
tion. Moreover, the resonant motion of the system
was investigated. The mathematical model of the sys-
tem possesses three coupled second-order differen-
tial equations. The conditions for the appearance of
jump phenomenon and Sommerfeld effect were pre-
sented.
On the other hand, some authors used the theory
of method of direct separation of motions (MDSM)
which allowed the separation of the vibration of the
rotor from its rotations, with success [26,27]. It should
be noted that the MDSM is characterized by the idea of
representing the system’s motion subject to vibration as
a sum of two components, the fast component and the
slow component, which contain additional slow forces,
called vibrational forces.
Nowadays, the nonlinear normal modes (NNMs)
concept was introduced in NIS in [28] with the objec-
tive to yield a demanding generalization of normal
modes to nonlinear systems. Initially, this concept was
characterized as a periodic solution of basic conser-
vative systems, and then, continuation algorithms were
recently exploited to compute them. Some authors used
nonlinear normal modes to discretize NIS equations
and performed some chaotic behavior, instability, and
so on analyses.
It is remarked that in [29], the authors analyzed the
behavior of the dissipative NIS, having the nonlinear
absorber in the vicinity of resonance using NNMs, mul-
tiple scales method and transformation to a reduced
system, with success.
In [30], the behavior of a dissipative system in reso-
nance excited by a limited power supply coupled with
a nonlinear absorber was investigated accordingly. In
this mentioned paper, the interaction of the nonlinear
vibration modes in the resonance case was considered
by the authors.
In [31], new results of a magnetically levitated body
were presented. The system is composed of a magnetic
block with inverted poles in order to be repelled by the
bottom and top of its armature, whose armature has a
bottom and top magnets.
In [32], the dynamics of a structure composed of
two pendulums attached to a rotating rigid hub was
analyzed by the authors. The considered system in such
paper is rotating in a horizontal plane, so that the gravity
force does not influence its motion. Both pendulums
were approached as lumped masses fixed at the ends
of the rigid and massless rods connected to the hub by
flapping hinges.
In some cases, NIS may not behave periodically all
the time. In many situations, as commented before,
chaotic behavior may appear changing the whole
dynamics of such system. Therefore, the next subsec-
tion will discuss the appearance of chaos in non-ideal
problems.
2.1 The appearance of chaos in NIS
The appearance of chaos in NIS was reported by several
authors in the current literature. Next, some of them are
briefly mentioned.
The interaction of a DC motor with limited power
supply, with new models and properties of a pendu-
lum and piezoelectric transducer forced oscillations
was investigated in detail in [33], considering the anal-
ysis of the highest Lyapunov exponent for a compli-
cated system, i.e., a vibrating sub-system. The regions
for three steady-state regimes were determined, namely
stationary, periodic and chaotic.
In [34], the authors investigated a NIS, which con-
sisted in a pendulum attached in a supported point that
is excited along a horizontal guide by a two-bar linkage
driven by a DC motor with a limited power supply.
In [35], the authors investigated the appearance,
development and vanishment of deterministic chaos in
a “spherical pendulum-electric motor of limited power”
dynamical system. Chaotic attractors discovered in the
system were described in detail.
On the other hand, some NIS are considered in [36]
describing the complex transition from regular to irreg-
ular (chaotic) motions and transitions between different
types of chaotic behaviors. Moreover, the oscillations
of a plane pendulum are remarked in [37,38]. The sus-
pension points which is excited by electric motor of
the limited power taking into account many factors of
delay were considered.
Forced oscillations of a fluid surface in a cylindrical
tank due to interaction with the excitation of an electric
motor of a limited power supply (NIS) were investi-
123

