MODULE-3

GLOBAL WARMING
3.1 Definition
Global warming is the increase of earth average surface temperature due to the effect of
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels (or) from deforestation
which trap heat that would otherwise escape from earth.
Some gases that contribute to global warming and their man- made sources
Carbon dioxide from power plants, cars, trucks and airplanes also deforestation is responsible for up
to 25% of all carbon missions.
Methane from rice paddies and bogs
Nitrous oxide from nylon and nitric acid production fertilizers in agriculture
3.2 Causes and Effects
Greenhouse effect
Global warming occurs when carbon dioxide (CO 2) and other air pollutants collect in the atmosphere
and absorb sunlight and solar radiation that have bounced off the earth’s surface. Normally this
radiation would escape into space, but these pollutants, which can last for years to centuries in the
atmosphere, trap the heat and cause the planet to get hotter. These heat-trapping pollutants—
specifically carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, and synthetic fluorinated gases—are
known as greenhouse gases, and their impact is called the greenhouse effect.
The average surface temperature of Earth is maintained by a balance of various forms of solar and
terrestrial radiation. Solar radiation is often called ―shortwave‖ radiation because the frequencies
of the radiation are relatively high and the wavelengths relatively short—close to the visible portion
of the electromagnetic spectrum. Terrestrial radiation, on the other hand, is often called ―longwave‖
radiation because the frequencies are relatively low and the wavelengths relatively long—somewhere
in the infrared part of the spectrum. Downward-moving solar energy is typically measured
in watts per square metre. The energy of the total incoming solar radiation at the top of
Earth’s atmosphere (the so-called ―solar constant‖) amounts roughly to 1,366 watts per square metre
annually. Adjusting for the fact that only one-half of the planet’s surface receives solar radiation at
any given time, the average surface insolation is 342 watts per square metre annually.
The amount of solar radiation absorbed by Earth’s surface is only a small fraction of the total solar
radiation entering the atmosphere. For every 100 units of incoming solar radiation, roughly 30 units
are reflected back to space by either clouds, the atmosphere, or reflective regions of Earth’s surface.

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3.3 Contribution of buildings towards global warming
 The utilization of fossil fuels like coal and petroleum has been increasing steadily for more than
200 years after the invention of the steam engine and IC engines.
 The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which was 280ppm at the beginning of the industrial
revolution has now reached levels like 352 ppm
 Then has been an explosive growth of research on global warming due to carbon dioxide
emissions and other gases relax by the industry
 Many scientists believe that global warming has arrived due to excessive burning of fossil fuels
and removal of carbon sinks by deforestation
 The Kyoto protocol has been agreed to by several countries across the global to reduce
consumption of fossil fuel over the coming decades but these efforts are halting, especially since
the biggest consumer like the USA is unwilling to reduce its contribution to carbon emissions.
 Popular countries like India and China are also emerging as major consumers of fossil fuels
although there per capita energy consumption is below the level in western countries. Further
industrialization of these countries will certainly add to the global warming unless new low
energy strategies are developed
 The importance of building in the energy scenario can be understood by the fact that in the
European Union 40% of the total energy consumption is accounted by building sector. The
buildings also contribute 30% of the total CO2 emissions in European Union. This shows that
development is invariably associated with high impact on global environment.
 It is essential to explore ―Energy Efficient Building Alternative‖ two categories of energy
efficiency need to be recognized. Firstly, the embodied energy in a building needs to reduce.
Secondly, the energy used during the operational life of a building should also be reduced.
 Connaughton reports that 10% of the industrial energy consumption in UK goes to building
materials production while 56% of the energy is used in the maintenance of the building. This
shows that a building consumes for more energy during its life time than what is spent during its
construction
 The energy used by a low rise flat over 25 years is about 12 G J/m2 while the energy content of
the building is only about 4GJ/m2. In India context, a 2-5 storeyed brick and RC building
consumed 2.65 GJ/m2 during its construction, while it consumed 5.83 GJ/m2 over a 25 years
period.
 Use of solar passive cooling concepts and improved thermal insulation are need to mitigate these
problems and it is feasible to build 4 to 6 storeyed masonry buildings using bricks/blocks with
strength in the range of 8.0 to 20.0 µpa.

