The Resurrection of Jesus

Introduction
Each of the Gospels climaxes with an account of the empty tomb and subsequent

appearances of Jesus to his disciples. In the remainder of the NT, the resurrection is

mentioned as a given, and there is a future expectation of a general resurrection of the dead.

At this time, all humanity will meet God to be judged and receive their eternal destiny. The

resurrection of Jesus is essential to the Christian story.

Evidence for the resurrection includes instances where Jesus raised the dead and

predicted his own resurrection. The importance of the resurrection to the Christian story

cannot be overestimated. Christianity is based on the fundamental premise: “he has risen.” As

Paul tells us in 1 Cor 15:3–8, if there is no resurrection from the dead, then the whole

Christian message and hope of salvation collapses like the Twin Towers on 9/11 (1 Cor

15:12–19).

This chapter looks at the resurrection, including its precedents in the OT and Judaism,

the general resurrection in the Gospels, the resurrection of Jesus, arguments against and

evidence for the resurrection, and finally, some questions relating to the resurrection,

including Jesus’ supposed descent to hell and the nature of the resurrection body.

Resurrection in the Old Testament

Ongoing Life in the Present
The OT emphases life in the present rather than the future. The central issue is the

involvement of God in this life. Blessing for the righteous and punishment for the wicked

tends to be present in emphasis; each would happen in this life (e.g., the curses and blessings

of Deut 28 and Lev 26).

Not Annihilation
While the emphasis is on the present life, there is no real notion of annihilation

(absolute destruction ending life) in the OT. On the one hand, death is returning a person to

the “dust” (Gen 3:19; Ps 90:3). On the other hand, this is not the absolute end of life.

Existence continues after death. The person descends to Sheol, which can mean “death” (Gen

42:38; Ps 89:48, see ESV), the “grave” (Gen 37:35; Isa 14:11), or the “netherworld” (Ezek

32:21; perhaps Ps 86:13). Sometimes the dead dwell in Sheol as “shades” (Job 26:5; Ps

88:10; Prov 9:18; Isa 26:14) suggesting a wraith-like existence of “the dead.”

Early Hints of Resurrection

While the OT does not explicitly refer to existence after death, there is no denial of it

and some evidence to support it. For example, we have the two translations to heaven

of Enoch (Gen 5:24; Heb 11:5) 1 and Elijah (2 Kings 2:9–11), which point to their continued

existence in another dimension beyond earth, i.e., heaven. The hope of the return of Elijah as

a forerunner to the Messiah indicates that Jews believed him to exist beyond death (cf. Mal

3:6; 4:1–2). Later Judaism interpreted these translations as “assumption” to eternal life (cf.

Heb 11:5). The story of King Saul contacting Samuel after his death through the “witch of

Endor” also suggests the view that people survived death (1 Sam 28:3–25).

Texts pointing to corporate preservation of the dead

Some OT texts affirm resurrection, not in an individual sense, but in terms of

corporate preservation, particularly in connection to the restoration of Israel from exile. So,

for example, Hos 6:1–3 reads, “after two days he will revive us; on the third day he will

restore us, that we may live in his presence.” Another is Hos 13:14, “I will ransom them from

1
Kenneth A. Mathews, Genesis 1–11:26, NAC 1A (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1996), 314–15 notes that
the language is veiled. “God took him away” uses the Hebrew ‫לָקַ ח‬, lā·qǎḥ which can imply death (cf. 1
Kings 19:10, 14) or being snatched from death (Ps 49:15). Supporting the latter here is: 1) That the verb is used
of Elijah being taken in a whirlwind (2 Kings 2:3, 10–11); 2) In Ps 73:24 it speaks of being “taken” after life
“into glory;” 3) Hebrews 11:5 takes it this way; 4) Later Jewish writings cherished him with three books named
after him, one of which is quoted in Jude (Jude 14; 1 En. 1:9).
the power of the grave; I will redeem them from death.” Ezekiel’s vision of the Valley of the

Dry Bones also speaks of a future restoration of Israel (Ezek 37:1–14, cf. Deut 32:39; 1 Sam

2:6).

Texts Supporting a Belief in Resurrection

Life After Death Without Elaboration
There are some statements implying life after death with little elaboration. Some of

these include at least those mentioned below.

TEXTS IN JOB
1) Job 14:14 and 19:25–26: In Job 14:14, Job asks, “if someone dies, will they live again?”
An answer is found in Job 19:25–26: “I know that my Redeemer lives, and that in the end
he will stand on the earth. And after my skin has been destroyed, yet in my flesh I will see
God.” Here the “redeemer” is God, and the deliverance is after death, suggesting a belief
in life after death. Paul refers to LXX language from these passages in Job in Phil 1:19–
26, where he speaks of his hope of eternal life. 2
2) Psalm 16:10: “because you will not abandon me to the realm of the dead (Sheol), nor will
you let your Holy One (the faithful one) see decay.” Here David expresses confidence that
God will not allow his holy one to rot in the grave. Implicitly this suggests resurrection.
This text is crucial in Peter and Paul’s presentations of Jesus as Messiah in their sermons
in Acts (Acts 2:27–31; 13:34–37).
3) Psalm 17:15: “As for me, I shall behold your face in righteousness; when I awake, I shall
be satisfied with your likeness.” 3
4) Psalm 49:15: “but God will redeem me (Soul) from the realm of the dead; he will surely
take me to himself.” Here the Psalmist explicitly expresses confidence that God will save
his life from the grave. 4
5) Psalm 73:24: “You guide me with your counsel, and afterward you will take me into
glory.” This verse suggests a belief in the afterlife. 5
LIFE AFTER DEATH IN THE LITTLE APOCALYPSE (ISA 24:1–27:13)
Two verses in what is called Isaiah’s Little Apocalypse (Isa 24:1–27:13) suggest life

after death.

2
This includes “for I know that” found in Job 19:25 and Phil 1:19 and “this will turn out to me for salvation”
found in Job 13:16 and Phil 1:19. As such, some scholars find a link from Paul’s hope of resurrection to Job.
See Mark J. Keown, “The Use of the Old Testament in Philippians,” in Malcolm R. Malcolm (ed.), All That the
Prophets Have Declared: The Appropriation of Scripture in the Emergence of Christianity (Milton Keynes:
Paternoster, 2015), 139–64.
3
See S. E. Tesh and W. D. Zorn, Psalms, CPNIVC (Joplin, MO: College Press, 1999), 181 who note that while
this can mean awaken from a night’s sleep, it is most likely resurrection.
4
See Tesh and Zorn, Psalms, 355.
5
See Tesh and Zorn, Psalms, 49 who note that while there is ambiguity in the text, the Psalmist’s “yearning is
that which is in heaven.”
1) Isaiah 25:8: “He will swallow up death forever. The Sovereign LORD will wipe away the
tears from all faces; he will remove his people’s disgrace from all the earth. The LORD
has spoken.” This verse is quoted by Paul in 1 Cor 15:54 concerning the resurrection,
which began with Christ’s resurrection and guarantees believers' resurrection at the final
trumpet.
2) Isaiah 26:19: “But your dead will live, Lord; their bodies will rise. Let those who dwell
in the dust, wake up and shout for joy.” This verse is an explicit statement of the hope of
the resurrection. 6
LIFE AFTER DEATH FOR THE SERVANT
In the Dead Sea Scrolls version of Isaiah 53:9–11, a text that predates the Masoretic

Text used for our OT, the servant of Isaiah is raised from the dead: “He was assigned a grave

with the wicked, and with the rich in his death ... he will see his offspring and prolong his

days ... he will see the light of life and be satisfied.” Some dispute that this refers to eternal

life, suggesting that the song is not about an individual but a corporate figure (Israel or a

remnant of Israel). However, it is couched in individual language and, in light of the NT, is a

remarkable prophecy concerning the resurrection of the Servant, i.e., Jesus.

LIFE AFTER DEATH IN DAN 12:1–3

Daniel 12:1–3 is the most explicit and direct statement of a resurrection from the dead

from the OT before Christ, written around 530 or in the mid-second century BC. 7 Here we

have an expectation of the resurrection of the faithful to eternal life and the remainder of

humanity destined for eternal destruction: 8

At that time Michael, the great prince who protects your people, will arise. There will be
a time of distress such as has not happened from the beginning of nations until then. But
at that time your people—everyone whose name is found written in the book—will be
delivered. Multitudes who sleep in the dust of the earth will awake: some to everlasting
life, others to shame and everlasting contempt. Those who are wise (or “impart wisdom”)
will shine like the brightness of the heavens, and those who lead many to righteousness,
like the stars forever and ever ... As for you, go your way till the end. You will rest, and
6
See J. D. W. Watts, Isaiah 1–33, WBC 24 (Dallas: Word, 1998), 342 who notes that Isaiah here “reasserts the
announcement made at the banquet on his mountain (Isa 25:7–8).”
7
The date of Daniel is hotly contested with some arguing for a sixth century date, and most for a second century
date. For our purposes the date is not significant, as the key thing is that Daniel dates from at the least 150 years
before Christ.
8
Stephen R. Miller, Daniel, NAC 18 (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994), 316 states, “In this verse is one
of the most astounding and blessed truths in Scripture—the resurrection.” P. 318: “According to this text, all
persons (believers and unbelievers) will enter the eternal state in bodily form ... Daniel 12:2 is generally
considered to contain ‘the most explicit reference in the OT to the resurrection of the individual,’ but other Old
Testament passages teach this as well (cf. Job 19:26; Ps 17:15; Isa 26:19).”
 then at the end of the days you will rise to receive your allotted inheritance (Dan 12:1–3,
13).
Resurrection in the Intertestamental Period
In this period, there was much speculation concerning the afterlife, but it is not easy to

find a uniform viewpoint.