gated in detail in [39] based on analyses of the largest
Lyapunov exponents for a complex system.
The non-ideal deterministic dynamical tank with
a fluid–electromotor was considered in [40]. Based
on the investigation of low-dimensional mathematical
model of the given system, the map of dynamic regimes
was constructed by the authors and the study of scenar-
ios of transition to deterministic chaos was carried out.
A typical peculiarity of realization of such scenarios
was described. Some remarks on parametric surface
waves in a nonlinear tank excited by a non-ideal exci-
tation were done in [41].
The vibrations of an infinite plate in contact with
a medium acoustic were considered in [42,43], where
the plate was subjected to a point of excitation by a
non-ideal electric motor of limited power supply.
It is noted that new models and properties of piezo-
ceramic transducer due to the interaction with the exci-
tation device of limited power supply were built and
investigated in detail in [44,45]. Special attention was
given to examine the origin and development of the
deterministic chaos in this system.
Two new mathematical models of cross-waves gen-
eration in fluid free surface between two cylindrical
shells were worked in [46]. One of them is when the
inner wall vibrates radially to the system. The other
one is when there are parametric oscillations of the
cantilever bar with low bending rigidity.
Atypical peculiarities of realization of such scenar-
ios are described, and in [47], the authors pointed out
the scenario of formation of chaotic attractors in a
class of models governed by Sommerfeld effect. They
exploited the Sommerfeld effect in order to reduce the
vibrations for a resonant structure.
Besides the discussed non-ideal system in this sub-
section, there is such system considering fraction
derivatives. They will be discussed in the next subsec-
tion.
2.2 Rational (fractional) derivative in NIS
Nowadays, in the current literature, some reports con-
cerning to NIS dynamics, taking into account fractional
damping, appear in different contexts; for a review of
different theories, see [48].
Such damping may be defined by a fractional deriva-
tive, in contrary to classical viscous damping term with
the derivative of first order. As the memory of the
123
J. M. Balthazar et al.
dynamical system induces an extra degree of freedom
for the phase space, the standard methods of dynamical
analysis and system identification which depend on the
knowledge of system dimensionality cannot be used.
Here is announced that some NIS vibrating systems,
with fractional damping, have been already studied
with memory considering the mathematical models in
[49] and the external exciting current Im .
In addition, in [50], the authors analyzed the dynamic
behavior of a non-ideal system which consisted of an
elastic portal frame that included fractional nonlineari-
ties in damping and stiffness. They carried out through
numerical simulations and 0-1 test that, when damping
is considered in fractional order the behavior of the sys-
tem is present with either periodic or chaotic behaviors,
keeping the system to be stable.
In [51], the authors presented the generalized form
of a non-ideal system, which contains a pure nonlin-
ear oscillator and a non-ideal energy source. In the
non-ideal system, there is an interaction between the
motions of the oscillator and those of the motor, as
the motor has an influence on the oscillator and vice
versa.
Hence, a complete review of different approaches
over the current literature may be seen in some ref-
erences mentioned in [34–46], without undeserved of
others. In the following section, non-ideal electrome-
chanical systems in macroscales will be discussed.
3 The conventional non-ideal electromechanical
systems in macroscale
According to the results presented and discussed in the
last section, it is known that, in the case of IS, the fre-
quency response curve obtained with a rotating unbal-
ance mass shows an increase in the amplitude of vibra-
tion when the excitation frequency value is nearby to
the natural frequency of the system. This response is
always periodic. Meanwhile, in the case of NIS, the fre-
quency response curve shows a jump (discontinuity),
known as Sommerfeld effect.
In this kind of system is also perceived the capture
effect by the resonance condition, in which the power
supplied to the electric motor causes a small increase in
its angular speed and a large increase in the amplitude
of the vibration system. Hence, the dynamic behav-
ior becomes quite complex because of the nonlinear
stiffness with elastic potential energy with two poten-
An overview on the appearance of the Sommerfeld effect
Fig. 1 a Ideal system (IS), b linear non-ideal system (NIS), c nonlinear non-ideal system (NIS) schematics [13]
tial wells. Small variations in motor frequency constant
cause major changes in the system response.
For this system, the response is periodic or chaotic
depending on the motor frequency constant value. This
referenced interaction is related to the existence of
quasi-periodic solutions. However, if the support with a
non-ideal foundation is of two degrees of freedom, the
possibility of occurring saturation of high frequency
and low amplitude mode and the transfer of energy to
low frequency and high amplitude mode exist.
Next, some remarks about the mathematical mod-
eling of NIS will be presented, considering nonlinear
energy-sink (NES) absorbers, which are directed to
energy transfer (“pumping”) between oscillators, non-
linear electromechanical vibration absorbers (NEVA),
control approaches, self-synchronization on shaft and
vibro-impact, all of them applied to non-ideal systems.
3.1 Mathematical modeling and governing equations
of motion of NIS
Relevant results were published over the current liter-
ature in nonlinear behavior of NIS through the works
of [52–60].
It is known that the most common mathematical
model of a non-ideal vibrating system may be char-
acterized by its governing equations of motion,
∂U (x)
m 1 ẍ + f (x, ẋ) + = F(ϕ̇, ϕ̈, r, m 0 )
∂x
I ϕ̈ + H (ϕ̇) = L(ϕ̇) + R(ϕ, ϕ̇, ẍ, r, m 0 )
where m 1 is the mass, x is displacement of the NIS,
ϕ is angular displacement of the rotor, F(ϕ, ϕ̇, ẍ, r )
expresses the action of the source of energy on the
oscillating system (angular velocity of motor, that is
not constant), parameters r and m 0 are the eccentric-
ity and mass of unbalanced shaft of the electric motor,
I is the moment of inertia of the rotor, the function
R(ϕ, ϕ̇, ẍ, r ) expresses the oscillating system acting on
the source of energy. The function H (ϕ̇) is the resistive
torque applied to the motor; the function L(ϕ̇) is the
driving torque of the electric motor.
Note that, usually, the mechanical constant time of
the system is much higher and, at steady state, it can
be taken into account that L(ϕ̇) is linear and is given
as L(ϕ̇) = u 1 − u 2 ϕ̇, where u 1 is related to the voltage
applied across the DC motor’s armature, i.e., a possible
control parameter of the problem and u 2 is a constant
for each specific model of DC motor considered.
The nonlinear and non-conservative part of the
restoring force is given by f (x, ẋ), while ∂U∂ x(x) is its
conservative part, where U is the potential or strain
energy. Thus, it may be considered the classical possi-
bilities that are:
1
f (x, ẋ) = c ẋ, U (x) = k1 x 2 ,
2
1 1
f (x, ẋ) = −c1 ẋ + c2 ẋ 3 , U (x) = k1 x 2 + k2 x 4 ,
2 4
1 1 1
f (x, ẋ) = −c1 ẋ +c2 x 2 ẋ, U (x) = k1 x 2 + k2 x 4 + k3 x 6 ,
2 4 6
(1)
as some examples. Figure 1 shows typical cases of IS
(2) and NIS.
123

Fig. 2 a Simple portal frame with motor of limited power supply and a nonlinear energy sink; b model a non-ideal oscillator attachment
coupled to essentially nonlinear oscillator [66]
In the next subsection will be discussed the non-ideal
systems using some kinds of absorbers, as for example,
the NES coupled to a NIS.
3.2 Nonlinear energy-sink (NES) absorbers coupled
to non-ideal systems (NIS) and energy transfer
(“pumping”)
Based on an extension of IS, which was investigated
before in [61] and [62], and taking into account that
in a vibrating system, with small low viscous dissi-
pation, the energy initially imparted from a primary
sub-system can be transferred to a nonlinear energy
sink, named as NES [63], reducing the amplitudes of
vibrations of the NIS and eliminating or reducing the
occurrence of the Sommerfeld effect, inside and out-
side resonance regions, respectively. Therefore, in this
particular case, it is needed to consider one more equa-
tion in Eq. (1) [63–66]:
∂ V (x, y)
m 2 ÿ + c2 ẏ + g (y) + =0
∂y
where m 2 is the mass, c2 is the coefficient of the viscous
damping and y is the displacement of the NES, g(y) is
the stiffness term, not necessarily linear, of the NES, V
is the potential energy, not necessarily linear, associated
with the coupling spring. In Fig. 2 is presented a non-
ideal portal frame with nonlinear energy-sink (NES)
absorber.
The mathematical model represented in Fig. 2 is
given by:
(m 1 + m 0 ) ẍ + b ẋ + b1 (ẋ − ẏ) − kl x + knl x 3
 
+ k1 (x − y)3 = m 0 r ϕ̈ sin(ϕ) + ϕ̇ 2 cos(ϕ)
123
J. M. Balthazar et al.
m 2 ÿ − b1 (ẋ − ẏ) − k1 (x − y)3 = 0
 
