* GRADESAVERS NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 TUTORING Vectors To represent vectors the following notation will be used: =< a,,4,,4; > Magnitude of the vector: AKA Length or Norm of a vector: \atara Unit vectors: have a length of 1 unit given a vector a, a unit vector in the same direction as acan be calculated as follows: The i,j vectors: 7 =<10>; J= Thus a vector @ can be written as = <4, -4> ‘www.gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 22. > GRADESAVERS.NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 TuTORTES Z Rectangular Coordinate System: Distance: d(Ps, Pa) = y(x,—x,)' +0) =»)? + (G2) Midpoint: AS Dh Ate 22 =[elbJoose aa, 241-3 >; b =< -1,0,2> find the dot product between the two vectors and the angle between the two vectors. Dot Product: a- a 2-1) +O) +(-32) =-8 _ |fall=sqrt(14) |Ib|] = sqrt(5) ab -8 a= 2 8 ___yoseig To find the angle between two vectors: “°° lal] Via = 163° , @ and b are orthogonal. Projection of a on 5: Projypa= ( www.gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 3L. Cross product: 4x5 = (laljésia! oy i is the normal unit vector to the plane of aand xb axb=0, if and 6 are parallel. and Le Cartier 3410 Poel, Suite B2, Montreal OC, ISA 4H3 Example: find the cross product between @ = <2,-3,5> & b= 7 +47 -k axb=|7 j & l= 7-20) j(-2-5) + kB+3) SATE+7j +k 23.5 144 Area of a parallelogram: /* A= |axal ’ f Area of a triangle: 1 A= tax: hl Volume of the parallelepiped: V= |a-(bxo)] www.gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 info@gradesavers.net 42. > * GRADESAVERS. NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 TeTeRtNs @-(bxc)=0 if a,b ,é are coplanar (x1, ¥i,Z1 Vector equation of a line: eee XisJa- is: 2, > and called direction vector Oy Vector equation of a line: r(t) = (0,0,0) Example: Find a vector equation of the line through the given points: (0,4,5) and (-2,6,3), also, find the parametric and symmetric equation for the line. ‘Solution: We need to find a vector on the line, <-2-0, 6-4, 3-5 > =<-2,2,-2> < 0-0, 4-0, 5-0 >=<0,4,5> salt) = i + @t=<0,4,5>4<-2,2,-2>t Vector Equation: r(t) = <-2t, 4 + 2t, 5-2t> or r(t)= + (4+ 2t) 7+ (6-2Nk ‘To write the Parametric Equation for the same line: eat off) yr4e2t_ (2) z=5-2 (3) To write the symmetric equation: From (1): Symmetric Equation: www. gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 .= GRADESAVERSNET Le Cartier $410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 TOTORTNS ‘Smooth Curve: When the component functions of a vector function r have continuous first derivatives and r'(1) #0, for all fin the open interval (a, b), the ris said to be a smooth function and the curve c traced by ris said to be a smooth curve. Geometric interpretation of r’(¢): If the vector (2) is not 0 at a point P, then it may be drawn tangent to the curve at P. Example: Find the parametric equation of the tangent line to the given curve: 6 hye ,z= (2 t=. Aya? (2¢+1)° at Solution: ¢: (t) = (° -¥(S) j+(2e+1P r= GF + tay 4+4(204 1) riya ai S74 12k «. r'(1)is @ parallel vector to the tangent line at ¢= 1 Vector equation of tangent line: r= 4 +a¢ To find a point at f= 1;x=0, y=3,z=9 =<0,3,9>, a= <2, 3,12> 1A =<0,3,9> 442, 3,425 A= ai s[303e}7 viane www gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 314.849.2586 4 6Parametric equation of tangent line: =ahy=3+3t:2-9 412 a Length of a curve: $= ['jr(lat “a bagel tom 4 Example: Find the length of a curve given by: r(t)=acosif +asing +ctk ; Solution: @ or x, flees r'()=~asinti +acosij +k Slee Ol = Ver sin? a eos? re? = la? +2 Jomra) 82 Va red rela oe Velocity and Acceleratior Velocity: v()=r'() Acceleration: a(t) = Speed: |rio|=[r'ol “() GRADESAVERS.NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 vt O (i) Find the unit tangent vector at a general point f, and at a point (2, 3, 4) (ii) Find the curvature (iii) Find the tangential component of acceleration Solution: (i) unit tangent vector: r()= <2, 6t, 127 > [rco=V@? +0? +@2°)? = Vay 36r 41440" ~ 1 Te — <2,6t,12f> Yas36r8 +1440" ' At point (2, 3, 4), f= 1 (we got that from r(). ‘wow gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 82. GRADESAVERSNET Le Cartir 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal 0, H3A 113 rerrey a 6 12 2M)=< 2%, ©, 12, ) 184 ‘Visa 