Just because harmonics is becoming a more prevalent problem, that doesn't mean the

subject is getting any easier to understand

Harmonics are AC voltages and currents with frequencies that are integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency. On a 60-Hz system, this could include 2nd order harmonics (120
Hz), 3rd order harmonics (180 Hz), 4th order harmonics (240 Hz), and so on. Normally,
only odd-order harmonics (3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th) occur on a 3-phase power system. If you
observe even-order harmonics on a 3-phase system, you more than likely have a defective
rectifier in your system.

If you connect an oscilloscope to a 120V

receptacle, the image on the screen
usually isn't a perfect sine wave. It may
be very close, but it will likely be
different in one of several ways. It might
be slightly flattened or dimpled as the
magnitude approaches its positive and
negative maximum values (Fig. 1). Or
perhaps the sine wave is narrowed near
the extreme values, giving the waveform
a peaky appearance (Fig. 2 below). More
than likely, random deviations from the
perfect sinusoid occur at specific locations on the sine wave during every cycle (Fig. 3
below).

The flattened and dimpled sinusoid in

Fig. 1 has the mathematical equation,
y=sin (x)+0.25 sin (3x). This means a
60-Hz sinusoid (the fundamental
frequency) added to a second sinusoid
with a frequency three times greater than
the fundamental (180 Hz) and an
amplitude ¼ (0.25 times) of the
fundamental frequency produces a
waveform similar to the first part of Fig.
1. The 180-Hz sinusoid is called the
third harmonic, since its frequency is
three times that of the fundamental frequency.

Similarly, the peaky sinusoid in Fig. 2 has the mathematical equation, y=sin (x) -0.25 sin
(3x). This waveform has the same composition as the first waveform, except the third
harmonic component is out of phase with the fundamental frequency, as indicated by the
negative sign preceding the “0.25 sin (3x)” term. This subtle mathematical difference
produces a very different appearance in the waveform.
The waveform in Fig. 3 contains several
other harmonics in addition to the third
harmonic. Some are in phase with the
fundamental frequency and others out of
phase. As the harmonic spectrum
becomes richer in harmonics, the
waveform takes on a more complex
appearance, indicating more deviation
from the ideal sinusoid. A rich harmonic
spectrum may completely obscure the
fundamental frequency sinusoid, making
a sine wave unrecognizable.

Analyzing harmonics. When the

magnitudes and orders of harmonics are
known, reconstructing the distorted
waveform is simple. Adding the
harmonics together, point by point,
produces the distorted waveform. The
waveform in Fig. 1 is synthesized in Fig.
4 by adding the magnitudes of the two
components, the fundamental frequency
(red waveform) and the third harmonic
(blue waveform), for each value of x,
which results in the green waveform.

Decomposing a distorted waveform into its harmonic components is considerably more

difficult. This process requires Fourier analysis, which involves a fair amount of calculus.
However, electronic equipment has been developed to perform this analysis on a real-
time basis. One manufacturer offers a 3-phase power analyzer that can digitally capture
3-phase waveforms and perform a host of analysis functions, including Fourier analysis,
to determine harmonic content. Another manufacturer offers similar capabilities for
single-phase applications. Easy-to-use analyzers like these can help detect and diagnose
harmonic-related problems on most power systems.

What causes harmonics? If harmonic voltages aren't generated intentionally, where do

they come from? One common source of harmonics is iron core devices like
transformers. The magnetic characteristics of iron are almost linear over a certain range
of flux density, but quickly saturate as the flux density increases. This nonlinear magnetic
characteristic is described by a hysteresis curve. Because of the nonlinear hysteresis
curve, the excitation current waveform isn't sinusoidal. A Fourier analysis of the
excitation current waveform reveals a significant third harmonic component, making it
similar to the waveform shown in Fig. 2.

Core iron isn't the only source of harmonics. Generators themselves produce some 5th
harmonic voltages due to magnetic flux distortions that occur near the stator slots and
nonsinusoidal flux distribution across the air gap. Other producers of harmonics include
nonlinear loads like rectifiers, inverters, adjustable-speed motor drives, welders, arc
furnaces, voltage controllers, and frequency converters.

