Late Edo period popular fiction and its circumstances

A comprehensive introduction to the kusazōshi called Shōhon-jitate

Nino Laloli

S2324555

Research Paper

HUM Seminar History & Arts

Dr. Angelika Koch-Low & Dr. Marc Buijnsters

BA3 Japan studies

Wordcount: 2974
 Introduction

The term kusazoshi, literally meaning ‘grass-booklets’, refers to the much-enjoyed variety of genres
of woodblock-printed illustrated literature in the Edoi and early Meijiii period of Japan. They are
affiliated with the group of works of popular fiction called gesaku1. Noteworthy of these works was
the fact that they were always compiled of the combination of illustrations and text, functioning as
both narration and dialogue.2 Quite different from other works in this period, the two would always
be on the same side of the page. As the illustrations were the focus, these would always be done first
while the text was implemented afterwards to fill up the remainder of space 3 What united all the
varieties of these grass booklets was the format. The pages consisted of half the size of a Mino sheet
of paper (they were folded in half and bound together). This format was called chuboniii.4

The subgenres of kusazoshi can be broken up into the early and later parts of its reign. The early
kusazoshi were part of a period which centered heavily around illustration as opposed to text (up to
1775). They were mainly written in hiragana except for the appearance of a few kanji. These were
divided by the color of their covers. The main distinctions were, respectively, akahon (red/cinnabar-
colored), kurohon (black-colored) and aohon (green/blue-colored). Walley argues that the
red/cinnabar color got too expensive over time, hence resulting in the black and green/blueish
colors. It seems that the aohon would fade in color and resemble later distinctions though5. The later
kusazoshi, from 1775 and onwards, were divided into two categories. Kibyoshi and gokan. Up until
now the kusazoshi had been rather undated and unattributed. The kibyoshi and gokan, however,
were published under a much stricter regime. All important information, such as authors, illustrators,
and other publication facts, had to be identified in the pages of the work6. The kibyoshi started to
delve in the depths of former stories in terms of multilayered content. So, the theme and story were
familiar but there was more depth to it.

“The reader is reminded of the kind of children’s story she is accustomed to finding in the pages of a kusazōshi,
but also of a grown-up take on such a story as recently performed on the stage.”7

I feel like the phrasing of Walley mentioned above captured the idea perfectly so I could not help
myself to include it instead of simply paraphrasing it.

Although the gokan is included in the later subgenres together with the kibyoshi, it still stands on its
own in terms of format. As the last subgenre of kusazoshi, gokan were created around the beginning

1
Markus, Andrew. “The Willow in Autumn” Introduction, 6.
“Most neglected, ironically, is the most recent phase of this popular literature, composed between about 1770
and 1880, and collectively known as gesaku. The term, literally "playful composition" or "works written in jest, *
is an exceedingly unsatisfactory one, inasmuch as it masks a multitude of types of fiction under one rubric and
fails to characterize many varieties accurately.”
2
Atherton, David C, “The Author as Protagonist” 49.
3
Tsuda, Mayumi, “Kusazoshi: Edo Illustrated Books” 91.
4
Walley, Glynne, ‘’Grass booklets and the roots of manga. Comic books in the Tokugawa Period. In The
Tokugawa World” 706.
5
Idem. 709.
6
Idem. 710.
7
Idem. 712-13.
of the 19th century. Opposite to its fellow subgenres gokan’s covers were quite lavishly decorated in a
variety of colors. They also contained at least two or more volumes of story which made them higher
in volume compared to the others. They were, however, quite similar in terms of layout. The
combination of text and illustration was upheld in that sense.

Out of all the subgenres of kusazoshi there is no doubt that, during the Edo period, the gokan were
the highest in terms of popularity. The work that I will be discussing in this paper is of said genre and
was also quite enjoyed in its frame of time. This work is called shohon-jitate (正本製). A gokan series
published over the period of 1815 to 1831. It consists out of 12 parts and 69 chapters spread over
multiple booklets. It is a collaboration work written by Ryutei Tanehikoiv and illustrated by Utagawa
Kunisadav. By zooming on its structure, premise, and creators I aim to find the answers to the
questions of its praise and popularity.

I shall do so by making use of secondary readings discussing the content of the work and the
circumstances of its time.

Main Body

As I mentioned in the introduction, I will focus on the entirety of the shohonjitate series in this paper.
I could have chosen to zoom in on a specific case study, but I did not feel like that would have
brought me substantial merits. I say this because I am interested in the overall premise and position
of the work. To be able to fully translate and understand the matter at hand was not a requirement
for this paper after all.

Specifics
The 12 parts of the series were published in the period between bunka 文化 12 (1815) and tenpo 天
保 2 (1831). They were all published in Edo, Bakurocho 馬喰町 by the publishing house Eijudo 永寿
堂 under command of Nishimuraya Yohachi. The parts are referred to as ‘hen’ (編) and chapters as
‘maki’ (巻). The number of booklets per part could differ from one to two, these would then, in turn,
be divided into ‘upper’ (上巻) and ‘lower’ (下巻) distinctions. The chapters were divided within the
booklets. The booklets had the same kusazoshi typical chubon format and binding style where a
sheet of mino paper would be folded in half, thus creating two separate pages.