J + r 2 m 0 ϕ̈ − r m 0 ẍ sin(ϕ) = L(ϕ̇) = d − s ϕ̇
(4)
where m 0 , m 1 , k, b, x(t), ϕ(t), J and r , represent,
respectively, the unbalanced mass, total mass, linear
stiffness, linear damping, the displacement of the por-
tal frame, the angular displacement of the rotor, inertia
momentum, eccentricity, and the parameters m 2 , k1 , b1
and y(t) denote the mass, nonlinear stiffness, linear
damping and displacement of the NES, respectively.
In [67], the authors developed a dynamic vibration
absorber (an extension of the work [29]), using a vis-
coelastic material with nonlinear essential stiffness and
time-dependent damping properties for a NIS, with
Sommerfeld effect, resonance capture, and jump phe-
nomenon. Figure 3 illustrates a dynamic viscoelastic
absorber (DVA) modeled with elastic stiffness essen-
tially nonlinear, which was developed to further sup-
pression of the Sommerfeld effect and the response of
(3) the structure.
The absorber was a mass-bar subsystem which con-
sisted of a viscoelastic bar with memory attached to a
mass, in which the internal dissipative forces depend
on the electric current, deformations, and its opera-
tional frequency that varied with limited temperature.
The non-ideal vibrating system consisted of a nonlinear
oscillator (plane frame structure) under excitation, via
spring connector, of a DC motor with limited power
supply, i.e., a non-ideal excitation. In addition, it is
remarked that the dynamic damping of the DVA was
represented by an auxiliary function of the axial force
on the particle X in the viscoelastic bar, represented by
Eq. (5) [66–69]:
An overview on the appearance of the Sommerfeld effect

m ÿ + c2 ẏ + 2k

l (l sin ϕ + y)
× y +l sin ϕ +  =0
l 2 +2l (y sin ϕ −x cos ϕ)+x 2 + y 2
(7)
in which (x, y, φ) are the generalized coordinates of
NIS, STTA and motor, respectively. φ̇ is the angular
speed of the motor. (m 0 , M, m) are the unbalanced
mass, NIS mass and STTA mass, respectively. (k, k1 )
are the linear stiffness of the springs. (c1 , c2 ) are NIS
and STTA linear dampings, l is the spring’s length and
ϕ is the angle that defined STTA equilibrium position. It
was aimed to use the nonlinearity and quasi-zero stiff-
ness of the absorber (snap-through truss absorber) to
obtain a significant attenuation of jump phenomenon.
Along this study, it is important to study the elec-
tromechanical absorbers that have a great importance
Fig. 3 An approximated model of DVA and NIS [67]
in the non-ideal theme.

 ∞  
s x(t − s)2 − x(t)2 3.3 Using of nonlinear electromechanical vibration
ζ (t) = exp ds (5)
0 γ (T ) x(t)2 absorbers (NEVA) to NIS
where x denotes the position of a particle X of the
viscoelastic bar and γ (T ) is the temperature-dependent The authors in [74] extended the results obtained
relaxation time. The governing equations of motion of in [75], considering a NIS eccentrically motor (or a
the system are given by the differential equations below. source of limited power supply) and, additionally, intro-
duced a device of nonlinear electromechanical vibra-
m 1 ẍ1 + c ẋ1 + kx1 = k1r sin ϕ + ke (x2 − x1 ) tion absorber from the model described by them con-
G0 sidering a modification in the nonlinear component of
− ζ (t)
γ (T ) the voltage of the condenser. These authors took into
I ϕ̈ = L (ϕ̇) + k1r (x1 − r sin ϕ) cos ϕ account a nonlinear friction of type cubic-quartic Duff-
G0 ing oscillator in their models and also considered the
m 2 ẍ2 = −ke (x2 − x1 ) + ζ (t)
γ (T ) same model of the voltage of the resistor as a nonlinear
1 γ (T ) function of Rayleigh oscillator kind.
ζ̇ (t) = − ζ (t) − 2 (ẋ2 − ẋ1 ) (6)
γ (T ) L0 Their study aimed the attenuation of the Sommerfeld
where L 0 is referential undistorted lengths of the vis- effect through a nonlinear electromechanical vibration
coelastic bar; G 0 is the positive relaxation modulus. absorber, also commonly called NEVA, in which such
On the other hand, the authors in [70] dealt with an system can be illustrated in Fig. 4.
extension of the works in IS approaches of the works In the following mentioned case, it must be consid-
[71–73]. The authors considered a vibrating system that ered one more equation in Eq. (1), which is given by
consisted of a snap-through truss absorber (STTA) cou- Eq. (8).
pled to a NIS. The governing equations of motion of 1 2 1
the STTA non-ideal system are given by Eq. (7). L q̈ − R 1 − 2
q̇ q̇ + q
i0 C 0
m 1 ẍ + c1 ẋ + k1 x + 2k + i 02 αa q 3 + i 04 αb q 5 + T ẋ = 0 (8)

l (l cos ϕ − x)
× x − l cos ϕ +  where i 0 is an initial current, in the electrical part, C0 is
l 2 +2l (y sin ϕ − x cos ϕ)+x 2 + y 2 the linear value of the capacitive characteristic, and the
= m 0 r φ̇ 2 sin φ − φ̈ cos φ parameters α3 and α5 are nonlinear coefficients, which
I ϕ̈ =  (ϕ̇) + m 0 r ẍ cos φ depend on the type of the capacitor. The quantity T is

