ResearchGate Segmentation and classification of brain tumors using modified median noise filter and deep learning approaches 0xMates Tas eed Appts psa 10SON7A TOAD 00 105514 Segmentation and classification of brain tumors using modified median noise filter and deep learning approaches ‘S. Ramesh’ ( +S. Sasikala* - Nirmala Paramanandham? feces 20 Angst 2000 Rested: 25 Qauber 20 /Aceptet 22 dec 2020 Published oeine: 07 Junsary 2021 1 The Authors rcs exe Reece o Sings Scene Bune Mei LC prt of Sprines Matre 2021 Abstract ‘The most vital challenge for a radiologist is locating the brain tumors in the earicr stage. As ‘he bran tumor grows rapidly, doubling its actual siz in about twenty-five days. {no dealt propery, th affictad person's survival rate usually docs no longer excood half a year. This ce rapidly cause dying. For this reason, an automatic system is desirable for locating brain tumors at the carly stags. In general, when compard to computed tomogaphy (CT), ‘gnefic esonance image (MRI) scans are usod for detecting the diagnesis of cancerous and noncanccrous tumors. However, while MRI scans acquisition, there is a chance of appearing noise such as speckle noise, salt & pepper noise and Gaussian noise. It may degrade classification performance. Hence,-2 new noise removal algorithm is proposed, namely the modified iterative grouping median filer. Further, Maximum likelihood cstimasion hase! kernel principal component analysis & propos for featire extraction. A deep Icaming-based VGG16 architecture has been utilized for scgmentation purposcs. Experimental results have shown that the propescd algorithm outperiorms the well-known techniques in toms of both qualitative and quantitative cvalution Keywords sraintumer classification Deep Icaming: Machine learning: MIGME-MLEKPCA vaGis $S.Rarmoh, S. Sia ad Nima Prema contin t ths wok Pl NimalaParamananhas simaepactpealcon S. Ramesh ie ce vga cn SS. Sawikala sachalaryaalaram teil com [stoned autho formation availible on the at page of the etc D springerMua Tks wd Appar 1 Introduction The accumulation of developinont of defective cells within the bran is called a brain tumor {65}. Generally, in brain tumors, there isa wide variety. Init, few brain tumors are benign, although there are malignant brain tumors]. Malignant tumors ean cause cancer. Init brain {tumors may startin other amas of the body and disseminate into the brain. Hence the detetion ‘of pathology is imporant for saving human Tie: Similarly, there isa need for determining the location of the tumor and the deyroo of severity, In these circumstances, an MRRI/ CT sean help for determining the location and severity of the tumor {59} The enormous distinction bowen MRI and CT is that MRI uses radio waves wheteas CT wes Xray scanning. Hoth MIL and CT seans are sapable of viewing internal hody strictures. Even though the CT seans are rapid and can present pictures of orpans, tics, and skoletal stuctures, MRI is eminestly capable of imaging that helps doctors for deciding. whether anomaly tissues exist inside the body. Compared to CT. the MRI scan image provides many informative details {44}. ‘There isa chance of occurring numerous noises such as speckle, Gaussian, and salt & ppnper while acquiring MRI images [43]. So, a noise removal technique is significant for reducing the noise: In this research, the focus is only on salt & popper noise. During image quisition, salt and pepper noise significandy influences the image quality. ‘Therefor, denoising is must before manipulation. A modian filter is commonly used for clinsnating impulse noises [37]. With the median of neighboring pixels, a standard median [75] fier can climinates poise but unabls to preserve the edges and information well A weighted average filter [32, 58] is used for improving the average fier by weighting the ncighbor pixels. Furter improvements were made inthe lierature forthe removal of noise [8, 14, 18, 24, 