Motivation: Background and Theories Organizations: Behavior, Structure, Processes Chapter 5 Source:Gibgon, JL. lvancovicy JM. Donnelly, JH. & Konopasko,R. (2012), Organizations Behavior, jure, Processes (74th edition). New York: McGraw HilLearning Objectives Define motivation in practical terms that would be meaningful to managers in organizations Compare the content and process explanations and theories of motivation Describe how equity theory explains employees’ reactions to pay and compensation decisions Discuss why individual needs and preferences change over the course of a career Explain the motivational force for a behavior, action, or task as a function of three distinct perceptions made by an individual FedMotivation Puzzle «*Managers must excel at addressing the needs and goals of employees + No one motivational approach works for all “Individuals differ in... + Their desired rewards + How they attempt to satisfy those needs + How they view the fairness of rewards * Their view of the work environmentKey Employee Differences “Veterans (born 1922-45) * Believe in hard work, dedication, sacrifice, and respect for authority + Have a great deal or organizational knowledge and remain influential “Boomers (born 1946-64) * Characterized by optimism, teamwork, healthy lifestyles, personal gratification + Will “go the extra mile” to get the job done + Enjoy their careersKey Employee Differences “Gen Xers (born 1965-76) + Understands the importance of diversity, work-life balance, self-reliance, fun, and informality + More cynical than other generations * Their “it’s only a job” attitude puts them in direct conflict with BoomersKey Employee Differences “Gen Yers (born 1977-97) ONexters, Internet Gen, or Echo Boomers OWorkplace preferences + Afair boss + Belief in the company + Workplace safety + Training and learning opportunities + Flexible work schedules * Constructive feedback + Timely and fair reward systemsMotivation “Theorists have different interpretations and place emphasis on different factors Motivation is related to behavior and performance Goal-directedness is involved It results from events and processes, whether internal or external Research is still evolving Many aspects of human motivation remain unexplainedMotivation Motivation is the result of forces acting on an employee that initiate and direct behaviorMotivation “Motivated employees * Look for the best way to do their job + Produce high-quality products or services + Are more likely to be productive + Want to work and become part of the team * Help, support, and encourage coworkers + Are self-confident and decisiveMotivation Starting Point Individuals + All have a deficiency or lack something at a particular point in time + Are more susceptible to motivational efforts when in need “Deficiencies may be + Physiological + Psychological + SociologicalFIGURE 5.1 ‘The Motivational Process: An Initial Model Need defictences si want to partorm weal to Carn the promotion.” Ned deficiencies Search for ways to satisty fenssessed by the, needs Soe “Unceg to show my man- 1 sull want the ager that want the’ pro promotion: tus got to, ‘on tough 5 Snether sopeen Sislgoments, work extra ours het Performance (evaluation Se esta eeraireed) Highest ratings on Seige iy ar 2 ° O° @O o wo >Ps 390 30 = ° = ons z & 2 § a)Motivation Theories «Content Motivation Theories * Focuses on factors within a person that energize, direct, sustain, stop behavior + These factors can only be inferred «Process Motivation Theories * Describe, explain, and analyze how behavior is energized, directed, sustained, and stoppedManagerial Perspective of Content and Process Theories of Motivation TABLES.1 Managerint Perspective of Content and Process Thearles of Motivation Theoretical Theoretical 8, & ci Process Describes, explains. and analyzes how behavior is feneraired, directed, Sustained, and stopped, Managers need 10 Understand the process ‘of motivation and how individuals make choicesTheory Founders “Content theory founders + Maslow...need hierarchy + Alderfer...ERG theory + Herzberg...two-factor theory + McClelland...learned needs “Process theory founders + Vroom...expectancy of choices + Adams...equity * Skinner...reinforcement + Locke...goal-settingApplication of Theories “Content theory * Managers must be aware of differences in needs, desires, and goals because each individual is unique «Process theory + Managers must understand the process of motivation and how individuals make choices based on performances, rewards, and accomplishmentsContent Theories of Motivation “Human needs, as defined by Maslow’s need hierarchy * Physiological + Safety and security + Belongingness, social, and love + Esteem * Self-actualization Federation $5Content Theories of Motivation “+Maslow’s need hierarchy assumes + Aperson attempts to satisfy basic needs before trying to satisfy upper-level needs + Lower-level needs must be satisfied before a higher- level need begins to control a person’s behavior + Asatisfied need ceases to motivate FederatiContent Theories of Motivation «Alderfer proposes a hierarchy involving three sets of needs « Existence... satisfied by such things as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions + Relatedness... satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships * Growth... satisfied by making creative or productive contributions Federation $5ERG Theory Relationships among Frustration, Importance, and Satisfaction of Needs FIGURE52 ERG Theory Relationships among Frustration, Importance, and Satisfaction of Necds Satisfaction of growth needs Frustration Importance of growth needs of growth needs Satisfaction Of relatedness needs Frustration Importance of relatedness needs of relatedness needs Frustration Importance Satisfaction of existence needs of existence needs of existence needsHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory “Extrinsic factors + Pay, status, and working conditions * Known