Books QQ BE co Bates wien ome <> Plastics and Fibres — 13.1. Definition of plastic. 13.2, Constituents of plastics. 13.3. Classification of plastics thermoplastic materials - thermosetting materials. 13.4. Properties of plastics. 13.5. Shortcomings of plastics. 13.5. Uses of plastics, 13.7. Trade names and typical applications of some imporiant plastics. 13.8. Commercial forms of plastics ~ plastic sheets - plastic rites — plastic laminates = plastic panels ~ plastic pipes. 13.9. Manufacturing processes - casting - moulding — laminating ~ blowing - calendering — machining and cementing. 13.10. Fibre glass reinforced plastic. 13.11. Polymerfplastic coatings. 13.12. Deformation of plastics. 13.13. Testing of plastics. 13.14. Machining of plastics. 13.15. Advanced polymeric materials. 13.16. Behaviour of polymers. 13.17. Fibres. Highlights ~ Objective Type Questions ~ Theoretical Questions. 13.1 DEFINITION OF PLASTIC + Aplastic can be broadly defined as any non-metallic material that can be moulded 1o desired shape. *+ The most common definition for plastics is that they are natural or synthetic resins, or their compounds, which can be moulded. extruded, cast or used as films or coatings. — Most plastics are of organic nature composed of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. — The synthetic plastic development dates from 1900 when Dr. Beekland announced the production of phenol formaldehyde. Since then several new plastics have been developed. — In order to give desired properties to the finished plastic articles, certain moulding compounds like fillers, plasticizers, solvents, pigments etc. arc added. — The basic raw materials used in the manufacture of plastics are generally obtained from the following natural substances: @ Coat (i) Petroleum (i) Limestone iv) Salt (9) Sulphur (i) Air (vi) Water (viii) Cellulose from coton and wood. — Inthe field of building construction, plastics have been found very useful fora variety of purposes «.g. fittings, fixtures, structural component parts, etc. 13.2. CONSTITUENTS OF PLASTICS ~ ‘AS earlier stated that the basic raw materials for producing plastics are obtained from coal, petroleum, air and water, A moulding composition for plastics is prepared from the following raw ‘material groups: aw23 Added toad wre rete ME Books aa BF 38 Engineering Materials 4 Binder. Binders may beeither resins (syntheti or natural) or cellulase derivatives (polymeric compounds) chemically both kind of materials may be describedas substances made up ofcompounds of very large molecular weight. 7. Fillers. The materials added 1o the plastics to improve their mechanical properties and to sake them economical are called ‘fillers’. These are powder, fibrous and laminated fillers (i), Powder fillers: Quartz powder, chalk, talcum and organic substances| (ground saw dust). | Thu fillers improve hardness, durability, heat resistance and acid resistance of plastics and reduce cost ii) Fibrous filers: Asbestos, wood wool, saw dust and plas fibres. «They increase strength reduce britleness and enhance thermal resistance and impact strength of plastics. “in. Laminated filer: Paper, cotton and fibre glass cloths, asbestos, card board and wood veneer. «Trey increase mechanical strength of plastics. Asbestos and cardboards also increase heat and acid resistance properties. 43.Plastlclzers. The chemicals added to plastics 1o make them soft to Improve thelr toughness aufinished srageand tomake them flexible are called plasticlzers. A plasticizer should be chemically inert, non-volatile and non-toxic. Common plasticizers are: Vegetable oils, aluminium stearates and dibutyl phshalate and camphor. 4. Colouring matler: This is usualy inthe form of pigment and dyes and often added to monomers and gives the required colour tothe plastics. The colouring matter shouldbe durable and adequately fast to light. Commonly used dyes are: Organic (AZO dyes, anthraquinone vat dyes) and mineral pigments . (ochre, chromium oxide and ultramarine). 5. Lubricants. Common lubricants are: Mosallic soaps and stearates. + They facilitate moulding operation by increasing the flow of plastic mix inthe dic and also prevent sticking of plastic to moulds. 6. Catalysts. These compounds are added to accelerate the chemical reaction during the process of polymerisation of plastics. These compounds also act as hardeners and accelerators. Polymers and Polymerisation ‘The polymers are composed of a large number of repeating wits (small molecules) called monomers. A polymer is, therefore, made up of thousands of monomers joined together to form a {urge molecule of colloidal dimension, called macromolecule. The wnique feature ofa polymer is that cach molecule i either a long chain or network of repeating units all covalently bounded together. Tn some eases, molecules are held together by secondary bonds. "The process of linking together of monomers is called polymerisation. The need to start with the process of polymerisation lies on Ut necessity of breaking the double bond (C=C) of the monomers. ‘This requires considerable energy. Polymerization mechanisms may be of the following two types: 1. Addition polymerisation 2. Condensation polymerisation. 1, Addition polymerisation: This polymerisation process is of simplest form. When a large number of simple molecules are chemically added together o increase the average molecule size without wastage, process of edition polymerisation takes place. Such a polymerisation takes place by three steps namely. (1) Initiation (i) Chain propagation and (ii) Termination. Example. Addition polymerisation of ethylene (Fig. 13.1).Books QQ BBR © Gasewmre witewe rem: > Plastice and Fibros 315 ‘Once polymerisation process is initiated, it does not continue indefinitely since itis impossible to link all the monomers in a plastic ane long continuous chain. The polymerisation is terminated by collision between the active ends of two chains or by addition of a terminator, such as free radicals from the catalyst. Copolymerization. Itis another type of addition polymerisation Copolymerization is the addition polymerisation of two or more chemically different monomers. Many monomers will not polymerise with themselves but will copolymerise with other compounds. Copolymerisation has been applied extensively, in the artificial rubbers. ‘Monomer tem HOH H HH Io I ototit ri TIT H H HH H chy = Ch ~CHh- CH (CH CH”), Fig. 13.1, Addition polymerisation. 