Although few in number, there were indeed some lavishly decorated and colored covers and title
pages.
 Figure 1 & 2: Title pages of the first two (from left to right, respectively) chapters of the 1st volume of the Shohon-jitate
series. From the Waseda University Online Database

It is in title pages like the ones above that it becomes apparent how the regulations by the
government were quite strict. Like I mentioned in the introduction, in this period the need to
effectively mention all the necessary details was enforced. On the left image, in the lower right
corner of the first page and lower left corner on the right page you can see the publisher’s name
written. In both images we see the names written of the author and illustrator. I found this to be a
reoccuring theme throughout the entirety of the series, which reaffirms the essentiality it must have
had.

Personally, I found this lavish aesthetic accompanied by the very thick and bold lettering quite
appealing. This distinctive calligraphic style is called the kantei-ryu8. It really makes the artwork come
to life and appeal the crowd to read the continuation of the story, in line with very function of a title
page.

Although not quite the same, the decoration of front and back covers sometimes also had a
quirkiness of its own. The figures below are a interesting example of this.

8
Markus, Andrew. “The Willow in Autumn” 75.
Figure 4 & 5: On the left, The backcover of upperpart of the 1st volume of shohon-jitate.
On the right, the frontcover of the 7th volume of the series.

From the Waseda University Online Database

Figures one to four, whether through flashy color aesthetics or original design, really help to set this
work apart as a gokan from its other subgenres within the kusazoshi.

Now for some examples that show some similarities as typical kusazoshi traits.

Figure 6: A page of the first chapter of the 1st volume of the Shohon-jitate series.

From the Waseda University Online Database

In figure 6 you can see the typical blend of text and illustrations again. Priority given to the
illustration while the dialogue/narration was added afterwards to fill up the empty spaces. Almost
like the layout of newspapers nowadays. Notice the volume mark written on the very sides of the
pages. Since the pages were in fact bigger pieces of paper folded in half, they would write on the
folded parts. You could read these more clearly by taking the page and pushing it gently on the fold.
There are some irregularities to be found within the volumes on the other hand though.

Figure 7: One of the last pages of the 9th volume Figure 8: Page in the second part of the 1st volume.

From the Waseda University Online Database

The most common layout throughout the series is that of the typical blend we mentioned before.
However, there are some instances where this not the case. Figures 7 and 8 are some examples of
this. Figure 7 exists solely out of illustrations while figure 8 is the opposite with mostly only text,
except for the modest illustration representing what likely meant to be a script.

Figure 9: Advert at the end of the 7th volume. Figure 10: Advert at the end of the 7th volume.

From the Waseda University Online Database.

Like shown here in both figures 9 and 10, it was also very typical for the end of a volume to contain a
section of adverts. Sadly, I could not get a better picture quality to fit in the document but if you look
closely to the depictions on the Waseda online database you can see that there is also furiganavi
added to the kanji of these sections. This strengthens the argument that the series was indeed
catered to the masses and had a commercial element to it.

Premise
The story behind the creation of this lengthy series is quite different than what you would expect it
be. First, it was supposed to end after the first part. The first itself is a story on its own. There was no
intention whatsoever to continue with concept after it had finished. It was because of the enormous
popularity it received afterwards that the decision was made to create more volumes.

Kabukivii had been in its prime. In 1812, Nishimuraya Yohachi, the head of the Eijudo publishing house
at the time, had proposed a project to the Wunderkind of the ukiyo-eviii world, Utagawa Kunisada9.
Instead of the usual images depicting actors on stage or at least in their roles and or costumes he
wanted to make a triptych that explored the unseen backstage world of the Nakamura-za theater.
The work would consist out of the backstage split open so that you could see large amount rooms
and the actors engaging in all their activities. For example: rehearsing, talking, resting, signing
autographs etc. This turned out to be such a success that Nishimuraya would try to publish more of
these works in the following year (1813), naming them the trilogy of gakuya no zu (greenroom
pictures). While one was a more detailed depiction of the Nakamura-za, the other showed a different
theater called Ichimura-za. What completed the trilogy was a view of the ‘underdog’ theater called
the Morita-za.

The first part of the series, therefore, was a direct descendant of these works. For this reason, the
subtitle gakuya no tsuzuki-e (continuation of the greenroom pictures) was added to the work. It was
because of the popularity the prior project had received that Nishimuraya was led to commission a
work from Ryutei Tanehiko. All to make even better use of the element of the so called ‘stage’. So,
what was it about, exactly?