as dissatisfiers or hygiene factors “Intrinsic factors * Achievement, increased responsibility, recognition + Known as satisfiers or motivatorsFIGURE 53 ‘Traditional and Herzberg Dissatisfaction |. Traditional High job dissatisfaction ——— NS High job satisfaction I, Herzberg’s two-factor view Low job satisfaction ge High job satisfaction Motivators ‘Feeling of achievement ‘+ Meaningful work ‘+ Opportunities for advancement + Increased responsibility, ‘+ Recognition + Opportunities for growth High job dissatisfaction ——— Low job dissatisfaction Hygiene factors job security Working conditions ‘Fringe benefits Policies and procedures + Interpersonal relations uonoejsnessig —uonoRssnes JO smal, Bieqziey pue jeuojpedL Federation 5Learned Needs Theory Aperson with a strong need will use appropriate behaviors to satisfy the need Needs are learned from the culture of a society Se Federation $5McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory QAchievement (n Ach) + High n Ach persons prefer moderate goals they think they can achieve OAffiliation (n Aff) + High n Aff persons prefer immediate and reliable performance feedback Power (n Pow) + High n Ach persons like to be responsible for solving problemsMeasuring n Ach Needs “Needs are measured with the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) * Aperson is shown a picture and asked to write a story about it * People tend to write stories that reflect their dominant needs ee FederationA Graphic Comparison of Four Content Theories of Motivation Herzbers Alderter McClelland tee tale atest selt-as no The work itself Need for : sibility Schievement Motivators Growth Need for power Belongingness, SSeial and love safety and security Baste conditions Need for affiliation feeds Job security Exieronco, prvatetoalea! Working conditions4 = D2 ° = oO wo ° > = o = < 2 = ° s oO ° S 3 2 = a ° s ° Sg n Q <€ 5 ° ° 3 2 3 3 =Expectancy Theory A person who is faced with a set of first- level outcomes will select one based on * The strength (valence) of the desire to achieve a second-level state + The perception of the relationship between first- and second-level outcomesExpectancy Theory (Vroom) «+A process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activity * Most behaviors are under a person's voluntary control and are consequently motivated **When faced with a set of first-level outcomes « Employees select outcomes based on how the choice relates to second-level outcomesExpectancy Theory Terminology *First- and second-level outcomes The result of behaviors Associated with doing the job itself First-level outcomes include productivity, absenteeism, turnover, quality Second-level outcomes are those events (rewards or punishments) that the first-level outcomes are likely to produceExpectancy Theory Terminology *Instrumentality + An individual's perception that first-level outcomes are associated with second-level outcomes “Valence + The strength of a person’s preference for a particular outcome * Applies to first- and second-level outcomes “Expectancy + Perceived likelihood that a particular act will be followed by a particular outcome « Subjective probabilityPrinciples of Expectancy Theory V1 = S(V2 x 1) + Valence associated with first-level outcomes is the sum of the multiplication of the valences (V2) attached to all second-level outcomes with their respective instrumentalities (I) M=f(V1 x E) * Motivation is a multiplicative function of the valence for each first-level outcome (V1 pane the perceived Sxpectaney (F) that a given behavior will be followed by a particular first-level outcome P= f(MxA) + Performance is considered a multiplicative function of motivation (f) and abilityFIGURE SS Application of Expectancy Theory: Joan's Situation as eee err cence! (aaceeetnaraee| (esreceerecad |ietcuenten ion cieneeued ° ieeiamgme are i 4> 0 a3 = orn se Lam REESE Ss Finishing budget ag, ——eoetosiean S » Seats 8 cB a : a teserd o> 30 ae) [ba ea, __avet ae Fishing bso a ox Motivation 2.24 = 07 ——— phvreauired day 07 — frombors ss G2 @ eo o20 40 |_gay _ =e go oF a8 oe pay it 32 Finishing budget Recognition/compliment, < L_____ Sirgbingudees 3 fg __ irom deadline (0,20) a oYExpectancy Theory “Managers should * Focus on employee expectations for success * Actively determine which second-level outcomes are important to employees + Link desired second-level outcomes to the organization's performance goalsEquity Theory Employees compare their efforts and rewards with those of others in similar works situations FederationEquity Theory “Terms * Person: the individual for whom equity or inequity is perceived * Comparison other: any individual(s) or group used as a referent regarding the ratio of inputs and outcomes + Inputs: the individual characteristics brought by Person to the job * Qutcomes: what Person received from the jobEquity Theory FIGURE 5.6 ‘The Equity Theory of Motivation A person (P) compares his a reference with certain or her person's (RP) inputs () input-outcome inputs () and and receiving =~ ratio to —— outcomes (0) certain ‘outcomes ©) IP= Inputs of the person. (OP = Outcomes of the person. IRP= Inputs of reference person. ORP= Outcomes of reference person and perceives OP 5 iP RP CRP (equity), ore Sap (inequity), oRP ORP (inequity). FederationJeff’s Concept of Equity Theory: An Application TABLE 5.3 Jeffs Concept of Equity Theory: An Application Outcomes and Inputs College degree (input) CPA (input) Experience on job (input) Executive dining room privileges (outcome) Annual salary (outcome) Weighted Value of Outcomes and Inputs, 1 1 2 1 4 Weighted Value of Outcomes Jett Bob and Inputs Yes Yes 1 Yes Yes 1 18 months, None 0 Yes Yes 1 ‘$27,000 $31,000 5 Outcomes (1+ 4) Qutcomes(t + 5) inputs (1-1-2) Inputs (1-1) 5.8 472 (Jeff) 1.25 < 3.00 (Bob)Restoring Equity syn h Eq- * Change the inputs or outcomes of the reference person * Change your inputs or outcomes * Change the reference person * Change the situation