123

Fig. 4 Schematics of a non-ideal structure (attachment) coupled to the nonlinear electromechanical vibration absorber device (NEVA)
[74]
the transducer constant, which relates to the current in
the coil to the magnetic force on the considered coil.
The transducer constant is given by T = 2π nl B,
where n is the number of turns in the coil, l is the radius
of the coil, and B is the uniform radial magnetic field
strength in the annular gap. The transducer constant T
also relates to the electrical potential e, across to the
terminals of the coil to the velocity of the coil, related
to the permanent magnet. Note that, in this case, Eq.
(1) must be replaced by Eq. (9).
∂U (x)
m 1 ẍ + f (x, ẋ) +
 ∂x 
+T q̇ = m 0 r ϕ̈ cos ϕ − ϕ̇ 2 sin ϕ
I ϕ̈ =  (ϕ̇) + m 0 r ẍ1 cos ϕ (9)
In the paper [76], the attenuation of a non-ideal vibrat-
ing system using NEVA and magnetorheological (MR)
damper was presented. The novelty of the MR damper
application, in this study, is the performance of attenu-
ating the interaction between NEVA and NIS in the
post-resonance region. The Sommerfeld effect was
eliminated with a long-time transient motion.
The most important results of this paper were
expressed to non-ideal system without NEVA and MR
damper finding Sommerfeld effect (“Energy Transfer”
—the strong interaction between the foundation and the
DC motor) and the influence of the viscous damping
123
J. M. Balthazar et al.
in the non-ideal system and jump phenomenon appear-
ance with a transient motion during a long period of
time.
Note that in [77], the authors analyzed the chaotic
dynamics of an electromechanical damped Duffing
oscillator coupled to a rotor.
Until here, many works have been known where
there are chaotic behaviors. The use of dynamic
absorbers, i.e., NES and NEVA, is a very effective
way in transforming chaos into periodic motions. Thus,
the next subsection will discuss some control designs
applied to non-ideal systems.
3.4 Controls design approaches to NIS
As mentioned previously, non-ideal systems may
present some behavior that may be undesired in some
situations such as chaotic behavior, resonant ampli-
tudes, in which can be dangerous, causing problems to
the structural integrity of a system and even making dif-
ficult energy harvesting, depending on the actuator to be
used in a system, due to their more sensitive electrical
components and also the need of more complex filters.
To work around this issue, the design of controls of
vibration becomes very important. Basically, there are
three types of control, the passive control which does
not require the use of external energy into the system,
An overview on the appearance of the Sommerfeld effect
the active control which needs of external energy into
the system, and, the semi-active control, which does
not require further additional external energy than that
necessary to trigger the actuators. The semi-active con-
trol behaves as an active control when the control action
requires dissipation of energy, if the control action nei-
ther the energy supply is not necessary, the system
becomes to be passive.
The present tendency toward increasingly height
buildings and the use of lightweight, high resistance
materials, and advanced construction techniques have
led to more flexible and light damped structures. Under-
standably, these structures are very sensitive to environ-
mental excitations such as the wind, ocean waves and
earthquakes. This causes undesired vibrations induc-
ing possible structural failure, discomfort of people in
there, and malfunction of equipments. Hence, the need
of searching for suppressor devices to such vibrations,
in practice with high efficiency, became very impor-
tant. An option used to mitigate structural vibrations is
the passive control devices. One of the most currently
used is the tuned liquid column damper (TLCD) that
is a special type of tuned liquid damper (TLD) relying
on the motion of the column of a liquid fluid in a con-
tainer of U tube kind to counteract the forces acting on
the structure, with damping being introduced through
a valve/orifice in the liquid passage, presented in [78].
The governing equations of motion of the non-ideal
TLCD system are given by Eq. (10).
Ms + m f Ẍ s + Cs Ẋ s + K s X s
 
= m 0 r ϕ̈ sin ϕ + ϕ̇ 2 cos ϕ − αm f ẍ f (t)
J ϕ̈ − m 0 r Ẍ s sin ϕ − m 0 gr cos ϕ
=  φ̇ − H φ̇
m f ξ  
m f ẍ f + ẋ f ẋ f + k f x f = −αm f Ẍ s (10)
2l
where X s is the response of the structural frame in the
horizontal motion, x f is the response of the TLCD, ϕ
is the rotational coordinate of the DC motor, ϕ̇ is the
rotational speed of the motor, J is the moment of inertia
of the motor’s axis (rotor), m 0 is the unbalanced mass of
the rotor, r is the eccentricity of the unbalanced mass,
(ϕ̇) is the controlled torque of the unbalanced rotor,
H (ϕ̇) is the resistance torque of the unbalanced rotor,
g is the gravitational acceleration, Ms is the total mass
of the structural frame and motor, K s is the stiffness of
the structural frame, Cs is the damping in the structural
frame, α is the length ratio, m f is the mass of fluid in
the tube and k f is the stiffness of the liquid column.
These authors showed that the TLCD efficiency will
depend on the values of structural damping, fluid mass
and the liquid damper frequency.
In addition, the authors in [79] studied a tuned liq-
uid column damper, whose dampers are U tubes filled
with some liquid, acting as an active vibration damper
in structures of engineering interest like buildings and
bridges. The authors studied the effect of a tuned liq-
uid column damper in a vibrating system consisting of
a cart which vibrates under driving by a source with
limited power supply (non-ideal excitation).
A work interested on control of chaos is found in
[80]. The authors investigated, numerically, the dynam-
ical behavior of a non-ideal mechanical system consist-
ing of a vibrating cart containing a particle which can
oscillate back and forward colliding with walls carved
in the cart.
In [81], a study concerning the existence of clear-
ance between the connecting force between a motor
and the fixed part of the system, which is discontin-
uous although linear, was presented. The mathemati-
cal model of the system was represented by two cou-
pled second-order differential equations. The transient
and steady-state motions and the stability of the sys-
tem were analyzed, and the Sommerfeld effect was
detected. For certain values of the system parame-
ters, the motion is chaotic. This is caused by the
period-doubling bifurcation. The existence of chaos
was proven via a maximum Lyapunov exponent.
A new chaos control method based on the known
energy analysis was introduced, and the chaotic motion
was transformed into a periodicity. In this way, it is
announced that an adopted active control strategy con-
sists of two controls [82], the nonlinear feedforward
control, which is designed in order to keep the con-
trolled system in a desirable orbit, and the feedback
control, which may be obtained by considering state-
dependent Riccati equations to bring the system into the
desired orbit using a magnetorheological (MR) damper.
In the work done in [83], the dynamics of the IS
and NIS Duffing oscillator with chaotic behavior was
considered. A control signal was introduced in the
dynamics of the system looking for suppress the chaotic
motion. The control strategy involved the application
of two control signals, a nonlinear feedforward control
to maintain the controlled system in a periodic orbit,
which was obtained by the harmonic balance method,
and a state feedback control, which was determined by
123