48} and {78}, However, most of these works have some limitations such as high complenity and uncertainty. Yo overcome these limitations and for improving the dsnoising performance, Moxtfied liraive Grouping Median Fitter is proposoi_ ‘Feature sletion piys an important ol in the clasifcation. Recanse i alas the compa tional tie and improves theclasfication performance. Een theugh, principal component analysis (PCA) [78 plays. major role in feature section, its effective only wit linear das. So, kemet ‘rincipal component analysis (KPCA) [62] i inte to deal with nonlincar data. However. fe performance of KPCA is based on the scketion of kemel function. io overcome this fnitation ‘Gaussian keme! function has been seoctd. in this, the sclecion of sigma value affctsthe Gimsian distribution. So, it impacts the Gaussian kernel and KPCA performance. To improve the KPCA performance, Maximum likelihood esimation (MILE)[7] based KPCA fs proposod ‘The rest of ths paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents a concise account of related works. In Section 3, details of the proposed technique are cxplained. Performance retrics and the experimental result analysis are diseussed in Section 4, followed by the conclusions in Section 5. 2 Related works Inthe erature, thee are several filtcring methods have been proposed forthe removal of noise (8, 1418.24, 38.48}. Some contrbutions are paniculaly focusing on the removal of noke while ‘capturing the medical image {6, 10, 16, 17, 39}. in [5], technique has been developed that utilizes: the Fuzzy Genetic method for identifying the suiale composi fiers and, for eliminating the 2 sprngerMates Tos ed Apeatins impulse noise. in paper {22}, comparative analysis has ben done among Hybrid Mesian File, Weiner Fier, Bilseral Fiter, Wavelet irusform, and independent Coraponest Analysis. tn 42} an AMEWNM és introduced for improving the image sinilariy. Apart from MRI image noise ‘removal, saltand pepper noise removal methods arc also discussed [49]. A filtering scheme depends ou LMMSE noise and signals mamurcof Rian images ant ME magninade were implemented in {4}. Simulations utitizing beth real and syndic images 4), which implics thatthe original image canstrection can be mainiined while nying to suppress noise. An enancod noaloeal means filer ‘was intoduced for ME noise removal."The nn local means filler euces noise by compusing the ‘weighted pisel average inthe global region. {n [72 an RBFAM fit was proposed forthe reduction of high pulse noise. The eshancad type of the AMF is REAM, waich can maintain denis ofthe image mere efbtively than AME, can keep detail ofthe iage clover than AME ‘while tying to suppres salt & pepper nose. FAMFAMP techique [25] has been soggesta for redacing the noise in MRL images. ‘Acanrding to the study. diffrent methods are ised for segmenting the images of brain tumors [74]. In (55, 63] hitogram-based and in [68], Otsu ‘s approach-basod segmentation ‘was proposed. In threshold-based segmentation, scpmentation is based on the threshold valu. Howeser, thee is risk of under-segmentation and over-seementation wien choosing the ‘wrong threshold value [27]. Another method is basod on clastering, Kmeans and FCM are offen used for segmertation [41]. A few aber hybrid verons ofthe clustering algortn have also been proposed far achicving the best performance [34, 44,69}. However, itis dificult for selocting the clusters in the Kmeans and centroids in FCM. Regional segmentation is a technique for identifying the region directly [77]. Watershed ‘method uso in [94], bat te region-based segmentation i sensitive to noise. Semantic segmen- tation isthe les trend segmentation method hasod on a dcop leaming algorithm [11]. few coe sophisicatad powerful architooures wore aio discussed inthe following papor (31,50, $3] and [2!