2. Condensation polymerisation: Condensation polymerisation is defined as the process of linking together of unlike monomers accompanied by splitiing off a small molecule. This process usuaily requires a catalyst. In comparison to addition reaction in which as siraple molecular sursmation occurs, condensation reactions result in splitting out of simple monopolymerisable molecules, e.g. water which are considered tobe by-products of the process. Thus when 1 phenol and formaldehyde monomers are polymerised, water is released, and the resulting product is polymerised phenol formaldehyde, more commonly known as Bakelite. Comparison between Addition and Condensation polymerisation S.No. Addition polymerization ‘Condensation polymerisation 1. Itrequires molecules which arc unsaturated, Itrequires two unlike molecules. 2. Itdoes not yield a by-product. It yields a by-product. 3. Reaction is very fast and may take 10?t0 ‘Reaction normally takes hours and days 10% sec. tocomplete. 4. Itis kinetic chain reaction. Itinvolves inter-molecular reaction, 133 CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS Most commonly, plastics, are classified into, |. Thermoplastic, and 2. Thermosetting. ‘Thermoplastic materials are those which soften on the application of heat, with or without pressure and require cooling 10 be set to a shape. ‘They can be heated and cooled any number of times, only they should not be heated above theit decomposition temperatures. © They are main long chain straight or slightly branched molecules and the chains are held Engineering Materials © They have low melting temperatures and are not so strong as the thermosetting plastics. © Since they can be repeatedly used. they have a resale value. ‘© Some commercial thermoplastics are : Polythene, Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Polystrene, Polytetrafluroethylene (PTEE) etc. . ‘Thermosetting materials are those plastics which require hear and pressure 10 mould them into shape. ‘© They cannot be resofiened once they have set and hardened. © They are ideal for moulding into components which require rigidity, strength and some resistance to heat ‘© In general, resins formed by condensation are thermosetting. © Thermosctting resins have three-dimensional molecular structure and have very high molecular weights. © Due to cross-linking thermosetting resins are hard, tough, non-swelling and brittle. Hence they cannot be sofiened or remoulded as in the case of thermoplastic resins. Moulding and casting are the processes often used with such materials. . © Some important commercial examples of this type are : Phenolics, Polyesters, Expoxies, Silicones etc, ‘The difference berween thermoplastic and thermosetting materials may be explained in terms of molecular structure. The thermoplastics are essentially long chain macromolecules with a limited number of cross links. When heated and compressed, the chains glide over each other and fluid materials take the shape of any mould in which they are placed. The thermosetting plastics are characterised by strong cross links between the chains; once these are formed by heat and pressure, the plastics set to a rigid infusible solid, Difference between Thermosetting Thermoplastic materials Thermosetting materials 1. They have three dimensional network of primary covalent bonds with cross-linking between chains. 2. They are more stronger thermoplastic resins. 3. Once hardened and set they donot soften with the application of heat. 4. Objects made by thermosetting resins can be used at comparatively higher temperature without damage. nd harder than 5. They arc usually supplied in a monomeric or partially polymerized form in which they are either liquid or partially thermoplastic solids. 6. Itis difficult to fill an intricate mould with such plastics. 7, They cannot be recycled. Uses: Telephone receivers, electric plugs radio & TV cabinets, camera bodies, automobile parts, cireuit breaker switch panels etc. Plastics and Fibres Thermoplastic materials ‘They are linear polymers without cross- linking and branching. ‘They are comparatively softer and less strong. ‘They can be repeatedly softened by heat and hardened by cooling. Objects made by thermoplastic resins cannot be used at comparatively higher ‘temperatures as they will tend to soften under heat. They are usually supplicd as granular materials. ‘They can fill the complicated mould quite easily. ‘The scrap of these plastics can be recycled again and thus they are economical. Uses : Toys, combs, toilet goods, photographic films, insulating tapes, hoses, electric insulation, etc. a7Books QQ BFR co Gatedwmen wien rene > oe Plastics and Fibres 317 13.3.1. Thermoplastic Materials Important thermoplastic materials are described here under : 1. Polyethylene or polythene (C,H,), ‘This material originated in England was produced commercially in the United States in 1943. Polyethylenes are obtainable as various liquids, gums and tough flexible solids suitable for moulding. Properties : (i) They are wax like in appearance, translucent, odourless and one of the lightest plastics. (ii wide temperature range. Wid ity and dielectric strength. iv) Chemically resistant. (¥) Do not absorb moisture, (vi Dielectric losses and dielectric constant are low. (vil) They are relatively low in cost. Uses: (High voltage (upto 30 kV) applications. (i) Coaxial cables. (iid) Packaging. (iv) Moisture proofing. (v) Coating ice-cube trays. (vi) As insulation in submarine cables and radar lines. (vii) Lining for lagoons to avoid