184 ee oxo oes rol (ii) Curvature: r()=<0, 6, 24> rioxr@=|i 7k 2 6t 12¢| 0 6 24 = 7(144f? — 7217) — j(481)+ (12) = 7267-489 +12k |r @xr"@|=VO2FY +480? +02" ee VSR + 23000 4144 _ Bo(4ar +367 +4) 6 Ce (4414 43607 +4) (144r' +3602 +4) 144 $367 +4 °) a, HO $2612 >< 06,241 > 361+ 2880? tr ae SVT Vasset era Jas 36e 14a ‘www. gradesavers.net ~~ info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 =GRADESAVERS.NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite 82, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 ror Me Length of a Curve +) (April 2004) Find the length of the curve: rt) = , astse Curvature 41) (April 2007) Find the curvature of the elliptical helix described by 1) = acosit)i + bsin(t)j + etk where a> 0, b> 0, c>0 are arbitrary constants. 2) (Summer 2004) Let C be the curve r= , find the tangential and normal ‘components of the acceleration vector, when t= 2. www. gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 314.849.2586 10zg Ff GRADESAVERS NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3. TUTORING Partial Derivatives There is not much to say about partial derivatives other than to perhaps introduce some notation. We are used to the notation for ordinary derivatives: r@-L2 = E where the dependant variable f is a function of only one variable. When computing partial derivatives, the function f depends on more than one variable, and the notation reads as follows: Fx) The notation above reads “the partial derivative of f with respect to x" It is understood that fis a function of more than one variable. Furthermore, while computing F, the laws of ordinary differentiation are used while treating all variables other than x as constants. In computing double partial derivatives, we should note that fy = fx Finally, if 2 = f(u, v) is differentiable and u = g(x, y) and v = h(x, y) have continuous first Partial derivatives then," & ar 2 & 1) (Summer 2004) (a) Verify that the «= e""* sin(kx) function where a and k are constants is a solution of the heat conduction equation u; = au, (b) If u = f(y) and x=rcose, y=rsine show that (8) www. gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 u¥ > - GRADESAVERS. NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3- TOTORTMS Directional Derivative Gradient Vector: The gradient vector is obtained by applying the def operator to a scalar function f(x, y, z). Geometrically, the gradient vector is the normal vector to the surface represented by f(x, y, Z). a a a pnt Ogg gO ax Nay Mae The best way to illustrate the operator in action is by a quick example: Consider Se yaa y+ 3x2? + 2y?z ‘Compute the gradient of f. Directional Derivative: The directional derivative is a scalar computed as the dot product between the gradient vector of a function and a unit vector in the desired direction: DS&Y=VUy)u We know how to compute the gradient vector, it remains to find the unit vector u. This can be done in one of three ways: a) Given an angle the unit vector is computed as u = icose + jsine b) Given a direction vector v, u = vi|lvll c) Given two points p1 and p2, create a vector v from these points and go to step (b) Maximum/Minimum Value of the Directional Derivative: “Find the direction of the vector where the function increases (decreases) most rapidly” The direction is given simply by computing deff (-delf) and the maximum (minimum) rate is nothing more than the magnitude of delf (- magnitude of delf). www. gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 122. > GRADESAVERS. NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite 82, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 TUTORINS Examples: 2) (Summer 2004) Find the directional derivative of the function fx, y, 2)= xyZc0sz at the point (1, 1, 17) and in the direction of the vector 1-2) + 3k 2) (April 2007) Find the directions in which the following function has the maximum and minimum rates of change at the point (1, 0, 1). Find those rates. FY, 2) = ty’ +22 + yx? + y? + zy Equation of a Tangent Plane, Normal Lines General Equation of a Plane: Given a point (x, yo,22) and a normal vector < a, b,c >. ‘The equation of a plane containing this point and having the normal vector is given by: P= alx- xo) + B(y- Yo) + o(2 - 2) = 0 Computing the Equation of a Tangent Plane: In order to compute the equation of a tangent plane at a given point, the normal will be the gradient vector of the function at the Point and can be used to obtain the equation of the tangent plane. Examples: 1) (December 2002) Consider the surface defined by cos(zx)e” = 4 a) Find the equation of the tangent plane to the surface at the point (rr, 0, 0) ©) Find the equation of the normal line to the surface at the point (mr, 0, 0) www. gradesavers net info@gradesavers.net 514.849,2586 13z. => GRADESAVERS.NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 TUTORINS Divergence and Curl Divergence: Given a vector field F = Pi + Qj + Rk the divergence of F is the scalar function obtained as: divF = 2 2 Curl: Given a vector field F = Pi + Qj + Rk the curl of F is the vector function obtained as: curlF =xF = = Ple~ Plow. ®@lo= Examples: 1) (april 2007) Let us denote by h(x, y, Z) a scalar function and F(x, y, Z) a vector field. Identify which of the following operations are not allowed and which ones make mathematical sense. Write YES when the expression is a valid one or NO if the expression is not valid: (a) grad(curi(h)) (b) — grad(curi(F)) (ec) div(curkF)) (¢) — grad(div(F)) (e) grad(div(h)) (A) div(curi(grad(h))) (g) _curl(div(grad(h))) (h) — div(cur\(grad(F))) (i) curidiv(grad(F))) @) —_ grad{div(grad(h))) 2) (December 2004) Prove the following (where enough differentiability is assumed): a) Fora scalar valued function f(x,y,z), curl(gradf) = 0 b) Fora vector field F(x, y, z), div(curlF) = 0 www.gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 14> 4 gn oe “ GRADESAVERS.NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 TUTORING Line Integrals If we were to ask you to compute J*”4* chances are your answer would be x2y/2 + C. However, this is incorrect as you do not necessarily know that y is a constant. Line integrals give you a method to properly solve the above equations given the following two conditions: 1) Apath/curve that establishes a relationship between x and y. 2) Adirection/orientation that establish the limits of the integral. The following steps summarize the general method to tackle a line integral problem over a Smooth curve. In case of a piecewise curve repeat the following steps for each piece. : Step 1: Identify the relationship between x and y according to the curve or represent each variable in terms of a third parameter, t. The idea is to have only one variable under the integral. ‘Step 2: Using the given direction establish the start and end points of x thus obtaining the limits on the integral. ‘Step 3: Evaluate the integral. This being said there are three typical types of line integral problems: Examples: 1) (Section 9.8 problem 33) Find the work done by the force F(x, y) = (x + 2y)i + (6y ~ 2x)j acting counter clockwise once around the triangle with vertices (1,1), (3, 1) and (3, 2) 4 yas 2) (Section 9.8 problem 19) Evalute fa? +y?)dx — 2xydyon the given closed curve C: Babe Lock dome bx Fo Cx vat + Ceay)= vee ee. www.gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 15x eo 2 * GRADESAVERS.NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 TUTORING 3) (april 2005 Problem 8) Find the work done by the force F = (x + 2”, xy, ¥’) in moving a particle along the curve r(t) = ford a) Compute the curl of F b) Find a potential function for F 2 c) Compute the work done by F (7) (: cos(at),e'™ (1), Lt! Osrsl along the path: v3t + www. gradesavers.net iigenienteint 514.849.2586z. => GRADESAVERS.NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 TeToORTHS 2) (December 2002 Problem 5) Consider the veetor field Fees) = (224 ue + 2p) i+ (e? +2e) 54 (eps 2k TF (9) Show that curi(#) = 6. Can you find a function &(z,y,+) such that Flay, VO(x,y,2)7 Ives then find the most general such fanetion. (b) Compute the Hine integral [iw le where the curve C is the piecewise smooth curve starting at A = (0,0,0) and ending at B= (0,0, 1) consisting of the spiral F(t) = (tcos(t), twin(t), 1) for t € (0, 2n] joined to the segment starting from (27,0, 2n) and arriving at £3 = (0,0,1). Double Integrals The best way to understand double integrals is to go over a short example: (ef > Note that the outer limits will always be constant. Also, you are not allowed to simply interchange dx and dy this