}. Getting infermation fiom the sezmeniod image is fature extraction. Widely shape, ‘wavelet, GILCM, and intensty-based methods are usod fer featur extraction [$5] ‘Feature sslection provides the mest relevant information from the extracts results. Many contributions are proposed forthe selection of image festurc[15,29, 40}. Broadly, principal component analysis (PCA) methods sed feaure sclecion {12, 47). Kemal "CA advanced version of PCA bocause it handles only the linar data, but KPCA handles the nonlinear data al, However, the drawback of KPCA is the selection of the kernl. At the Gaussian kernel point, tbe Gaussian distribation is influenced by the cheice of sigma values. So, it affects the Gaussian kere! and the KPCA efficiney. To improve the performance of KPCA, MLE: based KPCA is proposed. Several machine leaming [26, 81] approaches have been used for tumor classification, such as SVM (2,20, 21), decision we (51, linear dineriminate analysis (57), random forest [52]. and naive bayes [61] 3 Proposed methodology ‘he general workow is exhib i Fig, ‘he proc sa Glows: Lhe proosing Noir Kemal, lL Segmentatin, IV. Feature extacion, V. Feat soca, and VI. Classification. tn thissady fs, 3015 MRL sian image was used. na, Bris 2015 a nis dat, 0 oes isin aificaly. The fst stage isthe pre-processing stage Imagesize brighmesand contrast cchanezment arc done thmugh preprocesing. The sozod stage isthe aoe removal. oe the czaticain of sit ponper nos a mf tcaive median itr (MIGME)txiniqu is propose D SpringerMua Tks wd Appar FeaturoFtraetlow Novelteratne ) Seve MEERA Rend se, sed Fete ‘wen nena mee Narva 1 1 Cimefeationy Machine Learing Deep earang sed nase ‘eamentton a (Heer eaming bs - Pretrial gti) a “Senne Fig 1 Oven work Fw “The VGG16 architsemo is (23. 38) iilized forthe seementation of the affected part fram the noise removed image. The fourth stage is feature exiraction where the Gray Level ‘Cooccurrence Matrix (GLCM), shape, and discrete wavelet ransform (DWT) methods are used. The next stage is feature selection. The maximum likelihood estimation (MLE}-based ‘kernel principal component analysis (KPCA) methodology is propased for selecting the most appropriate feauures from the caus extracted outcome. Finally, ve classifier is used for categorizing whether it is. benign or malignant, low or high-grade by using on machine learning mechanisms such as decision tree, random forest, SVM, and naive Bayes. 3.1 Noise removal stage Generally, he noise removal stage contains two stop, One isthe maize detection and the other ‘one is noise removal. 3.1.1 Noise detection stage = ft, if Blx,») noisy snmn={hy yt eige ” ‘were B(x,y) and (x,y) represent the input image and noise detcted image. At the noise detection stge, the maximum imnsity value (Le, 295) denows the salt noise and the 2 sprngerMates Tos ed Apeatins ‘minimam intensity value (Le., 0) denotes the pepper noise: Other levels of intensity are considered as noise-ttoe pixels. However, the maximum intensity and minimam iatcasty levels are not alwayés assumed to be noise: they are determined by the values of adjacent neighbors (the correlation of afjacent neighbors). While the pixel intnsity level is 255 or appronimatcly, the piscl intensity level is considered to be noise-fcc. Akcrnaively, ifthe piscl Tape Saks muge B00 9) eat p as Pinole Finaleaecome Fay sion 3) eck wun phatana sive arp 100) a Ravers Bilan Die) Peay) © medion( 6) Fig. 2 Poposst Nowe Hemoval Suge (MIME) D springerMua Tks wd Appar imensity level is not 25S and the average neighbor level is wot 255, then the pixel intensity level is considered as noise. In Hike manner, if the pixel intensity level is 0 or approximately, the pixel imensity level is considered to be noise-five- Ifthe pixel intensity evel ix 0 and the average neighborhood level is not 0, the pixel intensity level is considered noise, 3.1.2 Noise removal stage Figure? illasrates the propose noise removal stage In thenoise removal sage, the sarting sizeof the window is considered as[3 »]_Iniially the