Texts Rejecting Resurrection

When we read Jesus’ debate with the Sadducees over the resurrection and marriage

(Mark 12:18 and parr.) and verses in Acts that confirm their rejection (see Acts 4:1–2; 23:8),

it is clear that some in Israel, like the Sadducees, did not believe in the resurrection of the

dead. The book of Sirach, for example, teaches that a deceased person abides in Sheol, a

place of eternal sleep (Sir 30:17; 46:19) and silence (Sir 17:27–28). Immortality is preserved

for Israel as a nation and a person’s good name (Sir 37:26; 39:9; 44:8–15). This perspective is

akin to the modern liberal or atheistic view of life after death as, at best, a metaphor for one’s

name being remembered in the future.

Texts Suggesting Spiritual Resurrection

Some Jewish texts suggest non-physical immortality with no resurrection of the body

and postulate a spiritual afterlife. These texts are usually later influenced by Greek thinking,

which completely rejected the notion of a bodily resurrection, seeing life after death as a

blessed release from the prison of the body to a spiritual afterlife. 9 For example, the Wisdom

of Solomon talks of the righteous finding peace (Wis 3:1–4) and of an incorruptible existence

(Wis 2:23–24, cf. 5:5; 6:19; and Philo, Opif. 135; Gig. 14). A similar idea is found in 4

Maccabees (4 Macc 9:22; 10:15; 16:3; 18:23, cf. 2 Macc 7:14) and 1 Enoch 91–104 (esp. 1

En. 92:3–5; 103:4; 104:2, 4).

9
An excellent discussion of the resurrection is N. T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God, COQG
(London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 2003), 32–84.
Texts Suggesting Bodily Resurrection
Some texts speak of only the resurrection of Israel or the “the saints” (1 Enoch 22:13;

46:6; 51:1–2; Pss. Sol. 3:11–16; 13:9–11; 14:4–10; 15:12–15). Some from the first century

AD and later speak of a general resurrection of the righteous and the wicked (4 Ezra 4:41–43;

7:32–38, cf. T. Benj. 10:6–9; 2 Bar. 49:2–51:12; 85:13). This is probably drawn from the

thinking of Daniel 12:2–3 (above). In 2 Maccabees and Sibylline Oracles, there is a literal

notion of bodily resurrection, including the restoration of actual missing body parts (2 Macc

7:10–11; 14:46; Sib. Or. 4:176–82). Pharisees were in this tradition (if not the extreme),

holding to the hope of a bodily resurrection of the dead for those faithful to Yahweh and his

covenant (cf. Acts 23:8).

Resurrection at the Time of Christ

So, in sum, we can say that various viewpoints on the resurrection had emerged by the

time of Christ.

1) Sadducees: They rejected any idea of an afterlife (Mark 12:18; Acts 23:8; 26:8; Josephus
Ant. 18.14; b. Sanh. 90b).
2) Pharisees: They taught of resurrection and eternal reward for Israel (apart from apostates)
in the age to come (Acts 23:6–8; b. Sanh. 90b; b. Ketub. 111b). Jesus and Paul stood in
this tradition, adapting their theology around the person of Christ and his resurrection.
3) Essenes: It is not completely clear what the Essenes believed. Josephus suggests that they
believed in the immortality of the soul, a Greek non-bodily spiritual perspective
(Josephus, Ant. 18.18). However, some suggest that statements referring to the faithful
living with the angels (1QS 2:25; 1QH 3:19–23; 11:10–14) should be interpreted in terms
of living in this life rather than a future hope. This view is unlikely as Josephus’ statement
seems straightforward, and he lived among them at the time. As such, unlike the
Pharisees, it is likely the Essenes held to a spiritual afterlife.
Resurrection in Jesus’ Teaching
Texts That Presume the Future General Resurrection to Life or Destruction
The general resurrection is the idea that all humanity, good or evil, will be raised from

the dead to face judgment. Each person is assigned their eternal destiny—eternal life with

God or eternal destruction. There are some texts in which Jesus clearly anticipates a general

resurrection. Some texts point to eternal life for the righteous, others to eternal destruction for
the ungodly. Some texts are dualistic, dividing humanity between eternal reward and

punishment.

Fear the One Who Can Consign You to Hell

In Matt 10:28 and its parallel Luke 12:5, Jesus warns the disciples that they should not

fear those who can kill the body but the one who can cast them into hell, i.e., God. This

injunction suggests a destiny for those who are evil, and God will assign people to it. The

nature of hell is not discussed, but the implication is that it is a terrifying experience to be

avoided.

It is Better to Amputate Than Be Incinerated

In Mark 9:43, 45, 47, Jesus warns of the dangers of hell where “the fire never goes

out.” He tells his disciples it is better to remove the parts of the body that cause them to sin

rather than to experience hell. The saying is not literal, as if Jesus wants people to cut off

offending body parts but warns the disciples of the horror of hell. It also warns of the drastic

consequences of sin. Although it is disputed, the quote of Isa 66:24 seems to suggest that

Gehenna is “a place of endless destruction; there is no hope of relief.” 10

What Must I Do to Inherit Eternal Life? The Good Samaritan and the Rich Man
Twice Jesus is asked, “what must I do to inherit eternal life?” (Luke 10:25; Mark

10:17 and parr.). The question asks how to experience the resurrection of the righteous (Mark

10:17). In the Good Samaritan parable, Jesus does not directly answer the lawyer in Luke but

indirectly challenges the enquirer to live mercifully toward others to inherit eternal life. In

the Rich Ruler narrative, later in the passage, Jesus promises those who have given their all to

follow him “in the age to come, eternal life” (Mark 10:30). Eternal life here has the double

connotation that it is endless in relation to time (quantitative), as well as in relation to quality

(qualitative).

10
Craig A. Evans, Mark 8:27–16:20, WBC 34B (Dallas: Word, 2001), 72.
Judgment
In Matt 12:35–37, Jesus speaks of eternal judgment in which each person will be

judged “for every careless word they have spoken.” Here one receives “acquittal” or

“condemnation” based on one’s words, which for Jesus, reflect the heart (“for from the

overflow of the heart the mouth speaks,” Luke 6:45). In John 5:28–29 Jesus speaks of the

“coming time” when the dead will hear his voice and “come out—those who have done what

is good will rise to live, and those who have done evil will rise to be condemned.” Jesus is the

judge in the present (John 5:19–24) and future (John 5:25–30). In John 12:48, Jesus speaks of

condemnation on the last day for those who reject him.

The Eschatological Banquet

In Luke 14:12–14, those who invite the poor and needy to the banquet will be

vindicated in the eschaton. Jesus then tells the story of a Great Banquet, which recalls Isa

25:6, at which people from near and far will come and dine with God. This passage looks

forward to the resurrection of the dead at the so-called “eschatological feast.”

The Rich Man and Lazarus

In Luke 16:19–31, the rich man who had neglected the poor “was buried in Hades.”

The poor man experienced the opposite: “the angels carried him to Abraham’s side.” We

should probably not take this parable literally in all its details, but it indicates the separation

of humanity between heaven and hell. 11

The Righteous in Jesus’ Parables

The parables of Matt 13:24–30, 36–43, and 47–50 speak of a judgment at the end of

the age where the wicked (weeds, bad fish) will be separated from the righteous (good plants,

11
It is extremely dubious to construct a theology of Hades as the abode of both the living and the dead, an
intermediate state (e.g., Marshall, Luke, 637) or something similar, based on this passage. It is a parable and
such theological formulations should be based on the more direct teaching in the Bible on these things and, in
particular, the teaching of Jesus and the NT.
good fish), whereas the wicked will suffer punishment. Similarly, in Matt 24:45–51, the good

servant has a share in Jesus’ kingdom while the wicked is cast out of the master’s household.

Marriage at the Resurrection

The most explicit discussion of resurrection is Jesus’ response to the query on

marriage from the Sadducees (Mark 12:18–27; Matt 22:23–33; Luke 20:27–38). Here Jesus

affirms the eternal resurrection of the dead (“when the dead rise,” Mark 12:25; “and they can

no longer die,” Luke 20:36), in contradiction to the Sadducees’ theology which rejected

postmortem life. Jesus indicates that the resurrected will not marry but will be “like the

angels in heaven,” who, presumably, do not marry. He affirms that resurrection is compatible

with God’s revelation to Moses in the Torah (“even Moses showed that the dead rise”) in

Exod 3:6. God is the God of the living, not the dead, i.e., life goes on for those in relationship

with God. He uses the Torah because the Sadducees affirmed this part of Scripture.

Left Behind
After exhorting watchfulness, in Matt 24:40–44, Jesus gives two short parables of two

men in the field and two women grinding grain (Luke 17:24 has two sleeping as well), of

which “one will be taken, the other left,” pointing to the unexpected nature of the Parousia.