is done through reversing the order of integration as outlined J fatty = 7 below. Applications: Area: The area of a region can be calculated by computing a double integral over that region: Shea = [fasay = ff ave www gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 7Veg pst GRADESAVERS NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite 82, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 TUT oR TNS Volume: The volume above a region in the xy plane and below the function (x, ) is given by: ff. rena ff 1eonededy = [] Ferd Mass, Moments and Center of Mass: These are given by the following formulas respectively: lone mass, m= | ff, plx,y)dA where p= density /O moment about x~axis=M, = fl. yplx yd Anat? by moment about y-axis =M, =f, xp(sy)d4 Jee 4) Coordinates of cenier (%y) Moments of Inertia: moment of inertia about x—axis=1, f.>" pe v)aa ‘moment of inertia about y-axis She p(x, y)dA Reversing the Order of Integration: Often it is impossible to solve & given integral within the fundamental theorem of calculus and reversing the order of integration may help solve the problem. The following steps illustrate how this is achieved. www gradesavers.net info@igrdesevers.net 314.849.2586 1GRADESAVERSNET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 Step 4: Sketch the region from the limits of the integral and determine whether you are using a horizontal strip (dxdy) or vertical strip (dydx) Step 2: Change the order of integration by applying the opposite strip to step 1. This will involve solving for the other variable. Step 3: Solve the integral using the new order of integration. Example: 1) (December 2003 Problem 6) Evaluate the double integral by first reversing the order of integration: aa, J Je? dxay PONG 2) Fing the center of mass of the lamina above y = x’ and below y = 4, if the density is p(x, Wax, Polar Coordinates When ever you encounter circles (x° + y*= 72) or ellipses (x1 a? + y/ b?= 1) itis Convenient to switch to polar coordinates using the following formulas: Circle: Ellipse: X= rcose | x= acose y=rsine / y=bsine ae Baxtay tane = (yx) GA = dxdy oF dydx > rdrde > What must be understood in visualizing polar coordinates is that unlike cartesian coordinates, there is no such thing as an r— axis or a 6 - axis, Rather r can be viewed as a radius that begins at the origin (r = 0) and expands radially outward while © sweeps the region starting from the x-axis (@ = 0) moving counter-clockwise. www. gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 192. GRADESAVERS! Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 TUTORTNE Examples: 14)Set up (do not evaluate) the following integrals in polar coordinates sie le? 2 aioe 2 1 Jf @x-naae J J Sroues] | Sede J faqs -y"yaxay 0 Oye? 10 ¥ ee) 2) (April 2003 Problem 2) Find the volume of the region under the hemisphere zay4-x' ‘And above the region bounded by the circle x’ + y’ -2y = 0 Greens Theorem ‘Sometimes we encounter line integrals that are difficult to compute at the functions, P and Q are complicated. Green's theorem can be applied to simplify matters as long as two conditions hold. a) The line integral is computed over a closed path that bounds region R b) There are only two dimensions (P, Q no R) to the problem. If these conditions are met then Green's theorem states: . 0Q OP res o6= (2-5 Examples: 1) (December 2002 Problem 7) Using the appropriate theorem, compute the following line integral in the plane Gy +In4 + cos(x de + 2x7 ‘y-e™)dy Where C is the piecewise smooth closed simple curve oriented counter-clockwise given by the boundary of the rectangle of vertices (0,0), (2, 0), (2, 1) and (0,1). ‘www. gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 202. GRADESAVERS.NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 TUTORING 2) (December 2003 Problem 5) Consider the integral: fdr + ady Where C is the triangle with vertices (0,0), (2, 0) and (1, 1) oriented counter-clockwise. a) Evaluate the line integral directly by parametrizing the curve C b) Evaluate the line integral using Green's Theorem. Surface Integrals The length of an are of the graph y = f(x) from x = ato x= bis = ff(2) Now we define the surface area of region R to be: As) = [fit O45 Gy) GA Note: read the problem carefully to decide your surface. Represent