sclecid piel is verified that whether itis noisy or noise-fce. Ifthe pixel is a noise ee means, tht selected input pix! is weatod to be a processed peel. Otherwise, window pixel values (N) are arranged in ascending order and stored in, The adjacent pixel is checked and divided ino groups First group is considered as G. Ifthe size of Gis an odd mears take a median of Gand save as processed pixel else repeat the duplicated value once again and inserted into G vector. I the duplicated value is absent means, set the nearest noise-free pixel and included to the G yeotr. The modian of G istaken andthe processed pixel is saved. This bcess is repoatet untl geting s noise-free pixel. The window size is increased each timeas 3,5, 7....,upto L. Final processed image is considered 2s noise remaved image. ‘output, Detect Stage: [Nok piel detction is dose hy asingaquiton 1 ‘alne Removal Porter Take ks window ese) ptt chan 255) sot ri them (Le, ie) pe vt P 8 +5ort the pixel value m ascenting order. [Chek the ascent pine ferences 1F|0(0 ~ D{U+ 1)| >, fnew oll tween DG) and DE 1) ip secof ihe g ol ALAN median of © Pie Repeat the duplicated whe inert nt the vst: Ifa depicted ye bse rein oth rest nfo pla nad wd thy 0 vet RWsp) > medlanof @ Enalf pat En for End for Now, oasider Ry thar the soisy image does steps 1 eain set the k sale as Arches Lil 9G 9) in at 0. The rR igs noe rem te 2 sprngerMates Tos ed Apeatins 32 Segmentation Gonerally, segmentation is usa for extracting the affected arva from the image. Here, the VGGI6 architecture is utilized for segmentation [$4]. Sistocn in VGGIG relates the 16 layers ‘with weights. This architecture includes a convolution layer (size ofthe filter is [3 « 3], stride is | and the same padding), «| max-pooling layer (size of the filter is [3% 3], stride is 2). This configuration of convolution and max poo! layers is continuoas unerly the ctie structure. At the end of the architcctare, there are 2 filly connected layers accompanied by Softmax for output. The ouput layer guesses the number of classes from the previous layer (fully connected layer). A typical ouput layer must follow the Softmax layer. VGG 16 is a pre- trained architecture using ImageNt datassts."Thorefore, with the help of transfer learning, the Bats damsets should be ro-tnined again. owever, the last layer of traditional VGGI6 architecture isthe classification output layer. The output layer gives a 1 X | size ouput, but 2.256 * 2S6sizo is require! for scementaton. This is not possible with the eassificaton ouput layer. Instead of ‘classification output” layer, “pixclClassificationLayer’ is added. PixelClssificatonL ayer constructs 2 pixel classifieation output layer for semantic segmerma- tion networks. Its utlizd for calculating the overlap region between seemented and ground truth: images. IC gives each pixel 2 categorical label. Training parameters are as follows: epoetis=100, eaming nte:0.001, buch size—40. The layer naturally avoids undefined pixel labels at the time taining. In the test stage, the images are segmented with the help of this newly trained model. ‘The segmentation performance analysis discussed in Section 4. The layer details are given. in Table 1 able 1 VGGIG tap details S.No yon Sis Aetiaton, 1 Tage aoa 2 Convolution aatcos Raw 3 Casvolutio arses Rel 4 Mix pontine 2a Pst 5 Carrot 12a 28 Rea “ Comin net e128 Ra 5 ‘Max pootin Sas6056 x Const Sixsi256 Ra 9 Const Siastn56 Ral 10 Comoe Sastre Rl ‘Mx pooling, Bak? Convo peers Rel Conon 2k 12 Rel, Comet mates Re ‘Max pooling Como a Cavveltin Rou. Carrol Ra Max pooling ally cone ily comectad ‘Sofie Pissiclaseation D SpringerMua Tks wd Appar 3.3 Features extraction 33.1 Gray level co occurrence matrix ‘Segmented image valuable Rauures Were extracted by the GLCM [28] method, where ccxtmcts the second order statistical features by measuring the relationship between x and pixels. The coherence matrix is generally calculated