Semiconductor switching devices produce significant harmonic voltages as they abruptly

chop voltage waveforms during their transition between conducting and cutoff states.
Inverter circuits are notorious for producing harmonics, and are in widespread use today.
An adjustable-speed motor drive is one application that makes use of inverter circuits,
often using pulse width modulation (PWM) synthesis to produce the AC output voltage.
Various synthesis methods produce different harmonic spectra. Regardless of the method
used to produce an AC output voltage from a DC input voltage, harmonics will be present
on both sides of the inverter and must often be mitigated.

Effects of harmonics. Besides distorting the shape of the voltage and current sinusoids,
what other effects do harmonics cause? Since harmonic voltages produce harmonic
currents with frequencies considerably higher than the power system fundamental
frequency, these currents encounter much higher impedances as they propagate through
the power system than does the fundamental frequency current. This is due to “skin
effect,” which is the tendency for higher frequency currents to flow near the surface of
the conductor. Since little of the high-frequency current penetrates far beneath the surface
of the conductor, less cross-sectional area is used by the current. As the effective cross
section of the conductor is reduced, the effective resistance of the conductor is increased.
This is expressed in the following equation:

where R is the resistance of the conductor, ρ is the resistivity of the conductor material, L
is the length of the conductor, and A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor. The
higher resistance encountered by the harmonic currents will produce a significant heating
of the conductor, since heat produced — or power lost — in a conductor is I2R, where I is
the current flowing through the conductor.

This increased heating effect is often noticed in two particular parts of the power system:
neutral conductors and transformer windings. Harmonics with orders that are odd
multiples of the number three (3rd, 9th, 15th, and so on) are particularly troublesome,
since they behave like zero-sequence currents. These harmonics, called triplen
harmonics, are additive due to their zero-sequence-like behavior. They flow in the system
neutral and circulate in delta-connected transformer windings, generating excessive
conductor heating in their wake.

Reducing the effects of harmonics. Because of the adverse effect of harmonics on

power system components, the IEEE developed standard 519-1992 to define
recommended practices for harmonic control. This standard also stipulates the maximum
allowable harmonic distortion allowed in the voltage and current waveforms on various
types of systems.

Two approaches are available for mitigating the effects of excessive heating due to
harmonics, and a combination of the two approaches is often implemented. One strategy
is to reduce the magnitude of the harmonic waveforms, usually by filtering. The other
method is to use system components that can handle the harmonics more effectively, such
as finely stranded conductors and k-factor transformers.

Harmonic filters can be constructed by adding an inductance (L) in series with a power
factor correction capacitor (C). The series L-C circuit can be tuned for a frequency close
to that of the troublesome harmonic, which is often the 5th. By tuning the filter in this
way, you can attenuate the unwanted harmonic.

Filtering isn't the only means of reducing harmonics. The switching angles of an inverter
can be preselected to eliminate some harmonics in the output voltage. This can be a very
cost-effective means of reducing inverter-produced harmonics.

Since skin effect is responsible for the increased heating caused by harmonic currents,
using conductors with larger surface areas will lessen the heating effects. This can be
done by using finely stranded conductors, since the effective surface area of the
conductor is the sum of the surface area of each strand.

Specially designed transformers called k-factor transformers are also advantageous when
harmonic currents are prevalent. They parallel small conductors in their windings to
reduce skin effect and incorporate special core designs to reduce the saturation effects at
the higher flux frequencies produced by the harmonics.

You should also increase the size of neutral conductors to better accommodate triplen
harmonics. Per the FPN in 210.4(A) and 220.22 of the 2002 NEC, “A 3-phase, 4-wire
wye-connected power system used to supply power to nonlinear loads may necessitate
that the power system design allow for the possibility of high harmonic neutral currents.”
And per 310.15(B)(4)(c), “On a 4-wire, 3-phase wye circuit where the major portion of
the load consists of nonlinear loads, harmonic currents are present on the neutral
conductor: the neutral shall therefore be considered a current-carrying conductor.” It's
important to note that the duct bank ampacity tables in B.310.5 through B.310.7 are
designed for a maximum harmonic loading on the neutral conductor of 50% of the phase
currents.

Harmonics will undoubtedly continue to become more of a concern as more equipment

that produces them is added to electrical systems. But if adequately considered during the
initial design of the system, harmonics can be managed and their detrimental effects
avoided.

Fehr is an independent engineering consultant located in Clearwater, Fla.