the state-dependent Riccati equation (SDRE) to bring
the system’s trajectory into a desired periodic orbit.
Additionally, the control strategy included an active
MR damper to actuate on the system.
The authors of [84] dealt with the Sommerfeld effect
(Jump phenomena) attenuation in a non-ideal mechan-
ical oscillator connected with an unbalanced motor,
as external excitation, with a limited power supply
(non-ideal system) using a magnetorheological (MR)
damper.
In [85], the attenuation of the jump phenomena asso-
ciated with the Sommerfeld effect introduced by the
nonlinearities of a MR damper in a non-ideal vibra-
tional system, excited by a DC motor modeled as lim-
ited power source, was obtained.
It is remarked that several studies have also carried
out theoretical and experimental control analysis of
portal frames excited by non-ideal excitation devices.
The nonlinear control technique based on saturation
phenomenon and systems coupled with quadratic non-
linear terms is used to suppress the high amplitude of
the first-mode vibration of a reduced non-ideal system
of type shear building (plant). A two-to-one internal
resonance condition is maintained between the plant
and the controller. In this case, the energy is transferred
completely from one part of the combined system to the
other. When the plant is forced at resonance (a selection
of the control parameter), this energy transfer mecha-
nism limits the response of the plant. The method of
averaging was used in [6] to determine an approxi-
mated solution to this mentioned controlled non-ideal
system. The obtained results showed that the motion
of the portal frame saturated and most of the energy
imparted to the portal frame by the non-ideal source
was transferred to the controller and the effectiveness
of the saturation controller was adjusted by the gains.
Recently, a perturbation theory was applied to the anal-
ysis of an electromechanical pendulum system in [86].
Next, the self-synchronization on shafts applied to
non-ideal system will be discussed.
3.5 Self-synchronization on shaft applied to non-ideal
systems
The nonlinear phenomena of shafts’ self-synchro-
nization have been studied extensively since the last
1940s, mostly aiming their application in the design of
123
J. M. Balthazar et al.
various shakers and exciters for purposeful vibration of
objects [87].
The phenomenon has been studied extensively by
asymptotic methods to predict possible (multiple)
steady-state rotational motions and to evaluate their sta-
bility, mostly with application to the design of vibrators
with a reduced number of driving motors. Results of
numerical simulation of transient self-synchronization
of rotating shafts with one potential application being
gas turbine engines with multiple shafts were presented
in [88].
In the paper [89], a practical problem of synchro-
nization of a NIS was proposed and investigated by
means of numerical simulations. The equations of
motion of the non-ideal portal frame system have the
form of Eq. (11).
ẍ + ω12 x = α1 ( ÿ y + ẏ 2 ) + α2 (ϕ̈1 sin ϕ1 + ϕ̇12 cos ϕ1
+ ϕ̈2 sin ϕ2 + ϕ̇22 cos ϕ2 )
+ α3 y 2 − μ1 ẋ − α4 x ÿ
ÿ + ω22 y = α5 ẍ y + α6 x y − μ2 ẏ
− α10 − α7 (ẋ 2 + x ẍ)
ϕ̈1 = α8 ẍ sin ϕ1 − α9 cos ϕ1
1 (ϕ̇1 ) − H1 (ϕ̇1 )
+
Im + m 0 r 2
ϕ̈2 = α8 ẍ sin ϕ2 − α9 cos ϕ2
2 (ϕ̇2 ) − H2 (ϕ̇2 )
+ (11)
Im + m 0 r 2
Additionally, in the paper [90], the authors presented
several numerical simulations of the transverse vibra-
tions of two unbalanced rotors excited by a non-ideal
DC motor, during the passage through the two reso-
nance zones (increasing and decreasing input voltages).
It is worth mentioning that the paper [91] showed that
two motors on the same plate can enter into synchro-
nization with the phase difference equal to zero, π or
2 π. Both motors are considered as non-ideal oscilla-
tors and act as external excitation on a specific area of
the plate.
Hence, the next subsection will discuss the vibro-
impact over non-ideal systems.
3.6 Vibro-impact of NIS
Until this subsection, a vast discussion of many issues
in nonlinear dynamics was carried out, mainly about
non-ideal systems, non-ideal power sources repre-
An overview on the appearance of the Sommerfeld effect
sented, in this case, by a non-ideal motor driving an
unbalanced mass that induces the vibrations on such
coupled structure, and nonlinear phenomena, in gen-
eral. However, there are some vibro-impact of this
system, for example, impact damper for controlling
high-amplitude vibrations. An unbalanced non-ideal
DC motor shear-building type foundation structure suf-
fers the Sommerfeld effect of getting stuck at resonance
(energy imparted to the motor being used to excite large
amplitude motions of the supporting structure). This is
the impact of damping that may mitigate or even sup-
press the undesired phenomena without dissipation of
energy.
As an example, it is mentioned that the authors of
[92] discussed the dynamics of two kinds of mechanical
systems: considering vibro-impact systems which have
many implementations in applied mechanics, ranging
from drilling machinery and metal cutting processes
to gear boxes. Moreover, from the point of view of
dynamical systems, vibro-impact systems exhibited a
rich variety of phenomena, particularly chaotic motion.
As an example of a non-ideal system, the chaotic
dynamics of a damped Duffing oscillator coupled to
a rotor was analyzed. Then, it was shown how to use
a tuned liquid damper to control the attractors of this
non-ideal oscillator.
In [93], the authors presented a simple mathematical
model of a wind turbine tower. Here, the wind excita-
tion is considered as a non-ideal power source. In a
such consideration, there is an interaction between the
energy supply and the motion of the supporting struc-
ture. The following pair of nonlinear ordinary differen-
tial equations of motion for their uncontrolled model:
 
M q̈1 + cq̇1 + kq1 = S q̈2 sin q2 + q̇22 cos q2
J q̈2 + bq̇2 − a = S (q̈1 sin q2 − g cos q2 )
In [94], the dynamics of a vibro-impact system consist-
ing of two blocks (1 and 2) with masses m 1 and m 2 ,
respectively, however, with m 2 greater than m 1 , was
analyzed. The analyses done by the authors of [94]
and [95] included time histories of displacements and
velocities, phase planes/portraits and diagrams of the
displacement and frequency, used to show the Som-
merfeld effect. For certain values of the parameters of
the system, the motion was chaotic. The mathematical
model of the system was used to obtain an insight into
the global dynamics of the vibro-impact system.
With that overview of Sommerfeld effect in non-
ideal systems including passive, semi-active and active
controllers, fractional-order, self-synchronization of
shafts and vibro-impact systems applied to NIS, in the
next section it will be discussed modern applications
of non-ideal systems.
4 Some modern application of NIS
Using classical non-ideal motor, in Kononenko’s sense,
some new applications appear in the current literature.
They are related to the pseudo-elastic behavior of
NIS and non-ideal energy harvesting (NIEH). Next, a
brief description of them will be presented.
4.1 Pseudo-elastic behavior of NIS
It is known that intelligent and adaptive material sys-
tems and structures have become very important in
engineering applications. The fundamental character-
istic of these systems is the ability to adapt to environ-
mental conditions.
A new class of materials with promising applications
in structural and mechanical systems is the shape mem-
ory alloy (SMA). The mechanical behavior of shape
memory alloys, in particular, shows strong dependence
on temperature.
SMAs consist of a group of metallic materials that
present the characteristic to return to a previously
defined shape by applying an appropriated thermal vari-
ation. The SMAs appear in a low (usually martensite)-
and a high-temperature phase (austenite). In the liter-
ature, the shape memory effects (SMEs) are classified
into the following three types: two-way effect, one-way
effect and pseudo-elasticity. The effects can appear in
(12) this sequence with an increase in temperature. In the
pseudo-elastic effect, a SMA material achieves a very
large strain upon loading that is fully recovered in a hys-
teresis loop upon unloading. Next, some publications
in this theme are mentioned.
In [96], the authors presented a nonlinear dynamic
behavior of a NIS, which consisted of a mass connected
to a rigid support by a shape memory alloy (SMA)
element and a damper in order to disturb the system. A
DC motor with limited power supply was connected to
the mass causing an interaction between the vibrating
structure and the energy source.
In [97], the authors discussed the nonlinear dynam-
ical response of a non-ideal shape memory oscillator.
123