Interestingly, those who hold to a theology of the secret rapture argue that those left behind

are unbelievers. However, if we take the parallel with Noah seriously, the believers remain

behind (see Matt 24:39: “until the flood came and took them all away”). Hence, it is unlikely

that a secret rapture is in mind here. 12

12
See Craig Blomberg, Matthew, NAC 22 (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1992), 366 who correctly writes:
“Some have seen a ‘secret rapture’ in view here (in which believers mysteriously disappear from earth, leaving
everyone else to wonder what happened), which often leads to absurd scenarios (e.g., the modern-day notion of
cars suddenly without drivers). But the only coming of the Son of Man described so far has been the climactic
universal return of Christ in v. 27. The imagery of vv. 38–41 does not suggest anything different. Eating and
drinking, marrying and working all represent public activity. These verses simply picture the sudden and
unexpected nature of the Parousia. There will be no mystery then; Matthew 25:31–46 will describe the
worldwide judgment of humanity that occurs next. In fact, ‘taken’ in vv. 40–41 (though a different verb in the
Greek) parallels ‘took’ of v. 39 and suggests that those taken away are taken for eternal judgment (not
‘raptured’), while those left behind remain with Christ.”
The Sheep and Goats
In another explicit, albeit parabolic section (Matt 25:31–46), humanity is divided into

two groups based on their works of service. Those who have shown mercy to God’s people

(brothers and sisters) in need will receive eternal life in “the kingdom prepared for you since

the creation of the world.” Those who have not shown mercy to Jesus’ brothers and sisters

will be thrown into the “eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels.” As such, the world

will be judged on how it treats Jesus’ people, especially his little ones, who suffer for his

sake. 13

The Righteous Raised at the Resurrection

In Matt 27:51–53, it is reported that, at the death of Christ, some righteous people

were raised from the dead. This event could be an allusion to Ezek 37:13–14: “when I open

your graves and bring you up from them ... and you will live.” However we understand it, it

is an extraordinary event that some see as a myth and others as a fantastic moment

demonstrating the power of God released at the death of Jesus. It perhaps points to Jesus

being the first fruit of the resurrection of all the faithful to eternal life (1 Cor 15:20). It speaks

of a new age of resurrection life inaugurated by Jesus’ death. 14 Whatever its precise meaning,

it also speaks of the hope of resurrection.

The Resurrection in John

In John 6:40, 44, and 54, Jesus three times refers to himself raising the righteous to

eternal life on the last day. In the Lazarus-narrative in John 11:25–26, Jesus states that he is

the resurrection and life and promises that anyone who believes in him will never die—this

13
It is common to take this as a general reference to all humanity on the basis of the way they treat other people.
However, the use of “brothers” and “the least” in the passage indicates it is not to be read generally but of
judgment of humanity for its treatment of God’s missionaries and people (esp. Matt 25:40). See Blomberg,
Matthew, 378 who writes, “The sheep are people whose works demonstrate that they have responded properly to
Christ’s messengers and therefore to his message, however humble the situation or actions of those involved.”
However, this may have a both-and application (see Leon Morris, The Gospel according to Matthew PNTC
[Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1992], 639).
14
See the discussion in Blomberg, Matthew, 421 who notes that “The latter event is perhaps the most unusual in
all of the Gospels and found only in Matthew.”
speaks of eternal life. Lazarus’ resurrection is a pointer to the great miracle of Jesus’

resurrection to come later in John. Jesus is thus the source of ultimate resurrection.

Jesus’ Miracles of Raising the Dead

The general resurrection of the dead and the resurrection of Jesus are anticipated in

Jesus’ three miracles of resurrection, including 1) Jairus’ twelve-year-old daughter (Mark

5:21–24, 35–43; Matt 9:18–19, 23–26; Luke 8:40–42, 49–56); 2) The Widow of Nain’s Son,

a miracle that saved the widow from destitution (Luke 7:11–17, cf. 1 Kings 17:8–14); and 3)

The Raising of Lazarus (John 11:1–44).

I am Going to Prepare a Place for You

Jesus tells the disciples in John 14:2–3 that he is going to “prepare a place” for them

and “will come back” and bring them to his side, i.e., to eternal, resurrected life.

Explicit Predictions of the Resurrection of Christ

At some points, Jesus refers explicitly to his impending resurrection. His disciples did

not understand these references because of their false understandings of the Messiah. Some

will be briefly discussed below.

The Synoptic Three-Fold Passion Predictions

The three passion predictions in the Synoptics include a prediction of Jesus’

resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33–34). Some see them as vaticinium ex eventu

(“prophecies written after the event”). Still, while this is always possible, there seems to be

no reason to see them this way other than presupposing against such an idea. All predictions

point to his resurrection “three days after” his death. 15 Paul sees this three-day aspect of

revelation in accordance with the Scriptures (1 Cor 15:4). It is connected to several

prophecies in the OT, including Hos 6:2; Gen 22:4; Jonah 1:17–2:1, cf. Matt 12:39–42, cf.

15
For a discussion on the apparent problem between “three days after” and Jesus being crucified on the Friday
and rising on the Sunday (two days later), see Mark J. Keown, “The Sign of Jonah and the Three Days and
Nights,” http://drmarkk.blogspot.de/2017/04/the-sign-of-jonah-and-three-days-and.html.
Luke 11:29–32. As noted earlier in this chapter, the Qumran version of Isa 53:9–11 speaks of

the Servant’s resurrection. Some see the “third day” more generally, such as N. T. Wright. 16

The Transfiguration
In Mark 9:9 and parallels, Jesus warns the disciples to tell no one of the

Transfiguration “until the Son of Man has risen from the dead.” The Transfiguration

anticipates his ultimate glorification at which they will see the Kingdom of God (Mark 9:1).

The Cornerstone
At the end of the parable of the tenants in Mark 12:10–11, the Son is killed, clearly a

reference to the impending death of Jesus. Jesus then predicts that “the stone the builders

rejected has become the cornerstone,” pointing to his ultimate vindication and resurrection.

The Coming and Exaltation of the Son of Man

Alongside the explicit predictions of the Son of Man’s death (and resurrection), the

prophecy of “the Son of Man coming in clouds with great power and glory” in Mark 13:26

implies Jesus’ future resurrection (whether this passage refers only to the resurrection, or to a

second coming also). As with the hope of the Son of Man’s coming in Mark 13:26, Jesus’

statement to the High Priest in Mark 14.62, which led to his condemnation and death,

assumes a resurrection and return: “you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of

the Mighty One and coming on the clouds of heaven.”

The Last Supper

Jesus’ statement in Mark 14:25 in the context of the Lord’s Supper that he will not

drink wine until “I drink it [the eschatological cup] anew in the kingdom of God” suggests a

later point where the one whose body is broken, and blood spilled, will live again and eat and

drink in the eschaton.

16
Wright, The Resurrection, 321 writes, “Like the scriptural narrative invoked as the world of meaning for ‘the
Messiah died for our sins’, the qualifying phrase here looks back to the scriptural narrative as a whole, not
simply to a handful of proof-texts.”
The Galilee Prediction
In Mark 14:28, Jesus explicitly predicts that he will die and rise and go to Galilee:

“after I have arisen I will go before you into Galilee.” In Mark and Matthew, this prediction

is reported to the women at the tomb, who then tell the others, and they go and meet him in

Galilee (Mark 16:7; Matt 28:8).

The Rebuilding of the Temple

Another resurrection prediction is in John 2:19: “Destroy this temple, and I will raise

it again in three days.” John explains that this was initially misunderstood but was, in fact, a

reference to Jesus’ future bodily resurrection (John 2:21–22). At the trial of Jesus, this was

used as a reason to condemn him (cf. Mark 14:58; 15:29; Matt 26:61; 27:40).

The Resurrection Accounts

Critical scholarship over the nineteenth to late twentieth centuries has tended to read

the resurrection accounts suspiciously, noting the scientific impossibility of such an event and

building a critical, skeptical viewpoint on the differences in the accounts. There are no actual

witnesses to the resurrection—after all, no one saw it; the disciples found an empty tomb and

were told by a mysterious young man or men (Luke 24:4–7) that Jesus had risen. However,

accepting the tomb was empty, a Christian’s belief in the resurrection is not baseless. It is

founded on a range of cumulative evidence and eyewitness accounts that came after the

event. None of these prove Jesus did rise, but together they show that an actual resurrection

of Jesus is a reasonable explanation for what happened. N. T. Wright sums this up nicely,

Historical argument alone cannot force anyone to believe that Jesus was raised from
the dead; but historical argument is remarkably good at clearing away the undergrowth
behind which scepticisms of various sorts have been hiding. The proposal that Jesus
was bodily raised from the dead possesses unrivalled power to explain the historical
data at the heart of early Christianity. 17

17
Wright, The Resurrection, 718 (italics mine). The whole of Chapter Eighteen of the book is a great read on the
questions of plausibility.
 What follows will argue that it is the best explanation of the data.

Points of Narrative Consistency

While there are detail differences between the Gospels, as one would expect in

eyewitness accounts, the sequence of the account is generally similar across the Gospels.

There are six key points of general consistency across the accounts, with some differences in

the details.

The Women Visit the Tomb After the Sabbath

The first common point is the women’s visit to the tomb, something mentioned in all

four Gospel traditions (Matt 28:1; Mark 16:1–3; Luke 24:1; John 20:1). The accounts confirm

it was on the day after the Sabbath, the first day (Sunday), and gives indications of the time

being very early: “when the Sabbath was over,” on the day “after the Sabbath,” “the first day

of the week,” “very early in the morning,” “while it was still dark.” Each confirms that some

women come to the tomb. Just who was present is not completely clear. Matthew and Mark

include Mary Magdalene and “the other Mary,” who is “the mother of James and Joses”

(Matt 28:1; Mark 16:1). Luke speaks generally of “the women.” John records that only Mary

Magdalene went to the tomb. Mark records that Salome was there, and the purpose of the

visit was to anoint the body of Jesus.