based on two parameters, the comparative distance between the pair of pixels d,and theirolative orientation measured in piel number For general, four directions (e-2,0, 45, 90, and 135) degree are determined, even though many ‘ter combinations are possible [50]. In this work, a set of 19 textural features [3,28, 64] that can he obtained fom each co- occurence ray level matrix 1. Extrapy Entropy isan estimation of votaility corelated witha random variable. Entropy inthe senseof information is an unpredictable factor. Its given by. EntropySSs Nim, bYOR{ Sings b)) ‘where Sig(t,6) is segmented image. 2. Exergy: Encrgy is utilized to define the amount of data when ccnstructing a function within probabilistic system, such as the estimation of MAP along with Markov random fielés. It is ‘fen a negative move that needs to be decreased and sometimes a postive scp. Itis given by Ermergy EE Sim ab 3. Contrast (Contrast isthe difference between the image's ight and dark areas In addition, contrast affects ‘our ability w see information in an image. {r& given by Conrast EEE A Sig (a0) 4. Correlation (Corfetaton is hase function that helps users yet information flom images Its given by ELEA(e 14s)(O Hp Sime) oxy Correlation = and o represent the mean and variance. 2 sprngerMates Tos ed Apeatins 5. Homogencity (Inverse Difference Moment) Ifthe weights decrease from the diagonal the result wll bea slight variation forthe windows. Homogeneity ~ S57! Sime(dsb) 6 Variance ‘The variation map of an image 1s computed by taking the square window around a cental pixel ofa sot size and is given by Variance EE (ab Sig (a,b) 7. Inverse Difference Moment (Le., IDM): This ica calculation of the texture of an image. The IDM varies from 0.0 fora heavily extuted image to 1.0 for an image without texture. The equation to discover an IDM is Simla) ou — pile & Dissimilarity {nis an estimate ofthe distanee among sets of pixels in the area of interest. Biesindtarny — "3" Sela ako 9. Cluster Prominence Prominence = 5 (a 4-15" SimelasA) 10, Cluster Shade Shade = EEA te Hs)’ Simg tb) 11. Difference Variance DifferenceVariance = varianceef Sing... 12. Difference Entropy Diperencetnropy =~ Sn 8 See D SpringerMua Tks wd Appar 13. Information Measure of Correlation 1 (Le., IMC1) HAY HAY MON anf IX HY) 14, Information Measure of Correlation 2 (Le, IMC2) IMC 1 = (I-exp)-2.0(HXY2-HXY)))! Where HAY ——ESsSimg(t, b)0g(Simg(@s4)) 15, Sum Entropy Sumbnerop) = — ¥ Sime y(t B Some) } 16 Sum Avernge saints = Sasi. fA) 17. Sam Varance SumVariance = (i Sutnwopy)? Siaes,s\d) 18, Sum of Square Variance SumofSquareariance = ¥¥ (ap) Slt) 19, Maximum Probability MasimumPribatiy — max (Sa) 23.2 Shape features Visual repeesentitions of structures are called shape featurs [13]. Here area, equivalent diumeter. and perimeter are estimate 1 Area The area is the numeral of pixels in a region. wuivalent Diameter 2. ‘The diameter ofthe circle ofthe same arta (A) of the aa is tetumed as a measure 2 sprngerMates Tos ed Apeatins 3. Perimeter ‘The perimeter isthe pixel count ut the boundary of the area. It s caleuated by Perimeter ="! 9, = where B isa boundary list and isthe distance. 3.3.3 Discrete wavelet transform The wavelet transform [67] is used to examine different image frequencies using different levels. The DWT mahod is most commonly used for extracting featues 2D DWT extract 4 sub-hands, namely LL, HH, FL. and Li, with the 2-Level wavelet dacomposition of the region ofimcxst. 