The non-ideal excitation from a DC motor with limited
power supply drives an unbalanced mass.
The corresponding equations of angular motion ϕ
of the DC motor were written in the form
d 2ϕ
JM = Mm (t) − Mz (t) − H (t) (13)
dt 2
d I (t)
U (t) = Rt I (t) + L t + E(t) (14)
dt
where the time functions U (t) and I (t) are the volt-
age and the current in the armature, Rt and L t are the
resistance and inductance, E(t) is the internally gener-
ated voltage, Mz (t) is an external torque applied to the
motor drive shaft, Mm (t) denotes the torque generated
by the motor, and H (t) is the resistive torque applied
to the motor which will be neglected henceforth.
In [98], the authors studied the nonlinear dynamic
behavior of a shape memory oscillator (SMO) sub-
jected to an IS and NIS excitation. The restoring force
of the oscillator was provided by a shape memory
device (SMD) described by a thermomechanical model
capable of reproducing the hysteretic behavior via the
evolution of a suitable internal variable.
Note that the applications of SMAs are usually in
structures which turn around in a fixed point, i.e., rota-
tions around an axis. This kind of motion is called by
slewing motion, and it will be considered and discussed
in the next subsection when applied to non-ideal sys-
tems.
4.1.1 Slewing motion on a NIS model
Slewing motions are present in many applications in
aerospace and industrial robotics. In this kind of sys-
tems, the lighter the structure, better the efficiency and
more cost-effective the system is. This is the case of
satellite appendages and aerospace robotic manipula-
tors, for example. However, the control of the position
in flexible structures is a challenging work, because the
flexibility leads the system to vibrate in larger ampli-
tudes.
In [99], the authors presented two approaches to
the problem of vibration and positioning control of a
flexible structural beam driven by a DC motor. The
position is controlled by the current applied to the DC
motor armature. A shape memory alloy (SMA) actuator
controls the vibrations of the flexible structural beam.
The state-dependent Riccati equation (SDRE) tech-
nique was used to provide a control action which uses
123
J. M. Balthazar et al.
sub-optimal control and system local stability search.
The robustness of these two controllers was tested by
sensitivity analysis.
In addition, the authors in [100] presented two differ-
ent types of experimental results, one is the beam posi-
tioning control only, and the other is the beam position
and vibration control using SMA wires. The governing
equation of motions is:
i a = −a1 i a − a2 θ̇
θ̈ = −b1 θ̇ + b2 i a + b3 q1
q̈1 = −μq̇1 − ω12 q1 − α θ̈ + θ̇ 2 q1 (15)
Kb
where a1 = R
L m a2 = Lm b1 = c
Ie +Im b2 =

R I φ (0)
Kt
b3 =
Ie +Im Ie +Im .
The term b3 q1 represents the bending moment of the
beam acting upon the motor torque so that the beam
dynamic equation and the DC motor equations were
coupled and the SMA constitutive model used in this
work was based on the work from [98].
Recently, the authors of [101] presented the angu-
lar positioning control of a flexible beam-like structure
connected to the shaft of a DC (direct current) motor.
The coupling between the flexible structure and the DC
motor was considered as non-ideal being that the struc-
ture model considers three vibration modes.
Another recent problem to non-ideal systems is
related to energy harvesting using NISs, as will be dis-
cussed in the next subsection.
4.2 Non-ideal energy harvesting (NIEH)
In the last years, it has been a need of new energy
sources smaller than the usual and more efficient,
for design of vibrating systems based on new tech-
nologies. With that, the research about energy har-
vesting has increased substantially. To build energy-
harvesting devices, many researchers have concen-
trated their efforts on finding the best configuration for
these systems and to optimize their power output. In
the process of energy harvesting, the electrical energy
was obtained through the conversion of mechanical
energy created by an ambient vibration source by a type
of transduction, for example, as a piezoceramic thin
film.
Many different electromechanical coupling mecha-
nisms have been developed for harvesting devices and
because of the constitutive laws of piezoelectric mate-
An overview on the appearance of the Sommerfeld effect

Fig. 5 Model of lumped parameters of the non-ideal system [104]

rials, the role of nonlinearities, in the electromechani- I ϕ̈ =  (ϕ̇) + m 0 r ẍ1 cos ϕ

cal coupling of the design of energy-harvesting system
must be taken into account. It is mentioned that some
nonlinearities of the piezoelectric material by analytical
approximation were proposed in [102], and recently,
the nonlinearities of vibratory energy harvesting were
widely exploited in [103].
The authors of [104] proposed a mathematical non-
ideal energy-harvesting (NIEH) model, whose system
consisted of a cantilever beam with layers of piezo-
electric elements applied on both sides of the beam in
bimorph configuration and a DC motor with an unbal-
anced mass was attached on the tip end of the beam, as
illustrated in Fig. 5.
The electrical voltage V across the piezoelectric
material has the form of Eq. (16).
d(x) q
V =− x+ (16)
C C
With that, it is needed to substitute Eq. (1) by the fol-
lowing general governing equations of motion.
∂U (x) d(x)
M ẍ + f (x, ẋ)+ − q = F(ϕ̇, ϕ̈, r, m 0 )
∂x C C
(17)
Therefore, the governing equations of motion of the
NIEH model are given by Eq. (18).
M ẍ + c ẋ + k1 x + k2 x 3
  d(x)
= m 0 r ϕ̈ cos φ − ϕ̇ 2 sin ϕ + q sented, however, considering a simple pendulum as a
C passive control strategy. The nonlinearities presented in
d(x) q
R q̇ − + =0 (18)
C C
where: (ϕ̇) = L(ϕ̇) − H (ϕ̇).
These authors showed the importance of consider-
ing the piezoelectric material as a nonlinear device and
analyzed the behavior of the system finding possible
chaotic behaviors.
In the paper [105], the authors proposed the dynamic
analysis of a new energy-harvesting model based on a
simple portal frame structure considering as a NIS due
to the kind of excitation influenced by the response
of the system, such as a DC motor with limited power
supply. The coupled governing equations of motion are
given by:
(m 1 + m 0 ) Ẍ 1 + b Ẋ 1 + b1 ( Ẋ 1
− Ẋ 2 ) − kl X 1 + knl X 13 + k1 (X 1 − X 2 )3
  d(X )
1
= m 0 r ϕ̈ sin(ϕ) + ϕ̇ 2 cos(ϕ) + q
C
m 2 Ẍ 2 − b1 ( Ẋ 1 − Ẋ 2 ) − k1 (X 1 − X 2 )3 = 0
 