seepage of polluted water into the underground. (viii) Fan and blower casing (gas filled polythene) (ix) Pipes and tanks for water storage. ‘Two types of polyethylene are manufactured depending upon the condition of polymerisation. (a) High density polyethylene (HDPE) (6) Low density polyethylene (LDPE) (a) High density polyethylene (HDPE) : © This is obtained by low pressure polymerisation process. © Ithas specific gravity 0.96 and softening temperature 120-130°C. ant H H y ucsc) —#e_, —c—c—c—c-) | Pelymerisation Ito HH HH OH OH Ettylene Polyethylene Typical properties of HDPE are given in Table 13.1. (6) Low density polyethylene (LDPE) : © This is obtained by high pressure process. «© Ithas specific gravity 0.90 and softening temperature 86°C. © Polythene is prone to degradation and embrittlement by sunlight due to cross linking but performance can be improved by addition of black pigments such as carbon black, which absorbs rays and prevents damage. © Underground polythene is not affécted by salts in the soil and has excellent resistance tosalts and bacteria. However, it is attacked by strong acids. It is a good electrical insulator. © Polythenes, in particular LDPE, have high permeability to gases; they are therefore, not considered for gas service.Books co Casita mes 318 Engineering Materials 2. Polyvinylchloride (PVC): © This is the cheapest and most widely used plastic. @ The vinylchlorides are formed from hydrochloric acid, limestone and natural gas or coal, ‘The forms of vinylchloride are almost unlimited. © tis manufactured by addition polymerisation of vinylchloride. Polymerisation is carried out in the presence of catalyst. © Itisdifferent from polyethylene. In PVC one in four hydrogen atoms is replaced by achlorine atom, hence it has greater rigidity, The reaction is indicated below : aCH,=cH ‘4 _, (_cH,—CH—), Fetymeristion 1 a a @ PVC can be manufactured in expanded or cellular form. It is available in two forms namely (flexible and rigid. \tcan be easily extruded and moulded into the desired form. The joints are ‘obtained by solvent welding. Properties : (The flexible types are strong, tear resistant, and have good agcing propertics. (Gi) The rigid types have good dimensional stability, and are water resistant. They are resistant to acids and alkalies. (iif) Itis attacked by aromatics and soluble in ketones and esters. {iv) Its resistance to impact invariably deteriorates with time. (W) Ttbecomes soft beyond 80°C. (vi) Itis sclf extinguishing when ignited and the source of flame removed. (vil) The hard type of PVC is formulated with less plasticizer than the general purpose grade and shows less tendency to Now at high temperature which isan advantage when the cables are to be laid in very hot surroundings. (viii) Although its clectrical properties are not so good as those of rubber, it offers more resistance (o oxygen, azone and sunlight. (i) PVC has a tendency to decompose when it is heated or exposed to sunlight with the liberation of hydrochloric acid gas. A small amount of lead salt, lead silicate or lead stearite is blended into the polymer at the compounding stage to prevent the same. ‘The properties of PVC (flexible) are given in Table 13.1. Uses: (A) Cable jackets. (ii) Lead-wire insulation. (ii) Rubber substitute. (iv) Fabric coating, (v) Rain water goods. (vi) Corrugated roofing. (vif) Flooring and ceiling panels. (vil) Gramophone records. (a) Cladding, (2) Pipes and fitings for water service (unsuitable for hot water service because of low softening point). Pages sat pa ern eck een320 ’ Engineering Materiais (i) Vacuum cleaner bodies () Washing machine parts (xi) Pipes, tanks, spray nozzles (xii) Radioand television cabinets. 4. Teflon or polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) : © The mer of PTFE is represented as CF, = CF, © PTFE is manufactured by addition polymerisation technique. Polymerisation is carried out under organic peroxide or oxygen as catalyst. TTetrsfluoroethylene Polyletrafleorocthyleae © Itcan be fabricated into desired shapes by hot processing and sintering the polymer powder. Properties : @ PTFE is completely inert, chemically (owing to the presence of strong carbon fluorine covalent bonds of extreme stability). (i) It is highly crystalline material and does not soften at high temperature (It retains its Strength upto + 300°C and -200°C). It loses its crystallinity on heating above 325°C, (iii) Ttis non-flammable. (iv) Itis transluscenvopaque in nature. (v) Ibis a good electrical insulator. (vi) Ithas very low coefficient of friction and it does not stick to other materials, (vii) Tthas excellent resistance to most chemicals and solvents. (viii) PTFE with 30% glass fibre filling has a much increased resistance to creep (and is therefore, used for gaskets and valve seats where good creep resistance is required). Other properties are given in Table 13.1. ‘Uses : (i) Non-stick coatings (i) Chemical pipes (id) Bearing bushes (iv) Piston rings (v) Anti-corrosive seals (v)_ High temperature electronic parts (vii) Mouldings in aircrafts (viii) Seals (x) Pipes () Gaskets (xi) Laboratory equipments (xii) Lining of chutes. 5. Polystyrene + ‘© Abigh strength plastic is oblained by addition polymerisation in presence of SnCl, catalyst. aCH, =CH ——Aéfe_, (cH, —cH—) 2 P - (—cH, 1), Styrene Polystyrene © It-can be toughened by mixing another polymeric material acrylonitrile butadiene to give _ ABS plastics. : Properties ; (i) Ithas good electrical properties and negligible water absorption. (ii) Hard and brittle. ' (iii) Low dielectric constant.Books ag co Gast mmes wren rms Plastics and Fibres sat (iv) High resistivis () Itis transparent in nature. (vi) Freedom from taste and colour and physiologically harmless nature makes polystyrene suitable for use in contact with food stuffs. (vil) Possesses excellent resistance to corrosive chemicals such as acids (except oxidising agents), alkalies and salt solutions. Uses : (0 Lenses (W Refrigerator-cabinet compounds (iid) Radar components (i) Electrical insulation (») Instrument panels (vi) Food containers (vi) Light fittings (vlif) Automobile dash blanks (é:) Office items like desk calendars, pen stands, trays etc, (2) Housewares like water jugs, mugs, tumblers, plates, trays etc, (i) Sheets and films for packaging. 