your surface as a function of x and y (f{x,y)), then follow the above equation to find the surface area. Example: Find the surface area of those portions of the sphere x7 + 7 + 7 = 2 that are within the cone 2 = x? + 7 ‘www. gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 21z F GRADESAVERS NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 TOTORIMS Flux Flux = [f(F-mas Ifa smooth surface S is defined by g(x, y. z)=0, then # hi 'g| If Sis defined by z = fix, y), then g(x. y. z) = Z—f{x, y) if Sis oriented upward and 9(X, ¥, 2) = x,y) Zif Sis oriented downward. Example: F = zk, Sis that part of the paraboloid z = 5 - x’ - ¥’ inside the cylinder we+yed Examples: 1) (December 2002 Problem 8) Evaluate the surface integral fl xy(9—42)dS Where S is the portion of the parabolic cylinder z = 2 - x*in the first octant and bounded by x=0, y=0, y=4, 2=0 2) (December 2005 Problem 7) Define the surface S to be that part of the plane x + y+ z = 4 which lies in the first octant, (that is, which satisfies, x 20, y20, 220) oriented upwards. Let F be the vector field: F(x, y, ) = 2j + yk. Find the flux, Jp enas Of the vector field F through the surface S. www gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 2Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 Stokes Theorem Stokes Theorem is basically Green's Theorem in 3d-space: GF dr=f Pde Ody-+ Rds = ff(var) ids $ There are 4 steps to solve any problem involving Stokes theorem. Step 1: find VxF Step 2: Find = “Re Where g(x,y, z) is given as before. Step 3: Find ds =/1+ e + fda Step 4: Evaluate [[(vxF)-rds $ Examples: 1) (April 2003 Problem 9) Verify Stokes Theorem for the vector fields F(x, y, z)= <22, x2, > and the surface S which is the part of the plane x + y +2 = 2 forwhich x20, y 20, 2 20. 2) (December 2003, Problem 10) Use Stokes theorem to evaluate the line integral: [rar Where F(x, y, 2) = and Cis the circle x? + y?= 1, 2 = 4 oriented clockwise as seen from the origin. www.gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 23zd. GRADESAVERS.NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3- TUTORINS 3) (December 2002 Problem 6) Consider the vector field: F(x, y, 2) = xi yj +(x°z°cos(x? + y* + z”))k. ‘Compute the flux of curl(F): St curl(F)ndS Through the surface S consisting of a cylinder with a hemisphere on top oriented with the outward normal: Oty =1,z€ (0, BUCS + y? + (z-27= 1,222} and with a boundary consisting of the circle at the base of the cylinder. Whatever answer you find motivate it by using the appropriate theorem. b- * “ GRADESAVERS.NET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3. TeTORITMS Examples: 4) (April 2007 Problem 10) Re-write the following integral in cylindrical coordinates and evaluate it. iFutet J lee ‘l= 2) (December 2004 Problem 3) Use spherical coordinates to find the volume of the region inside the sphere x° + y? + z? = 4 and outside z= x? + y’ Divergence Theorem The divergence theorem is a second vector form of Green's theorem Flux = sje nds = f[fcv-Fyav There is nothing much to explain in this equation other than to perhaps go over some examples. Examples: 1) (December 2004, Problem 8) Consider the vector field F(x, y, z) = and the solid region bounded by y = x’, z = 9—y and z = 0. Use the divergence theorem in order to find: flFenas ‘www. gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net "514.849.2586 6= * GRADESAVERSNET Le Cartier 3410 Peel, Suite B2, Montreal QC, H3A 1H3 TUTORING 2) (April 2007, Problem 5) Using the divergence theorem, compute the flux of the vector field: FO 22F Qx-¥? cose) y-In(l +x°))j +e" k across the surface of the sphere S of radius 5 centered at (0, 3, 1). Transformations (Optional) Transformations are similar to substitutions in single integrals. They can be used to considerably simplify an integral the idea is this: ax ge der Sh Fenaa= flere, 0) @ a Tene pg + {) (ection 9.17, Problem 13) Evaluate the given integral by means of the indicated change of variables. Facedig Examples: S.ec»yaa where R is the region bounded by the graphs of x — 2y = -6, x-2y=6,x+y=-4,x+y= 3;u=x-2y,vexty. 2) (Section 9.17, Problem 23) Evaluate the given double integral by means of an appropriate change of variables. [ae { www.gradesavers.net info@gradesavers.net 514.849.2586 27