J + r 2 m 0 ϕ̈ − r m 0 Ẍ 1 sin(ϕ) = V1 − V2 ϕ̇
d(X 1 )
R q̇ −
q
X1 + = 0
C
(19)
The great advantages to use the control technique are
its simplicity application, save their physical integrity
and reduce the need for complex filter rectifying the
energy-harvesting output of the system.
In the paper of [106], the same energy harvester
model based on a simple portal frame structure was pre-

123

the piezoelectric material were considered in the piezo-
electric coupling mathematical model.
Moreover, the authors in [107] presented a finite
element analysis (FEA) of modal energy exchange
and harvesting in a simple portal frame structure. The
authors considered both horizontal and vertical sup-
port excitations resonant first with the first mode (sway
mode) and latter with the second mode (the first sym-
metrical mode). As 2:1 internal resonance was present
between these two modes, the phenomena of mode sat-
uration and energy exchange (modal coupling) may
occur. Thus, energy pumped into the system through
one of the modes was partially transferred to the other
mode, not directly excited. An evaluation of the energy
available for harvesting in each of the considered mode
was computed.
5 Emergent problems regarding NIS
As it was referred above, the NIS phenomenon is con-
sidered as the existence of the influence between the
responses of two vibrations modes or of two coupled
systems. In this case, for a macrosystem, the excitation
force is influenced by the response of the structure,
and from the mathematical point of view, one must add
a differential equation that describes how the energy
source is coupled with the structure. In this emergent
area, new applications of NIS may be considered.
In this new kind of NIS, it is needed to include
in the adopted mathematical model the full interac-
tion between mechanical and electrical field quanti-
ties, taking into account the existence of quasi-periodic
solutions for the case of base excitations, and there-
fore influenced by limited electromechanical (electro-
dynamical) shakers on the considered system (instead
of the DC motor), as it was usual in Prof. Kononenko’s
approach.
Thus, it is mentioned that a dynamical analysis of a
flexible portal frame under base excitation was carried
out, whose excitation is provided by an electrodynam-
ical shaker.
The electrodynamical device considered in this work
consisted of an electric system magnetically coupled
to a mechanical structure as used before in [108].
These authors considered a flexible portal frame (FPF)
parametrically excited by an electrodynamical shaker
and considered the dynamical analysis of the system
carrying out numerical simulations considering dif-
123
J. M. Balthazar et al.
ferent forcing frequencies, mainly near the resonance
region. The occurrence of dynamical jumps was veri-
fied, which is an important characteristic of nonlinear
dynamical systems. Basically, dynamical jumps were
associated with nonlinear resonant response, causing
abrupt changes in system behavior and introducing
unstable regions on system response.
Next, some properties concerning about energy-
harvesting system (NIEH), tuning fork gyroscopes,
electrostatic transducers and a kind of energy harvester
from the environment, which may be analyzed using
excitation by electromechanical shakers of a limited
power supply, will be presented.
5.1 Tuning fork micro-gyroscope
A tuning fork beam (TFB) mathematical model con-
sists of two inverted pendulums pinned to a suspension
mass. One particle having mass m 1 is connected to a
massless rod, whose length is l1 , and the other of mass
m 2 is connected to rod l2 .
In the papers [109,110], both authors analyzed the
proposed mathematical model, by using numerical
integrations, taking into account the reciprocal influ-
ence between the vertical excitation, due to the elec-
trodynamical shaker (EDS) and the vibration response
of the tuning fork beam (TFB). The internal physical
components of the shaker consisted of an electric com-
ponent coupled magnetically to a structural mechanic
one. Here, the investigation was based on the behav-
ior of a macrosystem. The TFB was modeled by two
inverted pendulums hung by two rods. Their motions
are considered in the opposite vertical and horizontal
directions of the EDS motion, according to suggestions
in [111–113].
Recently, the authors in [114,115] dealt with the
dynamic behavior of a gyroscope of the tuning fork
type for energy recovery. The gyroscope consisted of
two vertical posts embedded on a mass of suspension.
In the next section will show the discussion of
mechanical models of electrostatically actuated micro-
structure.
5.2 Mechanical model of an electrostatically actuated
microstructure
In [116], the authors analyzed the influence of the elec-
trical charge between the cantilever beam and the wide
An overview on the appearance of the Sommerfeld effect
electrode by using numerical methods. For the anal-
ysis, the authors used the mathematical model of a
Duffing oscillator under electrostatic effects, with vari-
able capacitor investigating the dynamic interaction
between a micro-machined rate gyroscope and vari-
able force actuators. This is the first result on a series
of the authors on micro-gyroscope. The adopted math-
ematical model considered the micro-nonlinear oscil-
lator with an electrostatic force, a variable capacitor
and a conventional vibratory gyroscope. The govern-
ing equations of motion are given by Eq. (20).
m ẍ + cx ẋ + k x1 x + k x3 x 3 = Fe + 2m z ẏ
m ÿ + c y ẏ + k y1 y + k y3 y = −2m
3
z ẋ
where 2m z ẋ and 2m z ẏ represent rotations induced
by the Coriolis force and z is the angular rotation con-
sidered as a constant, and ε0 is the dielectric constant
in vacuum. The electrostatic force is given by Eq. (21).
ε0 AV 2
Fe =
2(d − x)2
Note that the possible interaction of this NIS between
the response of the electrode in the moving mass and
the charge q applied over the capacitor is defined as Eq.
(22).
ε0 AV
q = CV = (22)
d−x
Then, the equations that represent the electromechani-
cal system are given by Eq. (23).
q2
m ẍ + cx ẋ + k x1 x + k x3 x 3 = + 2m z ẏ
2ε0 A
m ÿ + c y ẏ + k y1 y + k y3 y 3 = −2m z ẋ
q
L q̈ + R q̇ + q=V
C (x)
Dimensionless variables are introduced into Eq. (23),
then it is obtained the equations of motion of the micro-
gyroscope in dimensionless form given by Eq. (24).
  