6. Acrylics (Polymethyl methacrylate PMMA),: ‘They are the polymer of methyl methacrylate having trade name “perspex”. © PMMA is manufactured by addition polymerisation of methyl methacrylate in presence of a peroxide catalyst. CH, cH NCH, ab sien _, (CH, —O), l irmcrstion | COOCH coocH Methyl methacrylate Polymethy! methacrylate (PMMA) Properties : (0 Itis hard, rigid and transparent; it possesses high impact strength. (GO Itis attacked by acetone, petrol etc., but it is resistant to household chemicals. (di) Wis highly resistant to weathering. However, it is attacked by concentrated ids, but, not by alkalies. iv) Ithas low abrasion resistance and low softening temperature. (v) It is a good electrical insulator. (0 Sanitaryware Sheeting (iid) Sinks, baths (i) Display signs (v) Lenses (vf) Hospital equipment (vii) Roof lights and domes (vil) Aircraft light fixtures (a) Light weight garments ) Manufacture of fibres. 7. ABS (Acryloniiric butadiene styrene) : (0. ABS materials aro tough, hard and rigid. (Gi) They possess hard surface, dimensional stability, chernical resistance and heat resistance. (iid) They have low water absorption and resistance to creep or cold flow. (iv) They are unaffected by water, inorganic salts, alkalies and many acids. (0) They are soluble in ketones aldehydes, esters and some chlorinated hydrocarbons. Uses: : () Extruded sheets. (if) Extruded pipes. 322 Engineering MateriaBooks 2 Engineering Materials 32 qi Safety helmets, iv) Refrigerator lines. ; ; ” Poeive nd decorative housings for telephones, radios, business machines, portable appliances. _(vi) Electrical parts. 8B. Silicones = . . . hectic fi ic ingredi setof itcn and coke which are mixed and placed in an clectric FTA, Thebasic ingredients consist of Hien re ang materials, The her reactant fs methy! iliea is reduced to silicon, which is one of he oth th trove, prepered by ehlorinating methane gas. The two reactants are mixed in a reaction ata high temperature and moderate pressure, using copperas a catalyst. The desired products are thenhydrolysed ‘and condensed to form silicon polymers. @ They are a chemical hy! bee i and the ciabifity of inorganic products and the versatility of organ! ; Aa moulding compound they have good qualities and the ability to withstand high heat (upto 260°C). ; © ‘They are mechanically weak and have poor chemical resistance. ___ © They are water repellent. |" Uses : They are used as high heat resistant insulations. 9, Polyvinylidene chloride: Properties : (Acid resistant. Gi) Adequately tough. (iii) Non-flammable. (iv) Solvent resistant. materials. They have both Uses : (@ Seatcovers Gi) Belts and gaskets (iti). Woman fabrics (iv) Acid-resistant tubing. 10. Polyamides = © The general name of linear polyamides is nylon. It is produced by series of condensation reaction between an amine and organic acids. Nylon is produced from the condensation polymerisation reaction between hexaethylene diamine and adipic acid. In this process both the reactions, ie., hexamethylene diamine and adipic ‘acid contain six carbon atoms, thus the nylon so produced is called 6.6. For all nylons similar nomenclature is used. @ Nylon-6 is produced by self condensation caprolactam which is an amino acid with six carbon atoms. The condensation reaction takes place between the acid group at one side and amino group at other side of the same molecule. @ Nylon-11 is produced by self condensation of 11 amino undecanove acid with a linear monomer containing eleven carbon atoms. Nytoe-0 is produced by condensation reaction between. hexamethylene diamine and sebacic acid. Properties of nylon: (0) Alll nylons possess good abrasion resistance. (il) They are very tough and strong but flexible too. (iil) They possess high impact strength. (iv) They absorb water which causes reduction in stren; and ii ie () They are resistant to most of the solvents and Seetcaie ‘eect -_ (vi) They have very high softening temperatures and thus moulding becomes difficult.Books QQ BER MH > Gasnennt wine ome 6 > Oo ' Plastics and Fibres 323, Uses : (0 The main use of nylon isin the manufacture of fibre and yarn, ; (if) The nylonsare also used for moulding gears, valves, bearings, containersand electrical equipment. 11. Bitumen : © Itisthe oldest known plastic and was employed about 3000 B.C. = © Thebitumen plastics of to-day are made from biuminious products by mixing with a suitable filter, such as slate dust or asbestos in powder form. © They have good electrical insulating properties. «___ Uses: They have been used for battery-cell plugs, stoppers, electrical-mouldings of the cheaper class etc. 13.3.2. Thermosetting Materials Here follows the description of important thermosetting materials. 1, Phenol formaldehyde (PF) - “Bakelite”: © Asbestos, glass fibres, pigments and other additives can be added to improve its properties. Properties : () The colour range is limited to black or brown (however, it discolours on ageing by sunlight). (i) Itis strong. rigid and dimensionally stable. (iid, Wis resistant to heat, most chemicals and solvents. Uses : () Lavatory seats (i) Thermal insulation as cellular/foamed (iid) Paints and adhesives (Gv) Vacuum cleaner parts (v) Electrical pans (vl) Impregnants for paper and for mica (vif) Handles, knobs for domestic appliances. 