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3.4 Carbon Footprint

Buildings and their construction together account for 36 percent of global energy use and 39 percent
of energy-related carbon dioxide emissions annually, according to the United Nations Environment
Program. In the United States, residential and commercial buildings account for 40 percent of energy
consumption, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration.
Building emissions, as typically measured, are a combination of two things. First is day-to-day
energy use—known as the ―operational carbon emissions‖ that comes from powering lighting,
heating, and cooling. Globally, building operations account for about 28 percent of
emissions annually. Second is the amount of carbon generated through manufacturing building
materials, transporting materials to construction sites, and the actual construction process—what’s
known as the ―embodied carbon of a building,‖ which accounts for about one quarter of a building’s
total lifecycle carbon emissions. Globally, the embodied carbon of a buildings account for about 11
percent of emissions.

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3.5 Global efforts to reduce carbon emissions
To meet the goals of the Paris Climate Agreement, which aims to limit global temperature rise to 1.5
degrees Celsius, the built environment’s energy intensity—a measure of how much energy buildings
use—will have to improve by 30 percent by 2030, according to UN Environment. Globally, the
energy intensity of the building sector is improving by about 1.5 percent every year; however, the
number of buildings is on the rise—global floor area grows by about 2.3 percent annually—which
offsets some of those energy intensity improvements. Carbon emissions related to buildings are
expected to double by 2050 if action at scale doesn’t occur.
Decarbonization, or trying to eliminate carbon dioxide emissions, in the building industry can take
many forms. The World Resources Institute published a paper about ways the building sector and
related policy at the local, regional, and federal levels can address emissions. ―Although all buildings
must be net zero carbon by 2050 to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement, not even 1 percent of
buildings are considered net zero carbon today,‖ the report states.
Since most building-related carbon emissions come from energy use, the first—and easiest—step in
addressing emissions is reducing consumption through energy efficient design. The next is replacing
fossil fuels with on-site carbon-free renewable energy, then off-site renewables—a taller order since
that means addressing our energy infrastructure. The final, and least preferred option, according to
the WRI, is purchasing carbon offsets.
An energy efficient building could be a brand-new structure or an existing one retrofitted with new
mechanical systems, heating, cooling, and lighting. In the United States about 95 percent of all
buildings are more than a decade old and 82 percent of all commercial buildings were built before
2000. Meanwhile, about half of the floor space of all buildings in the U.S. is heated by burning fossil
fuels onsite. Retrofits and renovations will be a crucial part of decarbonization.
Decarbonization could look like a net-zero building, meaning that it produces renewable energy
onsite and delivers as much energy to the electric grid as it uses. Taking it one step further is a net-
zero carbon building, meaning that it produces as much power as it consumes annually, and the
power comes from carbon-free renewable energy sources onsite or nearby. A net-zero carbon
building, including embodied carbon, means that the building produces enough renewable energy to
meet operations annually and offset the carbon emitted from construction.
3.6 Green Buildings
Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) refers to both a
structure and the application of processes that are environmentally responsible and resource efficient
throughout a building's life-cycle: from planning to design, construction, operation, maintenance,
renovation, and demolition.
The concept of Green Building concentrates mainly on two points:
1. Increasing the efficiency with which buildings use energy, water and materials.

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 2. Reducing building impacts of human health and the environment, through better site selection,
design, construction, operation, maintenance, and removal throughout the complete life cycle.
3.6.1 History of Green Building
The increase of fuel costs in 1970’s along with the concern for environment kindled the awareness
and encouragement towards Green Buildings. Architects and ecologists started looking for solutions
like reflective roofing materials, triple-glazed windows to achieve energy savings. But with the
decrease of fuel prices, the Green movement was slowed down and did not receive much
encouragement. It was later in early 90’s that the movement got kick start and awareness began to
spread about need for sustainable buildings. An official Green home building program started in
Austin, Texas in 1991. The movement has gradually gained momentum since then and we can now
find significant changes in the newer buildings.
3.6.2 Green building movement in India
Against this background, in 2001 the Indian Green Building Council (IGBC) embarked on the path
to usher in a green building movement in the India. IGBC is an initiative of the Confederation of
Indian Industry-Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre (CII-Godrej GBC) and the vision of the
council is to facilitate the country to emerge as one of the global players in green buildings by 2015.
IGBC has the unique distinction of pioneering and spearheading the green building movement in
India. The concerted efforts of all the stakeholders which began ten years ago are bearing fruit and
India is now placed on the international map of green buildings. Today, India has 1002 registered
green building projects with a footprint of over 627 million sq ft. These buildings are spread across
the five climatic zones of the country.
3.6.3 Features of Green building
IGBC green new building rating system addresses green features under the following categories:
1. Sustainable Architecture and Design
The Sustainable sites outline various ―green ―opportunities for reducing the negative impact the
building has on the environment. The opportunities range from preventing erosion of top soil,
water contamination & creation of heat islands, effective use of a barren or waste lands etc.
2. Site Selection and Planning.
3. Water Efficiency
Water efficiency can be defined as the accomplishment of a function, task, process, or result