The Stone is Rolled Aside

The second common factor is that all four Gospels speak of the stone that covered the

door to the tomb (Matt 28:2; Mark 16:3–4; Luke 24:2; John 20:1). In Mark, the women ask,

“who will roll the stone away from the entrance of the tomb?” On arrival, the stone is rolled

away already, and there is no reference to how the stone moved. Matthew adds to Mark that

there was a great earthquake and that the stone was rolled away by an angel who had

descended from heaven and was now sitting on the stone. In Luke, as in Mark, the stone is

rolled away without explanation. Mary Magdalene arrives at the tomb in John, but the stone
is moved again without explanation. Consistent is the report that there was a stone, and it was

rolled away.

Angel(s) at the Tomb

Each Gospel refers to an intervention at the arrival of the women at the tomb (Matt

28:2–7; Mark 16:4–7; Luke 24:4–7; John 20:12–13). Mark records that en route to the tomb,

the women are concerned as to “who will roll the stone away from the entrance of the tomb?”

(16:3). When they arrive, they find that the stone is rolled away. They enter the tomb and find

an unidentified young man (likely an angel) 18 dressed in a white robe sitting on the right side

of the tomb, and they are frightened. The young man addresses them: “Don’t be alarmed,” he

says. ‘You are looking for Jesus the Nazarene, who was crucified. He has risen! He is not

here. See the place where they laid him. But go, tell his disciples and Peter, “He is going

ahead of you into Galilee. There you will see him, just as he told you”’ (vv. 6–7).

Matthew describes the man as an angel who “came down from heaven and going to

the tomb, rolled back the stone and sat on it after or at the same time as the earthquake” (Matt

28:2). He describes the angel as brilliantly white. The guards are comatose with fear. The

angel addresses the women with words substantially similar to Mark’s, with some minor

differences: “Do not be afraid, for I know that you are looking for Jesus, who was crucified.

He is not here; he has risen, just as he said. Come and see the place where he lay. Then go

quickly and tell his disciples: ‘He has risen from the dead and is going ahead of you into

Galilee. There you will see him.’ Now I have told you” (Matt 28:5–8).

Like Mark, Luke does not mention an earthquake or any angelic moving of the stone.

He mentions two men who suddenly appear beside the women. The women bow before them,

18
James R. Edwards, The Gospel According to Mark, PNTC (Grand Rapids, MI; Leicester, England: Eerdmans;
Apollos, 2002), 493 notes that this is likely intended to be read as an angel: 1) The use of “white robe” (cf. Rev
7:9, 13) and “young man” often refers to a heavenly being (Luke 24:4; 2 Macc 3:26, 33; Gos. Pet. 36; Josephus,
Ant. 5.277); 2) The women’s response indicates an angelic encounter. I would add that Matthew also interpreted
Mark as referring to an angel in his account.
and the angels address them with some similarities and other clear differences, recalling

Jesus’ passion and resurrection predictions: “Why do you look for the living among the dead?

He is not here; he has risen! Remember how he told you, while he was still with you in

Galilee: ‘The Son of Man must be delivered into the hands of sinners, be crucified and on the

third day be raised again’” (Luke 24:5–7). In common with Matthew is a reminder of Jesus’

prediction. In common with both Matthew and Mark is a reference to Galilee and the words,

“he is risen.” Apart from this, the angel's words differ as they focus on Jesus’ resurrection

prediction.

In John, the stone has been moved, and there is no initial reference to an angel.

However, after finding the tomb empty, Mary runs and tells Peter and the “loved disciple,”

who come to the tomb. After the disciples return to their homes, Mary encounters two angels

in white seated in the tomb (John 20:12). The two angels may indicate John’s awareness of

Luke’s Passion narrative. They ask her, “woman, why are you crying?” She responds with

uncertainty as to where Jesus is. Then Jesus appears to her. There is no reference to the

angels after this point.

We can surmise from this that at the tomb with the stone rolled away, there were one

or two mysterious young men in dazzling array, who were possibly angels, involved in the

experience of the women at the tomb. They likely told the women that Jesus has risen and

mentioned Galilee.

The Empty Tomb and Missing Body

The fourth element common to all accounts in the Gospels is the empty tomb (Matt

28:6; Mark 16:6; Luke 24:6, 12; John 20:5). When the women and disciples arrive, Jesus is

missing from the tomb. In Mark and Matthew, they are asked by the young man/angel to

observe the place where Jesus had been laid. All three Synoptics mention that Jesus was
wrapped in a shroud (sindōn) (Mark 15:46; Matt 27:59; Luke 23:53). 19 Mark and Matthew

say nothing of any shroud or cloths left in the tomb. Luke records they went in and did not

find Jesus. Later, Peter came and observed the empty tomb, the absence of Jesus, and linen

cloths (othonia) 20 left in the tomb. In John, there are also linen cloths (othonia) and a separate

cloth that wrapped Jesus’ head (soudarion). 21 Although there are some variations in detail,

the empty tomb is a common feature of the Gospel accounts.

Christophanies or Resurrection Appearances

The fifth factor is that each of the accounts includes appearances of Jesus, except for

the shorter ending of Mark, which includes the women meeting a young man (likely an angel)

who tells them of Jesus’ resurrection. It is implied that this man/angel has seen Jesus. There

are no actual Christophanies (appearances of Jesus). Appearances are recorded in the other

Gospels and Paul. These are listed below in probable chronological order.

APPEARANCES IN PAUL
Paul (ca. 53–55) records a set of six appearances in 1 Cor 15:3–8.

1) Peter: It is unclear when this is, but it is probably one that Luke reports (Luke 24:34) or
perhaps one in John (John 21).
2) The Twelve: An appearance of Jesus to the Twelve Apostles (in reality, the eleven minus
Judas).
3) More than Five Hundred: Paul records the appearance of Jesus to 500 brothers
simultaneously. It is unclear whether “brothers” is inclusive here, “brothers and sisters.”
Paul states that most of those witnesses remain alive, while some have died. It is not clear
when Jesus appeared to the 500 occurred. Some have suggested Pentecost, which can be
ruled out, as Christ does not appear then. The best guess is an appearance in Galilee,
perhaps the one described in the Great Commission text (Matt 28:18–20). 22

19
The sindōn can be a light piece of clothing, but here is a shroud in which Jesus was wrapped (BDAG 924).
Later, Luke mentions that the linen cloths (below) were left in the tomb. Likely, the two are parallel ways to
describe the same thing—the cloths Jesus was wrapped in.
20
The Greek othonion means “linen cloth, cloth wrapping” (BDAG 693). See note above.
21
The soudarion was a face-cloth which could be used to wipe away sweat. The term is used of a cloth (Luke
19:20) and of Paul’s cloths from his tentmaking (Acts 19:12) (BDAG 934). It is used in 11:44 of the cloth
around Lazarus’ head and here in the same way of Jesus. The plural othonia and the separate face-cloth is a
problem for those who argue for the authenticity of the Shroud of Turin (although Luke uses the singular sinōn,
“shroud,” and the plural othonia, “cloths”). For a good discussion of the pros and cons of the Shroud see
Norman L. Geisler, “Shroud of Turin,” in BECA 705–706. In my view, there are far too many doubts to argue
for having confidence it was Jesus’ burial shroud.
22
See E. F. F. Bishop, “The Risen Christ and the Five Hundred Brethren (1 Cor 15, 6),” CBQ 18 (1956): 341–
44. We can also note that Mark also points to a meeting with Jesus in Galilee (Mark 16:7).
4) James: He records an appearance to James, likely here the brother of Jesus rather than
James, the brother of John (1 Cor 9:4). 23 This is the only reference to such an event,
although James’ elevated position in the Church and his being designated and Apostle
alongside Peter and John suggest that such an event is likely (Gal 1:19; 2:9; Acts 12:17;
15:13; 21:18; 1 Cor 9:5; James; Jude 1).
5) All the apostles: This could mean the “Twelve [eleven].” John’s Gospel refers to two
appearances, one to the Eleven without Thomas (John 20:19–23) and another with him
(John 20:26–29). It may also refer to a wider group of apostles. 24
6) Paul: This recalls Paul’s experience of meeting Jesus on the Damascus Road, which he
refers to in Gal 1:15–16 and which Luke narrates three times in Acts 9:1–19; 22:6–
21; 26:12–18.
APPEARANCES IN MARK
Mark’s original Gospel (ca. AD 55–70) ended at Mark 16:8, and the only person

aware of the resurrection is the mysterious “young man” in the tomb on the right side (Mark

16:5). Matthew interprets this as an angel of the Lord (Matt 28:2, 5). Luke suggests two men

in dazzling apparel appeared suggesting angels (Luke 24:4). Mark’s account could refer to a

human, e.g., Mark the author of the Gospel. However, Matthew and Luke’s accounts suggest

that this should be seen as an angel. There are no actual appearances indicated, however. The

longer endings include resurrection appearance narratives (below).

APPEARANCES IN LUKE
Luke (ca. AD 63–80s) records no appearance to Mary or the women but records three

appearances:

1) To Two Disciples: An appearance to two, including Cleopas on the road from Jerusalem
to Emmaus (Luke 24:13–31).
2) To Simon Peter: An appearance to Simon Peter (Luke 24:34).
3) To the Eleven: An appearance to the remaining eleven apostles to whom Jesus shows his
scars and with whom he eats fish as evidence of his physical reality. He then commissions
them to go and be his witnesses (Luke 24:36–49).