2. Amine formaldehyde (Urea and melamine formaldehyde) : © These plastics are obtained by condensation of urea or melamine with formaldehyde. © These are highly cross-link polymers. © They can be compounded with fillers, of different colours. Properties : Their general properties are similar to formaldehyde, () Melamine has more resistance tochemicals, heat and moisture, However, these plastics are attacked by strong acids, . (i) Wisscratch free and more expensive, (iil) Whas better electrical properties. (iv) Iisslightly affected by the sunlight, Other properties are given in Table 13.2. Pigments and other additives to form moulding materials Uses = (Glues for plywood (ii) Cellulose and foamed products (dil) Paints (wv) Surface coating (¥) Adhesive (vd Plugs, switches, buttons etc,Books 62 Gtsetmmmed wien oe > Plastics and Fibros 325, + While handling epoxies, following precautions are necessary (because styrene can cause irritation and peroxide catalyst can cause skin irritation). — Nousc of inflammable solvents for cleaning: — No smoking, nonaked flame; — Proper ventilation of room; — Use of protective equipments like goggles. gloves cic. Uses: (i) They are used as an insulating material in cable-end boxes, cable joint boxes, instrument transformers etc. i) Epoxies are used asifor adhesive (Araldite) and jointing and repair work. (iii) They have also found considerable use as casting materials. 13.4 PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS ‘The plastics have a variety of significant propertics. The properties common to most plastics are given below: 1. Light weight. Low thermal conductivity. A wide range of colours. Resistance to deterioration by moisture. Low electrical conductivity. Fairly good resistance offered to attack by inorganic acids, bases and salts. Plastics in many cases are non-inflammable, self-extinguishing, and bum very slowly. ‘They are transparent, transluscent or opaque. ‘Good dimensional stability. 10. Good sound absorption properties. LL. Bad conductor of heat. 12. Good tensile strength. 13, Can be easily fixed in position. 14, Good resistance to peeling. 15. Lack ductility. 16. Quite durable. 17, Easy maintenance of plastic surfaces (do not require any protective coat of paints). 13.5. SHORTCOMINGS OF PLASTICS Following are the shortcoming/limizations of plastics: 1. Low heat resistance. 2 Notvery hard. wegrate gradually with the passage of time. Exhibit high creep. 5. High coefficient of thermal expansion. ear aveawn 13.6, USES OF PLASTICS ‘The typical uses of plastics in buildings are: 1. Electrical conduits 2. Electrical insulators: 3. Floor tiles 4. Sointless flooring 5. Decorative laminates and mouldings Bath and sink units 7. Foams for thermal insulation 8. Overhead water tanks 326 Engineering MaterialsBooks QQ BEA 6e Catena wien orem <> 326 . Engineering Materials 9. Roof lights 10. Wall tiles 1. Corrugated and plain sheets 12. Cistern ball floats 13, Lighting fiatures 14, Paints and varnishes. 15. Water resistance adhesives etc. 16. Pipes to carry cold water etc. 13.7. TRADE NAMES AND TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF SOME IMPORTANT PLASTICS A. Thermoplastics S.No. tial Type ‘Trade ‘Typical Applications 1. Acrylics Lucite, Plexiglas — Outdoor signs —Lenses — Transparent aircraft enclosures. 2. Nylons 2ytel, Plaskon — Handles — Bearings — Covers — Gears 3. Polyethylene ‘Alathon, Petrothene,Hi-fax — Tumblers — Ice trays —Toys —Frexible bottles 4. Polystrene Styron, Lustrex, Rexulite — Appliance housings — Battery cases — Wall tiles 5S. Polyster (PET) Mylar, Colanar, Dacron — Automatic tyre cores — Magnetic recording tapes —Clothing 6 Vinyls PVC, Tygon, Saran — Phonograph records —Floor coverings —Garden house. B. Thermosetting 7. Phenolics Bakelite, Resinox, Durez — Auto distributors —Telephones Motor housings 8 Silicones DC resins —Strips —Laminates —High temperature insulation 9% — Epoxies Araldite, Epon Adhesives —Electrical mouldings 10. Polysters Laminac, Selectron, paraplexco Gaatetw emt ween me <> 8 13.8 COMMERCIAL FORMS OF PLASTICS ‘The important commercial forms of plastics used for civil engineering purposes are described below: 138.1. Plastic Sheets (@ PVC (Polyviny! chloride) sheets: © PVC and its compounding ingredients are heated, masticated and then rolled into thin sheets between heated rollers. The sheets arc then annealed and after cooling, they are rolled. © PVC sheets (generally kept 1 mm for economic purposes) can resist the effects of grease, solvent etc, ‘© These should be I (i) Fabric-backed sheets: ‘© These are PVC sheets in which hession or felt is used for backing. © These sheets are suitable for foot-traffic in dry conditions. (ii) Polythene sheets: © They are rough and water-resisting; available in wide rolls and in varying thicknesses. © They are used for sheltering materials from rain on building site and toassist curing of concrete; * also used as temporary covering for window and door openings etc. (@) Corrugated plastic sheets : © They are light in weight and fire-resistant. © Employed for roofing purposes in public buildings and factories. 13.82, Plastic Tiles @ PVC tiles: © These tiles are used for flooring etc. (i) Fabric backed PVC tiles: © These tiles are used for paving floors in dry conditions. (Ui) Thermoplastic vinyl tiles: © These tiles are manufactured from a mixture of plasticised PVC, asbestos, limestone and pigments. © They are suitable for heavy foot traffic in dry as well as in wet conditions. ‘© They can be used both on wooden and concrete sub-floors. (é») Polystyene wall tiles: © They are suitable for lining of walls of high class buildings. 13.83. Plastic Laminates : ‘These are formed by impregnating sheets of fibrous materials such as paper, linen, canvas or sitk with a synthetic resin and then compressing the sheets together with application of heat. The synthetic resin may be phenolic resin, urea formaldehyde or a vinyl resin. The resins usually dissolved inalcohol. The materia! in roll form is immersed in the resin solution at atmospheric pressure and at room temperature and then run through a drier at 150°C. The rolls are next cut into sheets of given size, which are arranged into stacks. These stacks finally are compressed in a hydraulic press at about 170°C under pressure of 20 MN/m?. The sheets are thus bonded to one another. ‘Some of the important types of plastic laminates are: () Laminate bak (ii) Melamine-surfaced phenolic paper laminates (iii) Polyster paper laminate (iv) Corrugated phenolic-resin bonded paper laminates. only on dry surfaces, as they expand on being wetted.” 