amount of water required for a particular purpose and the amount of water used or delivered.
Water efficiency differs from water conservation in that it focuses on reducing waste.
4. Energy Efficiency.
5. Building Materials and Resources.
6. Indoor Environmental Quality.

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 7. Innovation and Development

Fig: Green building concept

Benefits of Green building

Green buildings have environmental, social, and economic benefits
1. Environmental benefits
 Enhance and protect biodiversity and ecosystems.
 Improve air and water quality.
 Reduce waste streams.
 Conserve and restore natural resources
2. Economic benefits
 Reduce operating costs
 Create, expand, and shape markets for green product and services.
 Improve occupant productivity.
 Optimize life-cycle economic performance.
3. Social benefits
 Enhance occupant comfort and health.
 Heighten aesthetic qualities
 Minimize strain on local infrastructure
 Improve overall quality of life"

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3.7 Embodied Energy in Materials
Embodied energy is the total energy required for the extraction, processing, manufacture and delivery
of building materials to the building site. Energy consumption produces CO2, which contributes to
greenhouse gas emissions, so embodied energy is considered an indicator of the overall
environmental impact of building materials and systems.
The total amount of embodied energy may account for 20% of the building’s energy use, so reducing
embodied energy can significantly reduce the overall environmental impact of the building.
Embodied energy is measured as the quantity of non-renewable energy per unit of building material,
component or system. It is expressed in mega joules (MJ) or gigajoules (GJ) per unit weight (kg or
tonne) or area (m2) but the process of calculating embodied energy is complex and involves
numerous sources of data.
Lightweight building materials often have lower embodied energy than heavyweight materials, but in
some situations, lightweight construction may result in higher energy use

Fig 1.9: Breakdown of embodied energy calculations

 The primary use of energy in building materials is in the production of building material.
 Bricks and tiles are produced by burning coal (or) fire wood in kilns. Cement and lime are again
produced by heating clay and lime stone using coal and steel is also produced by using coking
coal as the fuel.
 Energy in bricks is usually calculated by determining the amount of firewood (or) coal used for
brick burning. In south India, one brick needs 0.25 to 0.30 kg of wood for energy. Assuming an
energy value of wood of 15 MJ per kg, we get energy content in the range of 3.75 – 4.45 MJ.

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 Energy in cement depends on the type of process. Earlier factories which were based on wet
processing consumed more energy because of the need to evaporate more water. Modern dry
process technology consumes less energy. The figure of 5.85 MJ represents an average value.
 It must be noted that steel and aluminum consumes large amount of energy. The energy of
aluminum is partly of set by the fact that aluminum has a much lower density than steel.
 The low density of GFRP makes it more energy efficient especially since the strength of GFRP
often exceeds that of steel.
Table 3.1: Energy Values for Various Materials
Material Unit Energy per unit, MJ Type of energy
Burnt Brick 1 3.75-4.5 Coal/wood/Rice husk
Cement 1 kg 5.85 Coal & electricity
Lime 1 kg 5.63 Coal/wood
Lime + Fly ash 1 kg 2.63 Coal/wood
Steel 1 kg 42.0 Coal +Electricity
Aluminum 1 kg 236.8 Electricity
Glass 1 kg 25.83 -
Sand (Bangalore) 1 206 Diesel
Marble (Rajasthan to 1 sq. m 200 Diesel
Bangalore)
Polyester 1 liter 220 Petroleum
GFRP 1` kg 100 Electricity+ petroleum
Mangalore tile 1 tile 5.0 – 15.0 Fire wood/coal
1:6 cement mortar 1m3 1296
M 20 Concrete 1 m3 2816

Energy in Building Blocks

As the walls in a building represent the largest volume component the energy in building
blocks are of very much important. The table 2 shows the energy in types of building blocks. It is
very much clear that stabilized mud blocks (SMB), hollow concrete blocks and steam cured blocks
are much energy efficient than burnt bricks and thus are alternative needs.