23
This finds support in Paul calling Jesus’ brother James an apostle (Gal 1:19) and a pillar of the Jerusalem
Church (Gal 2:9) and in Acts, he is clearly a core leader of the Jerusalem church (e.g., Acts 15:13; 21:18), while
James of Zebedee is martyred a decade before 1 Corinthians (Acts 12:2). Anthony C. Thiselton, The First
Epistle to the Corinthians: A Commentary on the Greek Text, NIGTC (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000),
1207 notes, “Most writers consider it virtually certain that the James in question is James the brother of Jesus.”
24
Fee, The First Epistle, 731–32 notes that this is puzzling with three possibilities: 1) Aside from individual
appearances, he appeared to all those who became apostles together at one time; 2) Another way of speaking of
the Twelve, so a second appearance; 3) A wider group of apostles.
 APPEARANCES IN ACTS
Acts (ca. AD 63–80s) gives no specific examples of resurrection appearances but

refers to multiple appearances. Luke records that Jesus gave “convincing proofs” (or many

proofs) of his resurrection for forty days. Knowing his readers have read the Gospel (Acts

1:1), he mentions only two appearances: 25

1) To the Apostles: Luke describes Jesus as “staying” with the apostles “whom he had
chosen,” speaking about the kingdom and predicting Pentecost. He commissions them to
wait for the Spirit, after which they will bear witness concerning him in Israel and the
world (Acts 1:4–8). This passage is a free summary of the final appearance to all the
disciples in Luke 24:36–49, with an eye on what will follow in Acts.
2) To Paul: Jesus’ appearance to Paul is recorded three times. The first is Luke’s account of
Paul’s experience of the risen Christ (Acts 9:1–19). The other two are on the lips of Paul
as he defends himself at the Temple (Acts 22:6–21) and before Agrippa II in Caesarea
Maritima (Acts 26:12–18).

APPEARANCES IN MATTHEW
Matthew (ca. AD 65–80s) records two appearances, missing out the appearance to the

two disciples on the road:

1) To Mary Magdalene and “the other Mary” (Matt 28:8). Their response is to worship him
(Matt 28:9).
2) To the Eleven on a mountain in Galilee. At this time, Jesus commissioned those present
to go and make him disciples from the whole world (Matt 28:16–20). As noted, this may
be the appearance to 500 mentioned by Paul.
APPEARANCES IN JOHN
John (ca. AD 60–90) records four appearances:

1) To Mary Magdalene, who mistakes him for the gardener and goes to tell the others
(John 20:14–18). John records that Mary took the news to the disciples and is the first
preacher of the resurrection.
2) To Ten of the Eleven (minus Thomas) who were locked away in a room. Jesus appears
among them. He gives them the Spirit and commissions them, “as the Father has sent me,
I am sending you.” Thomas refused to believe when he heard of the event (John 20:19–
25).
3) To the Eleven, including Thomas. Jesus shows Thomas his scars, and Thomas worships
him (John 20:26–29).
4) To Seven Disciples by the Sea of Galilee, including Peter, Thomas, Nathanael, James,
and John, plus two unnamed others. Recalling Luke 5:1–11 and perhaps again indicating
John’s awareness of Luke’s Gospel, Jesus helps them catch fish, and they eat with him.
Jesus reinstates Peter with the three-fold “feed my sheep/lambs, do you love me ...” Jesus
25
It is not clear whether Jesus appeared twice, i.e. Acts 1:4 (cf. Luke 24:36–49) and then at Acts 1:5–9. This
second time he answers a question on the restoration of Israel and repeats the commission. Then he ascends.
 predicts Peter will suffer and die, bringing glory to God. He also speaks with Peter about
the loved disciple, who writes John—likely John the Apostle (John 21:1–23).
APPEARANCES IN MARK’S LONGER ENDING
The longer ending of Mark includes three appearances (Mark 16:9–20). 26 This ending

was known by Irenaeus (ca. 175–195), by Tatian, who wrote the Diatessaron (died ca. 180),

and possibly by Justin Martyr (ca. 100–165). 27 As such, these appearance accounts were

circulating in the mid-late second century. It seems to gather some of the Johannine, Lukan,

and possibly Matthean traditions. There are appearances:

1) To Mary Magdalene, who tells the others, but they do not believe her (Mark 16:9–11, cf.
Matt 28:9; John 20:1–18).
2) To Two Disciples walking in the country, again the disciples do not believe them (Mark
16:12–13, cf. Luke 24:13–35).
3) To the Eleven while they are eating. Jesus rebukes their lack of faith and sends them out
to preach the gospel, which they do (Mark 16:14–20, cf. Matt 28:16–20; Luke 24:46–49).
Commissioning of the Disciples
The sixth and final common element of the resurrection narratives in each Gospel

(plus Acts in Luke’s case and the longer ending of Mark) is a commissioning encounter. The

original version of Mark ending at Mark 16:8 excludes this commissioning. The

commissioning accounts differ in emphases:

MATTHEW
Matthew 28:18–20 is traditionally called the Great Commission, but is, in reality, only

one of the commissioning accounts in the Gospels-Acts. It focuses on going in Christ’s

universal cosmic authority, to all nations, discipleship, baptism, and teaching believers the

teachings of Christ (Matt 28:18–20). As with Mark, it builds on earlier references to the

cosmic mission in Matt 24:14 and 26:13.

26
Mention should be made of the other longer ending in which there is no mention of Jesus appearing. Instead,
the women delivered the report of the resurrection to Peter and others with him. They are then sent out by Jesus
to the east and west to preach salvation. This implies an appearance to the disciples sent. This ending features in
seventh–ninth century uncials and is clearly secondary. See Bruce Manning Metzger, United Bible Societies, A
Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament, Second Edition a Companion Volume to the United Bible
Societies’ Greek New Testament (4th Rev. Ed.) (London; New York: United Bible Societies, 1994), 103.
27
Metzger, A Textual Commentary, 102–106.
 LUKE
We have two commission statements from Jesus in Luke’s writings. In Luke 24:46–

49, believers will preach repentance and forgiveness in all nations from Jerusalem, where

they will be endowed with the Spirit. Acts 1:8 also emphasizes Spirit-empowerment and

beginning in Jerusalem, with witness defining the mission rather than preaching.

JOHN
In the commissioning of John 20:21, the emphases are an emulation of Christ,

“sending,” reception of the Spirit, and granting forgiveness (John 20:21).

MARK
Mark’s Gospel has a vision for worldwide evangelization (Mark 13:10, 27; 14:9) but

lacks any commission in the resurrection account. As noted above, the longer ending of Mark

indicates how some second-century Christians understood the commission received by Jesus.

Mark’s longer ending emphasizes going, preaching, belief, baptism, and signs and wonders

(Mark 16:15–20).

While there are differences between these accounts, we can isolate the key features

they have in common:

GOING/SENDING
In Matthew (and Mark’s longer ending), the commissioning focuses on “going.” 28 In

John, “going” is replaced by “sending,” which implies “going” but puts the onus on the

sender—God, through Christ. The Christian community is not to sit in their churches and

wait for people to come—we are sent to go to the unchurched throughout God’s world.

A COSMIC MISSION
In the Synoptics, the emphasis is on taking the message to the whole world (“all

nations,” “all the world,” “all creation,” “everywhere,” and “the ends of the earth”). Hence, it

28
While some take this as “as you go,” the participle here is imperatival. See D. A. Carson, “Matthew,” in The
Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Matthew, Mark, Luke, ed. Frank E. Gaebelein et al., EBC 8 (Grand Rapids, MI:
Zondervan Publishing House, 1984), 595.
is an incomplete cosmic or global mission until all nations have received the gospel (Mark

13:10; Matt 24:14).

BAPTIZING
Matthew (and Mark’s longer ending) emphasize the “baptism” of the new converts.

After conversion, disciples are to be baptized and instructed (Matt 28:18–19; Mark 16:15–

20).

MISSIONING
Matthew speaks of “making” disciples, Mark in his longer ending of preaching and

signs, and Luke of preaching “repentance and forgiveness of sins” and “witnessing” in Acts

1:8. John’s commission is a general statement that indicates that believers continue Christ’s

mission of preaching, healing, and forgiving (John 20:21–23).

CONVERTS
The Synoptics emphasize the people dimension of the mission. Matthew highlights

discipleship, i.e., “make people Jesus’ disciples”—a process involving engaging with

unbelievers as Jesus did (calling, preaching, healing, feeding, deliverance), baptizing and

instructing the new believers. Mark’s longer ending emphasizes helping people believe and

be baptized. Luke does not emphasize the response but the indicative truth that Jesus’

disciples will go as the Spirit enables them.

SPIRIT
Luke and John, in different ways, emphasize the work of the Spirit (John 20:21; Luke

24:49; Acts 1:8). Matthew includes baptism in the name of the Triune God. Mark’s longer

ending mentions signs and wonders. It is the Holy Spirit’s mission, which he will lead and

empower. Our job is to cooperate with him as he leads us in God’s mission.

Conclusion to the Resurrection Accounts
So, while there are differences, there are common threads across the traditions which

testify to the resurrection. Broadly speaking, we are left with three options to resolve the

differences:

Rejection Due to Differences

Some people reject the resurrection as a construction, of the early church or the

evangelists, because of discrepancies in the accounts. They believe it is a story created in the

early church, perhaps a recasting of myths of a “dying-rising” savior or hero. They believe

the early church ascribed dying and rising to Jesus to support their claims that he was the

Christ, the Son of God. Some reject the whole notion on the grounds that there is little

consistency in the stories. The shorter ending of Mark adds weight to this view as it ends with

an empty tomb and no appearances.