X + μ1 X + X + α1 X = λ1 Q + γ Y
3 2
Y  + μ2 Y  + δ 2 Y + α2 Y 3 = −γ X 
Q  + r Q  − λ2 (1 − X )Q + α3 Q 3 = β0 + β1 cos τ
Note that a cubic nonlinearity was introduced in the
variable charge, i.e., a cubic term appears in the charge
equations.
At last, the energy harvesting using and EDS as
exciter will be discussed in the next subsection.
5.3 Energy harvesting using an electrodynamical
shaker
The use of electrodynamical shaker as a non-ideal
excitation has reached even energy-harvesting sys-
tems.
Recently, the authors of [117] presented the energy
harvesting of a two-degree-of-freedom simple portal
frame considering 2:1 internal resonance between hori-
zontal and vertical motions of the structure. This system
was considered to be non-ideal due to an electrodynam-
ical shaker exciting the base of portal frame. In addition,
the appearance of saturation phenomenon was verified
(20) and a nonlinear piezoelectric material [100] was cou-
pled to harvest energy from the column’s vibration. As
the excitation was in vertical motion, due to saturation,
part of such vibration energy was transferred to the hor-
izontal motion, keeping that with higher amplitude than
the vertical one.
(21) The dimensionless equations of motion of the sys-
tem are given by Eq. (25).
x1 + μ1 x1 + x1 + α1 x1 x2
 
= γ1 φ  cos φ − φ 2 sin φ
+ β1 x1 Y  + θ (1 +  |x1 |) δ1 V
x2 + εY  + μ2 x2 + ω22 x2 + α2 x12 + G 2
= θ (1 +  |x1 |) δ2 V x2
 
− γ2 φ  sin φ + φ 2 cos φ
Y  + δm x2 + μ0 Y  + G 0 + β3 U
= β4 x12 + θ (1 +  |x1 |) δ1 V
 
− γ0 φ  sin φ + φ 2 cos φ
(23)
φ  + μ3 φ  + ω32 φ + γ3 x1 cos φ
+ γ4 x2 + γ3 Y  sin φ = γ3 sin φ
U  − β5 Y  + ρU = E 0 cos τ
V  − θ (1 +  |x1 |)
 
× δ3 (x1 + Y ) + δ4 x22 + δ3 V = 0 (25)
where the first equations are related to the sway motion
of the beam, second one is the vertical motion of the
(24)
beam, Y is the base motion, φ is the pendulum angular
motion, U and V are the electrical part of the shaker
and piezoelectric, respectively.
The authors showed quasi-periodic solutions when
saturation phenomenon occurred and high peaks of
amplitude, in which it could damage the structure.
123

Therefore, a passive control strategy was considered
using a pendulum. They could suppress most of quasi-
periodic orbits into periodic orbits keeping a consider-
able energy harvesting, with success.
6 Conclusion
Recent studies, new phenomena and emergent areas,
were addressed concerning structures supporting
unbalanced machines capable of a limited power out-
put. The motion of an oscillating structure under the
action of such energy source is accompanied by a full
interaction between these non-ideal motors and their
support.
Some results on Sommerfeld effect, saturation phe-
nomenon and fractional-order damping influence on
non-ideal systems were presented. Then, an overview
of some mathematical modeling and governing equa-
tions of motion of NIS and macromodels was dis-
cussed (in an extension of Kononenko’s sense) related
to nonlinear energy sink (NES) absorbers to NIS,
energy transfer (“pumping”) between oscillators, non-
linear electromechanical absorbers (NEVA), control
approaches, self-synchronization on shafts and vibro-
impact of NIS.
Considering NES as vibration absorber, it is possi-
ble to reduce drastically the amplitudes of oscillations
of NIS and reduce the Sommerfeld effect in the passage
through resonance region. Furthermore, the proposed
NES of nonlinear type was quite effective to reduce
amplitude, Sommerfeld effect and jump phenomenon
of NIS while the linear NES is not appropriate for
the NIS. In addition, it is very important to remark
that the goal of the NES is not only to suppress the
vibrations and reduction in transient responses through
energy pumping, however to the use of a combination
of passive control (energy pumping) and active control
(feedback).
Based on numerical results shown in many of works
discussed here, it is possible to conclude that the strat-
egy of combining the two control techniques seems
to be more effective in suppressing oscillations of the
main system than using each of the strategies sepa-
rately. However, this is only an introductory work, and
it is necessary to discuss some of the questions into
more depth.
Moreover, a brief discussion on some new engineer-
ing applications, whose appeared in the current liter-
123
J. M. Balthazar et al.
ature, was included. They are related to the pseudo-
elastic and a slewing behavior of non-ideal systems
and non-ideal energy harvesting (NIEH).
On the other hand, to consider the existence of
full interaction between mechanical and electrical
field quantities, quasi-periodic solutions are took into
account, mainly where there is the consideration of
the base excitation, influenced by limited electrome-
chanically shakers on the considered system, instead
of the DC electric motors, as it is usual in Prof.
Kononenko’s approach. In addition, new topics in
MEMS were addressed, such as micro-gyroscopes,
electrostatic transducers and a kind of energy harvester
from environment, using excitation by electromechan-
ical shakers with limited power supply. This is a nov-
elty in the current literature, considering NIS vibrating
problems.
In the particular case of vibration modes of a tun-
ing fork beam (TFB) excited by an electrodynamical
shaker, the TFB was modeled (represented) by two
inverted pendulums with suspension in horizontal and
vertical directions. The shaker was represented by a
nonlinear electromagnet. It was noted that there is an
internal resonance between the vibration modes in the
suspension beam. Moreover, it is observed that the TFB
increased its sensitivity due to the initial conditions,
the effect of imperfection on the different lengths of
pendulums, the nonlinear stiffness and the influence
of the externally supplied voltage. The presence of the
beat phenomenon was detected due to the introduc-
tion of the damping of the suspension of TFB. More-
over, the presence of the energy transfer in the TFB
system was detected due to the effects of the cubic
nonlinearity.
Future works will consider control strategies in order
to overcome the main problems pointed out here as well
as the investigation of the dynamics including periodic,
quasi-periodic and multi-periodic motions, existence
of chaos, and an analysis of basins of attraction, all
considering the dynamical integrity of such physical
system to be studied.
Acknowledgements The first author acknowledges support
from CNPq (GRANT: 306525/2015-1) and CAPES (GRANT
CAPES/ITA No. 48/2014). The second author acknowledges
support from CNPq (GRANT: 447539/2014-0). The seventh
author acknowledges (GRANT 2015/20363-6) from the São
Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) for the financial support
to this research, all Brazilian research funding agencies
An overview on the appearance of the Sommerfeld effect
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