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 Table 3.2: Energy in Building Blocks

Sl Type of Block (mm) Typical size block Energy per Energy per
No (mm) Block Brick %
Equivalent
1 Size stone 180 x 180 x 180 0 0 0
2 Burnt Brick 230 x 105 x 70 4.25 4.25 100
3 SMB 230 x 190 x 100 2.60 1.00 23.5
4 Hollow concrete 400 x 200 x 200 12.30 1.32 31.2
block
5 Steam curved Block 230 x 190 x 100 6.7 2.58 60.0
Table 3.3: Total Embodied Energy in a Building

Type of Building No. of Storeys Total Embodied Equivalent coal for

energy 100 m2, G J 100 m2 , T
RC framed
construction with 8 421 21
brick in fill walls
Load beaming brick
walls, RC roof 2 292 15
mosaic floor
SMB WALLS,
FILLER SLAB
ROOF/ FLOOR, 2 161 8
Terracotta floor
SMB walls,
Reinforced tile work 1 93 4.7
roof, cement floor

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3.8 Comparison of initial cost of GREEN v/s CONVENTIONAL BUILDING

A report on PET Bottles for Eco-friendly Building in Sustainable Development by

Dr. Jayaprakash M C

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3.9 Life cycle cost of buildings
Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) is a process of evaluating the economic performance of a building
over its entire life.

The purpose of a Life cycle cost analysis is to estimate the overall costs of project alternatives and to
select the design that ensures the facility will provide the lowest complete cost of ownership along
with its quality and function. LCC analysis was first introduced and developed by United States
Department of Defense in order to minimize their spending on the purchased equipment’s.
The Life cycle cost analysis should be performed early in the design process while there is still a
chance to refine the design to ensure a reduction in life-cycle costs in any construction project cost
effectiveness plays a crucial role. The Life cycle cost analysis provides a method of determining
entire cost of a structure over its expected life along with operational and maintenance cost. Life
cycle cost can be improved by adopting alternative modern techniques without much alteration in the
building. Life cycle cost effectiveness can be calculated at various stages of entire span of the
building. Moreover this provides decision makers with the financial information necessary for
maintaining, improving, and constructing facilities.

Categories of Life Cycle Cost

Life cycle costs include several items, which may be classified in various ways. The figure below
illustrates the costs associated with each category.

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How to conduct an LCC
LCC in construction consists of several key elements:
 Conduct a structured cost analysis that clearly identifies which cost sources most influence your
overall costs.
 With major expenditure sources clear, it is possible to identify priority areas for improvement in
the baseline design.
 Comparison of the benefits and impacts of the design alternatives to find the best solution for the
project.
How to get maximum value from your life cycle costing analysis
 Conduct the LCC early. The LCC is most effective when implemented in the early project
phases before major decisions have been made.
 Engage the whole team. Particularly when creating alternatives to ensure the full potential of the
project is captured.

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 Repeat the LCC throughout the project. LCC should be regarded as an ongoing process and
calculations should be repeated several times as the project progresses through its stages and kept
up-to-date to ensure accuracy and high-quality analysis.
 Combine LCC with LCA to ensure that you are making the best cost-and carbon-saving
decisions for your project.
Primary benefits of life cycle cost analysis
1. Long-term value. An LCC ensures that your project has the highest possible value, even if upfront
costs are not significantly reduced. It provides a mechanism for identifying and addressing issues
with the original design. An LCC’s lifetime perspective results in better durability, less maintenance,
fewer risks, and lower operational spending and can even lead to an increased building lifespan.
2. Green building certification credits. LCC credits are included in many green building
certification schemes and in some LCC is a mandatory credit.
3. Reliable planning and reduced risk. LCC is an excellent planning tool that covers long spans of
time. With a properly conducted LCC, you can effectively avoid surprises, and reduce financial risks.

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