The series covered a total of seven famous kabuki stories (お仲清七物語). The author, Ryutei
Tanehiko being a devoted fan of theater and famous gokan writer and the illustrator one of the most
renowned ukiyo-e artists of the time. To top it off, the publisher saw profitable opportunity in a new
direction of work, catered by the interest of the masses. The kanji used for shohon-jitate describe its
premise most accurately. 正本 (shohon), which translates to ‘script’ or ‘text of play’ is combined
with the kanji ‘製’, which is usually used to indicate from where or how something is made (日本製,
nihonsei, ‘made in Japan’). My own interpretation led me to the translation ‘tailored like a text of
play’, since it is in fact based on a text of play and tailored into the form of a novel/book. Markus, in
The Willow in Autumn, pushes several statements about the objective/essence of the work.
“This loving re-creation of “theaterland”, as one contemporary enthusiast dubbed it, of an enchanted world with its peculiar
sights and savors, sounds and delights remain, by virtue of its detail, a promising source of information about the fading
actualities of nineteenth-century kabuki.”10

He insists on the concept of ‘translating the ambience of the kabuki playhouse to paper’. Since the
Willow in Autumn is a work based on the events of the life Tanehiko himself it is highly likely that
these were the convictions he must have had whilst in process of writing the series. Markus then
goes on about the guiding principle of shohon-jitate.

9
Markus, Andrew. “The Willow in Autumn” 74.
10
Idem. 75.
 “The guiding principle throughout shôhon-jitate is that life must imitate art: dialogue is not true to life, but true to the
diction of the stage; clothing must suggest costumes; scenes in illustrations are rather sets, the stagier the better. A fence in
an illustration is made to appear as two-dimensional and prop-like as possible.”11

So, it is fair to say that the objective of the work was to recreate the popular experience of kabuki as
perfectly possible but this time around through a different medium and adding multiple elements
such as their daily lives and the views beyond the stage.

Reasons for success

Having discussed the qualities and premise of the series, we now move on to the question at hand.
Why was this work so well received? In my research, I came to the conclusion that like many works
for that matter, it is the result of not simply one but the combination of multiple factors.

As the warring states era came to an end and the Edo period began, the time had come for culture to
flourish. With absence of war peace returned and people could afford to invest time in things other
than simply trying to survive. Because of this, many aspects of society began to develop, the
beginning of an age comparable to the famous golden age of the Netherlands, to make a
comparison. Most of all, art, literature, and entertainment grew to be immensely popular. Kusazoshi,
ukiyo-e and kabuki were, of course, part of this.

For the masses these things were like a means of escape. They were almost obsessed with it.
Although it was a period worthy of being called ‘golden’ we must not forget that this was at least 250
years ago. Circumstances were not comparable to nowadays. Exactly because of this, people
cherished the moments absent of suffering. The shohon-jitate series, by the combined effort of
Tanehiko’s brilliant writing sense and Kunisada’s phenomenal art, was able to give to the masses
what they had longed for, bringing them closer to kabuki.

Conclusion

In conclusion. The 12-part gokan series, shohon-jitate. Of the most popular subgenre within the
kusazoshi, popular fiction of the Edo period affiliated with the genre called gesaku. A work highly
essential to 19th century kabuki. It is tailored like a text of a play, being based on the seven most
famous kabuki stories of Japan. It allows the reader to delve into the stage of kabuki and even
further, zooming on what is beyond the stage and how the actors went about their daily tasks and
such. This is strengthened by use of lavishly colored covers and title pages portraying the actors often
with stage props accompanied by distinctive kantei-ryu calligraphic style inscriptions. All for the sole
purpose of letting the people come closer to kabuki.

Its success and popularity are a direct result of the extraordinary collaboration of the masters of their
time, Ryutei Tanehiko (author) and Utagawa Kunisada (illustrator). Without Tanehiko’s obsession for
theatre and Kunisada’s unrivaled art skills this work would without a doubt have not had the same
11
Idem. 75.
impact. Taking advantage of popular art and fiction, combining them, and subsequently catering
these to the masses. The initiative of the publisher, Nishimuraya Yohachi, for the proposal of this
project has also played an important role in this. But above all, I believe that showing what was
beyond the stage must have been the cherry on top of the cake.

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Notes
i
Edo 江戸 (1600-1868), the former capital of Japan, nowadays known as Tokyo 東京.
ii
明治, (1868-1912), The era that followed after the Edo period and the first move towards westernization.
iii
中本, A typical book format for kusazoshi. Standard-sized Mino paper (14 cm by 20 cm) folded in half.
iv
柳亭種彦 (1783-1842), Renowned writer affiliated with kabuki and gesaku. Famous for works such as the shohon-
jitate series, nise murasaki inanaka genji and ‘the gallant jiraiya.’ Birth name Takaya Hikoshiro.
v
歌川国貞 (1786-1865), Birth name Sumida Shogoro, also known as Utagawa Toyokuni the 3rd . Disciple of the great
Utagawa Toyokuni but eventually bested his master and peers (Hokusai, Hiroshige, Kuniyoshi etc.) Known for his
works such as yakusha-e, bijin-ga, the shohon-jitate series and nise murasaki inanaka genji.
vi
A smaller font of hiragana often added to kanji to make them easier to read.
vii
歌舞伎, “A classical form Japanese dance-drama originating from the early Edo period.”
viii
浮世絵, Literally translated ‘pictures from the floating world’. A genre of art within Japan which flourished from the
17th through the 19th century.