Total Harmonization
Christians with a high view of inerrancy and/or infallibility of the Bible accept the

accounts as accurate, harmonize them, and soften the differences. They explain the

differences as the result of authentic eye-witness recollection. Most taking this approach

accept the longer ending of Mark as historical (if not necessarily original) and include it in

their analysis. As a result, they come up with ten or eleven appearances with this kind of

construction: 29

1) Mary Magdalene: An appearance to Mary Magdalene (John 20:14–18) with other

women (Matt 28:8–9, cf. Mark 16:10–11).
2) Two Disciples on the Emmaus Road Including Cleopas: An appearance to two
disciples walking in the country (Luke 24:13–31, cf. Mark 16:12–13).
3) Peter: An appearance to Simon Peter (Luke 24:34; 1 Cor 15:3–8, cf. John 21).

29
There are alternatives. One can group all the “Great Commission” appearances as one (i.e., the appearance to
the eleven in Jerusalem and the eleven and seven in Galilee as one [nos. 4, 8, and 9 on the list]). One can also
align the appearance to Peter with the seven in Galilee (nos. 3 and 9 on the list) as the same appearance to Peter.
One can argue Paul’s reference to the appearance to “the 12” and “the apostles” as the two appearances in John
to the apostles in Jerusalem.
4) The Eleven (Minus Thomas): An appearance to the eleven minus Thomas in Jerusalem
in which Jesus also commissions them to go and preach the Gospel (Luke 24:36–49; John
20:25–29; 1 Cor 15:3–8; Acts 1:4–9, cf. Mark 16:14–20). Some believe there was an
initial imparting of the Spirit to the disciples at this point (John 20:22). Some believe
there were two impartations (Acts 2:1–4); this seems unlikely. Instead, John 20:22 is
John’s way of narrating Pentecost in his theologically shaped Gospel.
5) The Eleven: A second appearance to the eleven, including Thomas in Jerusalem (John
20:26–29).
6) James: An appearance to James (1 Cor 15:3–8).
7) All the Apostles (Wider group?): An appearance to all the apostles, assuming that this
refers to a broader group than “the twelve” (1 Cor 15:3–8). This view may also merge
with 5) above.
8) The Eleven in Galilee: An appearance to the eleven in Galilee sending them out into his
mission (Matt 28:16–20).
9) The Seven in Galilee: An appearance to the seven at the Sea of Galilee and the re-
commissioning of Peter (John 21:1–23).
10) 500: An appearance to 500 Christians on one occasion (1 Cor 15:3–8). This appearance
may be the Matthean Commission.
11) Paul: An appearance to Paul (1 Cor 15:3–8; Acts 9:1–19; 22:6–21; 26:12–18).

Moderate Acceptance and Harmonization

Another approach is to accept the accounts as pointing to the resurrection of Jesus

while not being too hung up on the exact details beyond the six common elements described

above. This view allows doubt to stand concerning precisely who the women were (except

for Mary Magdalene, who is common to all accounts); how the stone rolled away

(earthquake, angels, etc.); the precise number of angels (one or two); the presence and words

of the angels; the exact number, place, and witnesses of the appearances; or the words of the

commissioning. Instead, what is most significant is the overall point rather than the detail and

the precise alignment of the appearances. This view accepts that the basics of the resurrection

should be accepted for good reasons (see below)—a visit to the tomb; the stone rolled away;

the tomb being empty; an angelophany of some sort; subsequent appearances (details

sketchy); and the final commissioning of the disciples. This view also notes that there are

common aspects to the appearances suggesting that some degree of harmonization is possible

(see above). However, proponents of this view would not be concerned by some loose ends
as the overall thrust outweighs differences in detail. They would likely see some degree of

harmonization where the appearances appear very similar.

The best position would appear to be “total harmonization” above. There are likely

ten or eleven appearances, but as there is some uncertainty, we should not be too dogmatic

over exact detail, adopting some of the ideas in the third view.

Other Alternatives Proposed to Deny the Resurrection

Suggestions have been made to explain away the resurrection accounts. Here, I will

briefly consider each of them.

The Stories are Fictitious Constructs

The case against the resurrection is often built on an a priori commitment against the

supernatural, miracles, and resurrection (see also on Miracles). The logic works in this way—

resurrections do not happen in human experience; therefore, Jesus did not rise from the dead,

and neither will we. This approach is based on a naturalistic worldview that rejects all

occurrences outside common and verifiable human experience (disregarding any claims to

resurrections from the dead in history, including those in Scripture). When one takes this

position, one must find a way to explain the resurrection of Jesus.

Commonly, it is argued that the resurrection accounts are taken over from myths of

the dying and rising god. The main gods in mind include Adonis, 30 Attis, 31 Baal, 32

30
In Greek myth, Adonis was great looking young man, favored by the goddess of love Aphrodite (Venus).
When born, Aphrodite gave the baby to Persephone, queen of the underworld, who refused to release him. Zeus
ruled that Adonis spend a third of a year in the underworld with Persephone, a third with Aphrodite, and a third
doing his own thing. In Hippolytus, Euripides records Artemis caused Adonis’ death by a wild boar. When
Aphrodite appealed to Zeus, he permitted Adonis to spend a year with Aphrodite and the other in the
underworld.
31
In Phrygian myth, Attis was the son of the river Sangarius and Agdistis, a hermaphrodite. The Great Mother
of the gods (Cybele or Agdistis), fell in love with Attis and sought to marry him. The reluctant Attis castrated
himself and died. Agdistis convinced Zeus to ensure that Attis’ body did not decay. Each Spring, this was
celebrated with devotees self-castrating themselves. Attis was also a sun deity in the Roman world.
Attis was fundamentally a vegetation god, and in his self-mutilation, death, and resurrection he represents the
fruits of the earth, which die in winter only to rise again in the spring. In art Attis was frequently represented as
a youth, with the distinctive Phrygian cap and trousers. This myth gives background to Galatians and
circumcision.
32
The Canaanite fertility god Baal is negatively referred to in the OT as a false idol. Each year his death and
resurrection were celebrated at the new year. In the Baal-myth, a great conqueror, Baal repudiates the “death”
Dionysus, 33 Dumuzi (Tammuz), 34 Osiris, 35 and Persephone. 36 However, in recent

scholarship, the claims have been well-critiqued. As the footnoted summaries show, these are

all fertility myths explaining the turning of the year and the shift from death (winter) to life

(spring). There is nothing like a living person in the context of recorded history being killed,

buried, their corpse raised, and then that person encountering other people on earth. No living

documents state they saw these raised gods in any verifiable history.

In contrast, we have the NT documents unsensationally stating that people met the

risen Jesus. The story of Jesus is not a myth but set in actual verifiable history 37 based on

(Mot). Mot invites him to his world to eat mud. He is killed and bought back. Anat his wife pleads with Mot, but
he refuses. She receives no help from the other gods, and so attacks Mot, destroying him. El dreams Baal is not
dead. Baal is found to be alive and despite Mot attacking him again, he lives on in his field. This myth was
central to new year ritual.
33
Dionysus (Roman Bacchus), the son of Zeus and a mortal Semele (or Persephone or Demeter), was the highly
popular Greek god of the grape harvest, wine, and fertility. He is also sometimes labelled “the dying-and-rising
god.” In the relevant myth, he is born to the goddess of vegetation Demeter. Zeus’ wife Hera is upset and
convinces the Titans to kill Dionysus. They found him disguised as a goat and tore him to pieces eating his body
except his heart which Athena rescued. She took his heart to Zeus and he gave to Semele who ate it, and she
gave birth to Dionysus again.
34
Mentioned in Ezek 8:14–15, Dumuzi was the Sumerian god of vegetation and fertility. He was in a sexual
contentious relationship with Inanna (Ishtar), the goddess of love. Inanna became lost in the domain of her sister
Ereshkigal, the Underworld. She had sat on the throne of her sister and was killed and hung up on a nail. Her
servant gained help from Enki and she was resurrected. By law she had to find a spirit in her place. Inanna came
home and became furious with Dumuzi who had not helped her and was living splendidly. He was captured and
taken to the Underworld where he died. Inanna changed her mind and restored him with his sister taking his
place for a set number of days a year; hence, the period of winter.
35
Osiris is the Egyptian god of death and resurrection. He judges the dead in the afterlife but also grants all life.
He was associated with the annual cycle of growth and the flooding of the Nile. In one version of the myth,
Osiris’ brother Set, with the Ethiopian Queen with other accomplices, sought to kill Osiris. They trapped him in
a sealed box and cast it into the Nile. His wife Isis found him, but he was dead. She revived him with a spell and
he impregnated her only to die again. Isis gave birth to Horus and Set discovered Osiris’ body and tore it up into
pieces which he scattered. His penis was eaten by a fish. Isis gathered his other body parts, wrapped them for
burial, and the gods raised him as god of the underworld due to her devotion. In another version, Osiris is a king
traveling with his sister Isis and teaching people agriculture and the arts. His brother Typhon kills him,
distributing his body parts to his accomplices. Isis and Hercules (Horus) take revenge against Typhon, killing
him. Isis gathers his body parts, again except his penis and buries them in different places—each a place of
Osiris worship.
36
Persephone is mostly seen as the daughter of Zeus and Demeter, married to Hades, goddess of the dead,
formidable queen of the Shades. Zeus told Pluto to abduct her as Demeter would not want her to go down to
Hades. Pluto took her. Demeter searched for her, found her (the place varies) and demanded Zeus tell Pluto to
send her back. Pluto gave her a pomegranate kernel to eat and released her, but the kernel doomed her to Hades.
This led to an agreement whereby Persephone would spend a third or half of the year in Hades with Pluto and
the other time with the gods above. As with the other gods, she is associated with spring and immortality. The
list is taken from Heidi Wendt, “Dying and Rising God,” in The Routledge Encyclopedia of Ancient
Mediterranean Religions, ed. Eric Orlin et al. (New York: Routledge, 2016), 279.
37
I am not saying that the resurrection appearances are verifiable history. Instead, I am saying that through
Roman and Jewish writings, we can verify the historical situation in the first century Roman context and the
accounts fit into them.
multiple recorded references to experiencing a bodily Jesus raised from the dead. He

appeared, was touched, bore scars, ate, drank, and conversed with people. The myths on the

other hand are supra-historical, narrative constructs without any connection to the time-space

continuum. They are phenomenological, involve divine deities rather than people, and are set

in some distant past.