328 Engineering MaterialsBacks: QQ BE 62 Gattetemeat wen oem <> inated plastics have the following properties: ( Lightand strong. (i) Machineable. (iii) Resistant to wear, acids and alkalis. (iv) Impervious to water and oil. (v) Have a high dielectric constant. Uses: ‘The laminated plastics are used for: (@) Electric insulation, (ii) Making silent gears. (di) Water lubricated bearings. (iv) Pulley wheels. (v) Pump parts. (vi) Press tools. (vii) Decorative purposes in wall panelling, translucent panelling table and counter parts. 13.8.4, Plastic Panels (© ‘These are the sheets (3 m x 1.5m x25 mm) made from special craft paper impregnated with a phenolic resin. © They are chiefly used for making light weight partitions, 138. Plastic Pipes (PVC pipes: © They have good ductility, © They do not burst due to freezing of water. ‘¢ Used for distribution of water, mine drainage, gas distribution etc. © Used at the places where the temperatures are moderate. Gi Polythene plastic pipes: © They have inherent flexibility and excellent resistance to breakage from mechanical shock. * ‘Suitable for water supplies, and for use in chemical and food industries, 13.9, MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 139.1. Casting Moulds of different materials such as lead-antimony, ‘re used for casting the plastic into the required shape ® Both thermosetting and thermoplastics can be used i © Araldite resin and hardener liquids can be used for 139.2. Moulding me itenbst one ofthe mest cormmon methods used in the manufacture of plastic goods. Following are the different ways in which the method can be used: @) Shaping: In this process of moulding, the hot plastic mass is spread over the shape and then allowed to cool and harden. Gi) Compression moulding: © The mouldis Sill withthe required amount of moulding powder and then heat and pressure are applied untit cure ts complete. © This process is employed mainly for thermosetting resins, © The process can be speeded up by the use of transfer moulds in which the mould isheated to the plas = Powder Tic supe and then forced into mould proper when the curing is cormpletod, sheet metal,clay or plaster of paris etc. without the application of any pressure. in casting. casting.330 Engineering Materials with each other to form a composite material of altogether different properties. * InFRP, the glass fibres provide stiffness and strength while resin provides a matrix to transfer load to the fibres. Properties of FRP: Following are the properties which have made the FRP the most commercially successful composite material of construction: (Aesthetic appeal (ii) Dimensional stability. (iii) Light weight, (iv) Easy to repair. (v) Durable. (vi) Corrosion resistance. (vii), Requires less energy for production. (viti) Least maintenance required. (&) The tooling is inexpensive and fast. (x) FRP products transmita great deal of light. Applications: Following are the applications of FRP: (i) Water storage tanks. (ii) Roof sheets. (iii) Domes. (iv) Structural sections. (v) Doors and window frames. (vi) Concrete shuttering. (aif) Internal partitions and wall panelling. (xif) Temporary shelters 13.11. POLYMER/PLASTIC COATINGS The miscellaneous applications of polymers/plastics are: 1. Coatings 2. Adhesives 3. Films 4. Foams We shall discuss here only ‘Coatings’. ‘The surface of materials are applied coatings to serve one or more of the following purposes: (A) Toprotect the objecvitem from corrosive or deteriorative reactions that the environment may produce. (ii) To improve the appearance of the object/item. (ii) To provide electrical insulation. In coating materials, many of the ingredients are polymers and majority of which are of organic origin. ‘The organic coatings may be classified as: (i) Paints (i) Varnishes (iii) Enamels (iv) Lacquers. Paints: Paint is a mechanical mixture of “Vehicle” and a “pigment”. The vehicle binds together the pigment particles in the paint. It consists of drying oil and a solvent thinner. The “pigments” provide both colour and binding power ‘The thin film of paint when applied over he surfaces gets dried up due to oxidation, polymerisation of evaporation of portions of its components and gives a film which has a considerable bi power. Varnishes: Varnishes are colloidal dispersions or solution of synthetic or natural resins in oil or in thinner or | and thinner both and contain no pigments. When varnish is applied ona material surface, the thinner evaporates and the oil resin mixture partially polymerises to form a clear dry film. Enamel: Enamel is amixture of both paint and a varnish. The enamel dries at room temperature through ‘oxidation and polymerisation or at elevated temperature where the film gets baked.Books aa Ben MOS 331 Plastics and Fibres Lacquer: Lacquer is a finisht from its non-volatile constituent, Itis solution or resins and plasticizers in solvents and thinners. ‘The ather organic coatings are: | ; | | a (i) Dispersion coatings’ (finally divided insoluble resins dispersed in organic media); Gi) Emulsion coatings (synthetic resins latex dispersed in water by means of dispersing agent); and iit) Latex coatings. . ist “The organic protective coatings should have the following characteristics: 1. High hiding power. 2. Resist corrosion when applied on metals. 3. Film produced should be washable. T Should be able to resist the atmospheric conditions to which these are exposed. ‘5, Should be able to give the necessary gloss whenever required. Organic coatings can be easily applied and are flesible and cheap. They can be applied by brush, spray of roller coaters. They can also be applied by hot spraying, by dipping articles in resin powders. 