4 Result analysis This section gives the comparative analysis of results and the discussion. Tables 2 and 3 copes the low-grade and high-grade noisy image and noise removed image of brain tumor repectvely Tables 2and 3 shows the oie added image with various percentages, and the corespon- ing nose removed image using MIGME. From the Tables 2 and 3, iti leary visible that a denoised image can te obiained using MITME, even from severely affected image Figures 3, 4 and 5 provides comparison analysis ofthe proposed technique with existing MitL noise moval methods such as HIMRF [49], TSE [71], and ACCPRA [75)- From the Fig. 3.itisknown thatthe ropesed technique achieves higher PSNR while comparing with costing methods even in the level of high-density noise (90%). The PSNR value of the poposcd method is approsinuely 17-40% higher than HMRE, 3.21% greater than TSF and 487% more than ACCPPRA. Figure 4 shows that ihe proposad MIGIMF mthod offers lower MSE compared to the existing methods. The proposed muthod's SSIM value in fig. Sis agproximately achicyes 7.3% impeovement when conparal 9 IMKF, 189% when con pared w TSP, and3,92% than ACCHPRA technique Tables 4 and 5 shows the results of PSNR and SSIM for various salt and pepper nose semoval appeoachos. From the analysis itis clear thatthe proposed MIGME yielde beter PSN and SSIM value when compared 1» 1GME. “The comparison of proposed technique with various salt and pepper noise removal fies is ‘eprossnted in both Figs 6 and The proposd MIGME method's PSNR value is approxi smatly 9.66% prater than IGM [19] sults, 13.69% more than FAL [9], 24.44% higher than ADWME [35] and 45.814 gretce than AWME {30}. “The high- an low-grade image SIM comparison with the propose and various sat and Pepper noise removal filters is shown in Figs. 8 and 9. The SSIM value of the proposed MIGME method is approsimay 3.88% more than the IGMF resuls, 719% higher than EAHDE, 127% better than ADWME, and 15.98% greater than AWNE- igure 10a, band d represents low-prde input segments and ground truth images and Fig 10, cand f represents the high-grade input, segcme! and ground rah images. D SpringerMee Tks rd Apsatior Tile 2 Low-grade bin tamer noise and oi remove age (san Pepper) MIGMF L) oe 2) mm Scgmentation performance comparison i given in Fig. 11 foe different dep learning sttuctues. VGGI6 provides better accumcy when compared to Resnet, Alexnet and CNN [30, 23] which és shown in Fig. 115. Compared to Resnet 66}, Aleanct [81] and CNN, VGGI6 VGG6 architecture is utilized in provides barter performance, as shown in Fig. 11h, Henc this work for segmetation purpose The KPCA features selection method used. Fig. 12a and b indicates the classification trsning and wst performance comparison wilt various machine learning methods. From the analysis, it is cloar that the SVM offers better clasification performance campared ty other machine learning methods tn nature SVM is best for binary classification B springie Tol eel Aptis Tale 3 High rade brain ter noi und nie rove image (Salt & Pepper) e) 0% 3) sm s| om Figures 139 and b, indicates the classification ofthe tmining and testing using the propossd MLE-KPCA selection method, Here also, SVM offers the best performance when cotter techniques. Figure 14, represeats the performance af PCA and propostd technique KPCA and MLE KPCA performance ane computed using SVMLrom the resalts, itis clearly visible thatthe proposed technique achieves 383% increased accuracy, 3.99% improvement in sensitivity, 33% cise precision when compared w KPCA. npr to increment in specificity and 4.02% D springerMua Tks wd Appar Pou igh Grade wi iy sePopd AMS SF gatcrrnt Fg. 3 Comprison ofthe PSNE veh proposed MIGMI, HMRE, TSE, and ACCPPRA, 4.1 PSNR, Peak Signal o-Noise Ratio (ie, PSNR) [19] indicted a relationship Between an input and the reconsucte image in toms af decibels rrex SeaTe (Blab) Rady) oF © expres the row ane cola oF the ge. PSNR = 10 og wna * = ro a ro ” e wee tes. Ea Eo = see Fig. 4 Comparison ofthe MSE wi pmposed MIGME, HNIC, TSE, and ACCPPRA 2 sprngerMates Tos ed Apeatins (Pout Gente wi iy sePopd AMS SF gatcrrnt Fig. 5 NC Comparson of the SIM withthe proposed MICME, HME, TSE, and ACCPPRA, ‘able 4 PSNR Ae SSIM wala various apres an Linde lage Noi Densityin 10% 30% SE TUE 10K SOE SOS OE PSNR in dB SSIM in Proposed 4251 40S 3414 SRS SSOL VAS ISN WAL HO TI kM 4070 36-42 3sl0 3293 970 