Furthermore, the details of these myths are wildly different from the Jesus’ story,

even if there is a dying-rising motif. Finally, one might add that God always encounters

humankind in their historical context and seeks their adoration, so it makes sense that his

story would, even in a most general dying-rising way, be prefigured in the human story. The

authors and proclaimers of Jesus’ resurrection did not construct it but realized they were

experiencing an actual dying and rising story in Jesus. While it can be argued that the NT

describes Jesus in terms of myth (esp. in Revelation), the parallels say nothing conclusive

about borrowing. 38

It should also be said that any a priori rejection of the resurrection is philosophically

unsound because it must be conceded that any event is possible even if it has not been

experienced. An example is the genesis of the earth and universe. We know it happened

because we live on the earth amid an enormous universe. We know it exists and have some

rudimentary ideas concerning how it started. But that is it. We must assume something

unprecedented happened to set the cosmos in motion. The pre-existing material then

exploded into the universe, and we have no idea what caused it and how the material came to

exist in the first place. We cannot replicate it. Yet its results are an absolute fact in our

experience. (In passing, surely the God-hypothesis is as good an explanation as any).

38
See for a good discussion, Keener, The Gospel of John, 1172–75.
 The assumption that miracles do not happen is unsustainable as one cannot know all

possibilities. There are recorded cases of experienced resurrections in the Old 39 and New

Testaments 40 as well as claims of such things in history. 41 Accepting the claims to authorship

in the NT and that the young man in Gethsemane was the author of Mark, we have in the NT

six writers who experienced Christ (Matthew, Mark, John, Paul, Peter, and James), ten to

eleven described experiences including four first-hand accounts (Paul, Matthew, and John).

These records are not myths but eyewitness testimonies. We can still assess the evidence and

reject that the resurrection occurred, but not on an a priori basis.

The resurrection lies in the realm of history and not science which means that it

cannot be scientifically verified as it is not necessarily repeatable. There is simply no way to

test whether there was a resurrection of Jesus. Similarly, there is no way to know whether

Nero directly caused the great fire in Rome. We believe in it, or we do not. Similarly, while

science can purportedly take us close to the origin of the universe and humanity, it cannot

recreate its origins, leaving open the possibility of a spontaneous creation. The absence of

other such events does not rule out the resurrection of Christ in history. Instead, this is what

makes it miraculous, surprising, and impactful.

Finally, the evidence below also calls into question that it is a mere myth. What

follows the resurrection includes the propagators of the “myth” being prepared to die for their

belief. They did so for no gain, material or otherwise.

Finally, Tom Wright’s analysis of Greco-Roman views of resurrection in The

Resurrection of the Son of God clearly shows that Greeks and Romans did not believe in

bodily resurrection. Instead, they believed in a spiritual afterlife. The existing myths did not

39
1 Kgs 17:17–24; 2 Kgs 4:8–17.
40
Mark 5:21–43; Luke 7:11–17; John 11:1–44; Acts 9:37–41; 14:19; 20:9–10.
41
An example I am aware of is a young African, Frank, who attended my classes. He claimed to be an
eyewitness to two resurrections in his homeland. See also Fragments of Papias 5.1.
reflect the resurrection story, so it is not feasible that early Christians borrowed such myths to

support their beliefs about Jesus.

The Stolen Body Theory

Proponents of this view argue that Jesus’ died and was buried and some disciples stole

the body. This idea is the earliest argument against the resurrection, reflected in the text

of Matthew itself, purportedly originating from Pilate (Matt 27:64). Some also deny that there

was a Roman guard (Matt 27:62–66), as this is only recorded in Matthew. They believe this

was a detail added in after the event. However, if so, why were the disciples not hunted

down, arrested, and punished for propagating this lie? Some argue the guard was the Temple

Guard; however, the Greek koustōdia is more commonly used for Roman guards. 42 Some

note that the guard is not set until the day after (“the next day”), so the tomb was left

unguarded until the next morning. However, when they sealed the tomb on Saturday (Matt

27:64), the guards would have checked to ensure the body was still there.

If the body was stolen sometime after the setting of the guard, then it gets more

complicated. One option is that the guards were not there (above) or asleep, enabling the

disciples to steal the body. In Matthew, the guards were paid to give this explanation for the

disappearance of the body (Matt 28:12–15). However, if so, how did the soldiers know that

the body had been stolen? It is also unlikely that the disciples could have slipped past the

soldiers and quietly moved the stone whether the guards were awake or not (unless they

drugged them, so it gets even more ludicrous).

Further, it is unlikely that the disillusioned and fearful disciples would attempt

something as bold as stealing a body or taking on a koustōdia of Roman soldiers in whatever

state (see below). After all, they would have been put to death if they had been caught.

42
See Hagner, Matthew 14–28, 863. The Greek can read “you have a guard (already)” or “take a guard.” Either
way, koustōdia is a Latin loanword and more often speaks of Roman soldiers. These soldiers are also answerable
to Pilate. The term for “soldiers” in Matt 28:12 uses stratiōtēs which usually means Roman soldiers (as in
27:27).
Furthermore, it is unlikely that the soldiers would have fallen asleep because that would have

made them liable to punishment, even death (cf. Acts 12:19; 16:27; Justinian Code 49.16).

Knowing that they would face death made the Roman soldier very attentive at night.

The Greek here, koustōdia, indicates a guard of four to sixteen Roman soldiers who,

in the context of battle, arranged themselves in an outward-facing square to defend

themselves. They faced death if they did not complete their mission (see Acts 16:27). Here,

the fact that they appear to have been spared adds to the extraordinary circumstances.

In addition, the Gospels record that the disciples were disillusioned and in hiding after

Jesus’ burial. They did not understand Jesus’ resurrection as a present-day reality. It is

unlikely they would have stolen the body. Also, Pilate would surely have gone on a rampage

if the body was stolen, to round up those responsible and deal with them. There is no

evidence he did this. Finally, the body has never been found. This fact alone causes a

problem for most alternative views.

The Swoon Theory

Another theory is that Jesus was severely injured and unconscious but not dead when

buried in the tomb. The idea is that Jesus awoke and managed to release himself from the

tomb. This idea crumbles at every turn. If we accept the Gospel accounts as accurate, it is

improbable because:

1) After his ordeal, Jesus was severely injured, dehydrated, nursing the injuries, and
wrapped in cloths. He is hardly likely to have been able to move a sealed stone that some
believe weighed two tons. 43 One could argue he used supernatural power. But this
concedes he was a supernaturally empowered person, which cuts against the arguments
against his resurrection.
2) If Jesus had managed to escape, would he not have rejoined his disciples and resumed his
ministry or withdrawn with them away from the threat of the Romans? Instead, the
disciples began preaching, and according to tradition, most died for his name.

43
See J. McDowell, Evidence for the Resurrection: What it Means for Your Relationship with God (Ventura,
Cal; Regal, 2009), 176.
3) John records that Jesus was dead, his blood having separated into blood and water when
his side was pierced. The separation of his blood indicates that Jesus was dead. 44 The
decision not to break Jesus’ legs confirms that he was deceased (John 19:33–34).
4) As noted previously, Matthew has a guard of four or more soldiers present (above). If so,
having woken, Jesus would have had to get past the stone and the guards without being
noticed, or he would have had to overpower the guard. This explanation is hardly likely in
the state he was in. Indeed, if Jesus managed this it is evidence for the resurrection (as he
was clearly dead). As noted in 1), he could use his supernatural power, but if so, that
concedes he could have been raised.
5) Furthermore, when Jesus was taken from the cross, he was covered with eighty pounds of
spices and was embalmed (if the brutal treatment did not kill him, this would have
finished him). His head was wrapped—if he were alive, he would have suffocated
quickly.
6) It is hard to believe then that the disillusioned monotheistic disciples would have
worshiped this battered and bruised escapee and given their lives for him as they
witnessed to the world that he was God!
7) The ancient executioners were not stupid. It was their responsibility to ensure that the
victim was killed. They thrust a spear into his side to ensure he was dead. The Roman
executioner also believed Jesus to be dead.
8) If Jesus was asleep, what happened to him? Where is he? Where did he end up? The story
would look different, for he would have stayed with the disciples and not just appeared to
them. He would have died a natural death. Christianity would not exist, and we could visit
his grave.
The Wrong Tomb Theory
Another idea that originated with Kirsopp Lake in 1907 is that on Sunday morning,

the women found the wrong tomb and mistakenly believed Jesus had risen when he was

buried in another tomb. 45 However, this fails to account for the explicit statement in the

Synoptic Gospels that the women were with Joseph when he buried Jesus (Matt 27:61; Mark

15:47; Luke 23:55). Only John leaves out this detail, and so it has strong support from the

Form-Critical criteria of multiple attestation. 46 To accept this theory, one is forced to accept

the Johannine account as the only accurate one and argue that the women got it wrong in the

44
See Carson, The Gospel according to John, 623 for a discussion on the two main possibilities here: 1) That
the spear pierced Jesus’ heart and the blood flowed from the heart mingled with fluid from the pericardial sac to
produce “blood and water;” 2) This was hemorrhagic fluid which had gathered between the pleura lining of the
rib cage and the lining of the lung which had separated, the clearer serum at the top, the deep red layer at the
bottom. The spear pierced the chest cavity from the bottom, causing both layers to flow out. Carson notes,
“[h]owever the medical experts work this out, there can be little doubt that the Evangelist is emphasizing Jesus’
death, his death as a man, his death beyond the shadow of doubt.” (See also footnote 529).
45
Kirsopp Lake, The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ (London: Williams and Norgate,
1907), 250–53.
46
On this criterion, see Stanley E. Porter, “Criteria of Authenticity,” DJG2, 156.
dark (John 19:34–20:1). However, if the women got it wrong, the apostles and Joseph himself

could easily have corrected their error. If the disciples did go to the wrong tomb, one is

forced to wonder why the authorities did not produce the body to squash the rumor once the

disciples started preaching that Jesus had risen. Finally, the idea is sexist and modernist,

seeing these first-century women as stupid.