13.12, DEFORMATION OF PLASTICS ‘Polymers undergo both elastic and plastic deformation just as metals do. Asa class polymers have lower elastic moduli than metals. Also, asa class, plastics undergo permanent deformation more readily than the average metal. © ‘Thedeformation of plastics is affected by the structure of the polymer. Permanentdeformation occurs as slip between adjacent molecules, because the attractive forces are smaller between thera within the molecules. © “Thermoplastic” resins (plastics) deform easily under pressure and at high temperature, since the weak van der Waals’ forces are easily overcome. Consequently such a plastic when heated and injected into a mould under pressure takes on the shape of that mould easily. On cooling the plastic becomes rigid again. In “thermosening” resins (plastics) there is a continuous framework structure (developed by polymerisation) and slip cannot take place between the molecules. The whole of the structure is one large molecule, since primary covalent bonds are present throughout the structure. These plastics do not increase in plasticity with increased temperature and take on a permanent set. They arc widely used in processes requiring high temperatures. They are used for electrical outlets, telephone receivers and appliance handles whose processing makes use of the electrical or chemical insulating properties of the covalently bonded organic materials. Thermoplastics, on the other hand, have better formability and are economical because scrap resin can be recycled frequently. 13.13, TESTING OF PLASTICS Plastics are tested for electrical and mechanical ics. i isi ee esti ere Propentics. The various characteristics measured 1. Insulation resistance after Immersion In water : © A specimen immersed in distilled water for 24 hours is cleaned and dried. © ‘The specimen is then placed between pairs of electrodes and its resistance is measured at a potential difference of 500 V D.C., the temperature and humidity being under control. 2. Dielectric strength = : Ts property measures the electrical breakdown through the rate . rength is measured as voltage gradient as volts/mm to cause electrical breakdown. ies qui i forms a film ial that dries quickly by evaporation of solvents and forms 2 t stunts It raispersion of cellulose nitrate or cellulose derivatives,Books aq BRR Plastics and Fibres 333 2. Sawing = Both plastics can be cut by a circular aw using cutting speed of 50 mvmin and hand feed. Pitch of the saw should beclose to 10 mm. However, the thickness of saw will vary with thickness of plastic to be cut. © For thickness 0.5 to 4 mm use 3 mm thick saw. © For thickness of 5 to 8 mm use-4 mum thick saw. © For thickness 19 mm and above use 5 mi thick saw, 3. Drilling Drilling a plastic may pose such problems as damaged hole periphery on surfaces where drill centers and exists and also stricking of drill in the hole. By using sharp cutting edges and by carefully setting them on the surface before starting the operation, by putting a wooden support directly below the hole whcre drill will exist, and by frequently lifiing the drill from hole the above problems are overcome. The drill may also be dipped in mineral oil for obtaining a smooth surface finish of hole. - © For plain plastic use angle — 90° to 116°. © However, if section is thin this angle may be 50°. Flute angle - 60° + Cutting speed - 70 m/min : Feed - 0.2 t0.0.3 mmvirev. © For laminated plastics : Use cutting speed 60 to 90 m/min and feed 0.2 to 0.5 mmirev. ‘© However, drilling may be done parallel or perpendicular to laminated plastics. If parallel use point angle of 70° and rake angle of 0-20°. If perpendicular use point angle 100-110°, rake angle 10 to 12°. 4. Planing : For both plain and laminated plastics use well sharpened and lapped carbide tipped too! at cutting speed of 10 to 20 m/min and feed of 0.2 10.0.8 mmstroke. 5. Turning: Carefully the tool must be set at the centre of workpiece, and the tool tip must be rounded toa radius of 1.5102 mm. © For rough surface (V) Plain plastic Laminated plastic Cutting speed 80 to 200 mimin 100 to 200 m/min Feed 031005 mm/rev 0.21005 mm/rey Depth of cut 3toSmm 3toSmm © For fine surface (VY) Cutting speed 200 to 300 m/min 200 to 300 m/min Feed 0.1 100.3 mm/rev 0.1 100.3 mavrev Depth of cut 2mm 2mm For both materials use clearance angle of 3° and rake angle of 15°. Chips should beremoved by suction. 6. Millin ‘Number of teeth on milling cutter must be i to 2 of the number of a corresponding stee! job. Clearance angle of 20° and rake angle of 20 to 25° is recommended on carbide tipped tool. While feed for both types of plastics as 0.5 to 0.8 mmv/rev is recommended the plain plastic should be cut with a cutting speed of 300 nvmin and laminated plastic with a cutting speed of 120 to 250 m/min. * 334 : Engineering Materials334 : Engineering Materials 7. Grinding : Grinding of plastics is possible with belt, sand paper and grinding wheels. For rough grinding grit 20 wheels and for finish grinding grit 60silicon carbide wheels are used. For belt grinding V=6 m/min, sand paper V = 25 m/min, For surface grinding water may be used as coolant. 8. Threading : ‘Tapping. turning or milling can be used. In both tuming and milling use HSS cutter with cutting speed 20 to 40 m/min, Milling will result in better surface. When using taps use wax and grease to lubricate with taps of wide flute. Laminated plastics can be sheared upto thickness of 3 mm. However, if thickness greater than 3 mms tobe sheared the material is recommended to be warmed. 13.15, ADVANCED POLYMERIC MATERIALS ‘Some of the advanced polymeric materials are : 1. Ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) 2. Liquid crystal polymers (LCPs). 