KD 9TH 7S 9563 FAHPE 3078 3 308 728 92 MM MS 9452 912 ADwM BAI 3135 DSK Meas 77S GAD SIT AS 234 WMP 2077279) 249 IK T_ISNS ORK LTH WIM S12 42 SsIM ‘he stnictura similarity index (.e., SSIM) evaluates the unity between 2 images. One of the images comparing the SSIM code can be soon 2s an amount of quality. while the ther image is considered to be of perfect quality. {76} Tales 1 ie SSIM ralucs of varius aproaches on Hit-Crde Image Neue Demy in % 0G 30 SUE TO TOE SOE SUS TOE OR SNR in a Prost 2 46 825 KT BN ous Ss HAD kame 408) 3653 359" 3ST SOE ON HRSA 979K FALE IHG 459 BTL Mol RH 992 Sa5— 981 AOWM 32s SiMe MA) 2656 T7NG GOS SZE_—9354 AWM BONG 2414 25k IKI 16M 9479245 HOST D springerMua Tks wd Appar sas «6 8 * s 10 6 10 5 ° WK som mam ise Deeity aPropened NCMF TA mw ADWar = AWE Fig 6 HG Compara of the PSNR with proposal, IGM, FAHPE, ADWMIE, and AWM eon 4 €,)%2 bv, Ca) *(55 + 5, 4G) Where Cy = (KIM)? and Cs = (KM)? ‘Constant and C, calculated with dynamic range, M=255, Al = 0.01, 420.08. ep and = = = Fig. 9 HC Campurson of the SSIM withthe propose GME, FANPE, ADWME, and AWMF D Springerteed Aplatons (e) (0) ig: 10 Low grade np ag, ih gra pata kw grade goto mae ow grade grown ‘th image, e high-grade Sop imag, and haga ound th imac 44 Classification performance metrics Common classification performance metrics [36] ate accuracy, specificity, sensitivity, F Measure, and procision. Wefore computing, we nood to find true positive (Le. TP), false positive (ic, FP), true negative ic. TN), andl ise negative (ie., FN) TP he exe o8s of positive class labels is known as TP. TW Likewise, exact guess of negative class labels is known as TN. FP ‘The false prediction of postive clas labels is known as FP. FN Sinilacy, false prodicion of negative class labels is known as FN. B springMates Tos ed Apeatins emer z Zw i FS Fy wo a 2% 70% ve ast Boy fa) 1 — sme, sey Seoty AVOETE sree satemt 0 (b) Fig 11 a Lowe grié Segmental ips Acura compare with VOU CN 13, Po ramet 79) wean} 71] ad ‘Segmented Porormunce comyarsen wit VGCIG [70 ssc [7 ween [71] and CNN [73 4A Accuracy 442 Sensitivity su —_1P Tp | Fa D springerMua Tks wd Appar oe 1% ” 50 = al in es essstasaé (b) Fig 12 2 Clasifiction Training Potirmance comparison with Vatioat michine lansing approahes-wih PCA Gamres sclecton, b Cassfianon Testi Parfomance coeparson with varios machine lari ‘hatindewitt KPCA faites ection 443 Specificity te invip Spec AAA Precision tp “Tp Fp 2 sprngerMates Tos ed Apeatins ve Zu iw ‘ — tay alten cei ott aie ow (a) _ ye i. — an ) Fig. 13 Clifton raining Pevemance ecpars wit various machin: Inns meio with MLE PCA (uur scion, b Cussiasion Tesing Priomaunce comuren wih vans: Machin leaning ayproacis “with MLE-KPCA fears cleo AAS Fmeasure Pre Sen F- Measure =2 5 Conclusions Inthis work, a modified iterative groping median fiter forthe removal of sat & pepper noise is proposed and MLE-based KPCA is proposed for feature selection. Segmentation is D springerMua Tks wd Appar Seumicy —Prtsan ‘armen reeaeszaad ae Fg: 14. Clasianon ising scuray compnsen wid) SVM wig RECA and MLECKICA fame slecton vcd seit performed using VGG16, feature exraction fas been dene using GLCM, shape and wavelt- ‘based techngques. Finally, the clssification i perfomed using ML algorithms (DT, SVM, KE, and NI). From the result analysis, i & visible that the proposed technique attained 25% improvement in terms of PSNR, 10% increment in tems of SIM, attuned 3.83% enhance- ‘ment in accuracy, 3.99% improvement in sensitivity, 3.75% increased specificity and 4.02% improvement in precision when compared to state-of-the art techniques. Future work In our next work, aiming to design a lightweight VGG16 architecture for seducing computational tine. Though SVM is best for binary classification, fire work has ‘more than two classes, we are planning to design an improved classification model. References 1. 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