1, Ultrahigh molecular welght polyethylene : It is a linear polyethylene and its molecular weight is extremely high (nearly ten times greater than that of high density polyethylene). Properties : (H Itis clectrically insulating and possesses excellent dielectric properties. (id) Itpossesses very good chemical resistance. (iii) Itoffers outstanding resistance to wear and abrasion. (iv) Its low-temperature properties are excellent. (») Its impact resistance is extremely high. (vi) Itprovides a self lubricating and non-stick surface. (vii) Itoffers a very low coefficient of friction. (viii) assimilates outstanding damping and energy absorption characteristics. (i) Due to ts relatively low melting temperature, its mechanical properties diminish rapidly with increasing temperature. ‘Uses: ( Blood filters (i) Marking pen nibs (ii) Pump impellers (iv) Valve gaskets (v) Bullet proof vests (vi) Golf ball cores (vif) Toe skating rink surfaces. quid crystal polymers ; © These polymers belong o a group of chemically complex and structurally distinct materials and possess unique properties. © They are composed of extended, rod shaped, and rigid molecules. © Inthe melt; unlike other polymers (which are randomly oriented) LCP molecules become alighed in highly ordered configurations. © Some of the liquid crystal polymers are rigid solids at room temperatures and exhibit the following properties/behaviour : (i) High impact strengths, which are retained upon cooling to relatively low temperatures. (ii) Excellent thermal stability. (ut) Stiff and strong (tensile strength : 120 to 250 MN/m?; tensile strength : 10 to 24 GNim?).Books aa co Gadedwreat witemin ees CD 336 Engineering Materials Tt has been observed that in most engineering materials a time-dependent elastic strain component exists (that is, elastic deformation will continue after the stress. application and upon load release, some finite time is required for complete recovery). This time-dependent elastic behaviour is known as anelasticity. © Anelasticity may arise because of the following : . (® Diffusion of thermal energy of interstitial atoms or substitutional solute atoms; (if) Grain boundary effects, dislocations and thermal currents in the crystals, ‘This effect is also a result of retarded ela: icity and is called the “elastic aftereffect”. ‘© The anelastic component for metals is normally small and often neglected. However, for some polymeric materials its magnitude is significant, in this case it is termed viscoelastic behaviour, stress that is within the material's ef lastic range is removed, the material will not completely recover to its original size. © An amorphous polymer may behave like a glass at low temperatures, a rubbery solid at intermediate temperatures, and a viscous liquid as the temperature if further raised. At intermediate temperatures, the condition is termed viscoelasticity. © TRevizcoelastic behaviour of polymeric materials is dependent on both time and temperature, ‘This behaviour ean be measured and quantified by several experimental techniques. Stress relaxation measurements represent one possiblity, A specimen, in these tests. initally strained rapidly in tension to a predetermined and relatively low strain level. The strese ‘Necessary to maintain this. strain is measured as a function of time, while, temperature is held soe iant Sines is found to decrease with time due to molecular relaation proceries that take place within the polymer - pares modulus, a time-dependent elastic modulus for viscoelastic polymers, is defined as : £220 & where, E, (!) = Relaxation modulus, 5 (®) = Time-dependent stress, and €o= Strain leve! (maintained constant). — The magnitude of the relaxation modulus is a function of temperature; and to more fully characterise the viscoelastic behaviour of a polymer, isothermal stress relaxation fange of temperatures, ‘mers exhibit both an elastic as well as a viscous a 5 \odels for such fiscoel: ric i Viscous a8 well as elastic elements, The purely cleat attr comprise of Page 22710909 wenstetounintis preven34 FEESESSRESRREBR Engineering Materials Polythenes do not absorb moisture. Polyvinyl chloride becomes soft beyond 80C. Silicones are used on high heat resistant insulations. Polystrene has low resistivity Bitumen is the oldest known plastic. Aminos are used for low voltage applications. Mclamines have excellent resistance to water. Phenolics are made by reaction between phenol and formaldehyde. Epoxy resins undergo very little shrinkage. Laminated plastics cannot be machined. Pig bristles are used in a paint brushes. Fibre brands are made by mixing saw dust and fibres or tissues of wood with glue. Hemp is the name givento the fibres obtained by retting the hemp plant. ‘One of the patented fibre brands is masonite whose thickness varies from 3 to 6 mm. ANSWERS plastic 2. Thermoplastic 3. Thermosetting 4, Melamines 5. Laminated Yes 7. Polystrene 8. Yes 9% Yes 10. pigment Yes 12 Enamel 13, Fibre 14. cellulose 18. Yes No 17. No 18. Yes 19. Yes 20. No Yes 2 Yes 23. Yes 2. Yes 25. No Yes 27. No 28. Yes 29. Yes 30. Yes |. No 32 Yes. 33. Yes 34 Yes 35. Yes THEORETICAL QUESTIONS ‘What are the special properties of plastics that make them useful engineering materials? How do thermoplastics differ from thermosetting materials? Explain briefly any three of the following plastics: Polyvinyl chloride, Silicones, Aminos, Phenolics, Expoxy resins. J. What are laminated plastics? State their properties and uses. What is a fibre? Give the classification of fibres. What are mineral fibres? Write a shon note on animal fibres. Give a brief description of “Vegetable fibres’. What is a masonite? How are fibre boards manufactured? Name the different processes used in the manufacture of plastics. Name the different methods of moulding plastics. List the common properties of plastics which make them useful materials. List the different uses of plastics in construction. Mention uses of plastics. Enumerate general properties of plastics. What is polymerization? Mention the shortcomings of plastics. What are the properties of FRP? Mentions the applications of FRP in building industry. Write short note on “Deformation of plastics”. Explain briefly polymer/plastic coatings. ‘What are the factors which determine the mechanical behaviour of polymers?