The Hallucination Theory

Another possibility is that the disciples experienced hallucinatory experiences of the

risen Christ, which were not real. So, for example, William McNeil writes: 47

The Roman authorities in Jerusalem arrested and crucified Jesus ... But soon
afterwards the dispirited Apostles gathered in an upstairs room and suddenly felt
again the heart-warming presence of their master. This seemed absolutely convincing
evidence that Jesus’ death on the cross had not been the end but the beginning ... The
Apostles bubbled over with excitement and tried to explain to all who would listen all
that had happened.

Aside from being remarkably absurd without any evidence aside from historically-

distant speculation, this theory disintegrates when one considers the appearances' corporate,

geographical, and psychological dynamics.

First, if it is to be explained in hallucinatory terms, we have the most unusual

phenomena of a series of corporate hallucinations that correlate almost perfectly. That is, we

do not have one or two personal experiences but ten or eleven scattered personal experiences.

In fact, one of these experiences purportedly included 500 people at one time, of which most

were still alive twenty or so years later (1 Cor 15:6). It is most unlikely that all these people

would have the same experience or that hallucination explains how 500 would have the same

imagined encounter in one moment. We also have no record of anyone refuting this claim.

47
W. McNeill, A World History, Third Edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 163
 Second, these appearances are geographically spread across various locations in

Jerusalem, the road to Emmaus, Galilee, and Syria (Damascus), increasing the unlikelihood

of them being hallucinations.

Third, the psychological expectation of the disciples was negative and not positive,

i.e., they did not expect to see Jesus again. Hallucinations are more likely where one is

positively attuned to its possibility. All indications are that the disciples were thoroughly

disillusioned (esp. Thomas, James) and did not understand the possibility of Jesus’

resurrection in the present day. Instead, they expected the resurrection as an eschatological

future event. The conditions for a hallucination experience are not in place. Luke 24 indicates

that they had essentially given up on Jesus as Messiah, he now being Jesus of Nazareth, a

powerful prophet, now deceased (Luke 24:19).

Similarly, as in the case of the “wrong tomb” theory, all the authorities had to do was

produce the body and destroy the claims of the first Christians; they did not.

Conclusion
None of these suggestions can be sustained without rejecting large portions of the

biblical account and doing so without any evidence whatsoever, except the seeming need to

find an alternative explanation. Hence, they are unsustainable and do not explain the evidence

sufficiently. The best explanation remains that Jesus did rise from the dead, crazy as that may

sound to some people.

The Case for the Resurrection

It has to be conceded that the resurrection cannot be proven in a modern scientific

sense. Christians must not overstate the evidence as if it is utterly and irrevocably conclusive.

We are talking about history here, which is always difficult to establish fully. Indeed, if other

ancient writings were subject to the same scrutiny, much of what we supposedly “know” of
ancient life would be rejected. 48 However, several indications suggest a sound (if not water-

tight) case can be made for the resurrection and that the best explanation of the evidence is

not one of the above theories, but that Jesus rose from the dead. I believe that the case for the

resurrection, while not water-tight, is a reasonable conclusion based on the evidence. Indeed,

for this writer, it is the most likely explanation of the data we have.

The Empty Tomb

As noted earlier in this essay, all Gospel accounts include an empty tomb with only

some cloth remaining. Any rejection of the resurrection requires an alternative explanation of

the empty tomb and the other data. As we have seen, it is implausible with the state that Jesus

was in, the presence of the guard, and the large stone, that Jesus got himself free from the

tomb, that the women got the wrong tomb, or that his body was stolen. We are still left with

the problem of why the tomb was empty. Where had Jesus’ body gone? Along with the

evidence of appearances, the best explanation is that Jesus was resurrected. His appearances

and teaching soon after indicate what happened next.

The Missing Body

Any rejection of the resurrection also requires an explanation for the body's

disappearance. Some claim (e.g., Lloyd Geering) 49 that the body of Christ is buried

somewhere in Israel. However, the body has not been found, nor has any evidence emerged

that Jesus’ survived the crucifixion or that the disciples secreted the body away. Despite

persecution and no material gain, they held to this story even to death. Although greatly

disputed, we have evidence from six biblical documents (five writers) that specifically attest

48
See Mark J. Keown, “Sources for Nero and the Reliability of the Gospels,”
http://drmarkk.blogspot.co.nz/2011/08/sources-for-nero-and-reliability-of.html. Here I argue that a better case
can be made for the historical reliability of the Gospels than the writings of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio,
all of which give us information about Nero (and other emperors).
49
Lloyd Geering was a NZ Presbyterian Minister who famously stated that Jesus’ bones remained somewhere in
Israel. For a brief summary of his life see David Rutledge, “Lloyd Geering – God and Me.”
http://www.abc.net.au/religion/stories/s1333339.htm.
to multiple resurrection appearances (Matt, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, and 1 Corinthians).

There are another twenty NT documents firmly built on this premise. 50 These represent the

writings of at least nine writers 51 who all agree that Jesus rose from the dead. That is a

significant number of witnesses. Indeed, were Jesus on trial for murder, this would be enough

to get a conviction. There is also an extra-biblical witness from Josephus (below) to this

effect.

The Inconsistencies in the Accounts

As has been noted, the inconsistencies of the resurrection accounts can be seen as

indications of their inauthenticity. However, the inconsistencies can also point the other way.

Remarkably, the early church allowed six accounts (the Gospels and Acts plus Paul, and in

the second century, the long end of Mark’s Gospel) to stand alongside each other with

essentially the same outline but different details (see above). The inconsistencies call into

question claims of collusion, despite Matthew and Luke relying on the same source, Mark (on

whom they did not rely for the appearance data). The accounts read like authentic, honest

recollections of the authors who collected eyewitness data and made little attempt to tidy

them up. The longer ending of Mark could be seen as an attempt to do this, but if so, it is not

based on any of the given Gospels. It alludes to Matthew, Luke, and John, but the final

50
E.g., Romans 1:4; 2 Cor 4:14; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:20; Col 1:18; 2:12; Phil 3:10; 1 Thess 1:10; 2 Thess 1:10; 2:1
(his return assumes his ongoing aliveness); 1 Tim 5:21; (Christ’s ongoing presence assumes his ongoing life); 2
Tim 2:8; Phlm 8 (“in Christ” supposes his ongoing life); Heb 11:10; Jas 1:1 (James serving Jesus and God in the
present assumes both are alive to him, see also 1 Cor 15:7); 1 Pet 1:3, 21; 2 Pet 1:14, 16 (his speaking to Peter
of his forthcoming death and his coming imply his resurrection); 1 John 4:15; 5:20 (abiding in Jesus and his
status as God assumes his ongoing life); 2 John 3 (Jesus as the source of grace, mercy, and peace implies his
ongoing life); Rev 1:9–21. The only NT book that does not indicate a belief in the resurrection is 3 John. See for
other early examples in the Apostolic Fathers, Ign. Trall. 9:3; Smyrn. 2:1; 6:2; 12:2; Magn. 11:1; Phld,
salutation; 8:2; 9:2; Eph. 20:1; Pol. Phil. 1:2; 2:1; 9:2; 12:2; 1 Clem 24:1; 42:3; Fragments of Papias, 7:1.
51
If we take the traditional authorship of the NT: Matthew, Mark, Luke (also Acts), John (also the epistles and
Revelation), Paul (and more writers if the six disputed letters are inauthentic), the author of Hebrews (unless one
of the other NT authors, I think Barnabas is the best possibility in the NT), Peter (and more if either letter is
inauthentic), James, Jude, and perhaps the author of Revelation if it is not John. Ancient writers often dictated
their writings, as in the case of Romans (Rom 16:22) and so there may have been a number of others involved.
If we take the most skeptical point of view on authorship, at least twelve authors are involved in the NT writings
(the authors of Matt, Mark, Luke, John, Paul the author of seven undisputed Paulines, the author of Eph & Col,
the author(s) of the Pastoral Epistles, Hebrews, 2 Pet & Jude, James, and the author of Revelation).
commission is unique and suggests a different source. Because of this different source,

probably, the longer ending should still reckon in discussions of the resurrection (even if

from the second century). The church recognized the value of the multiple accounts when it

rejected elevating the single harmony gospel, the Diatessaron, in the later second century.

The inconsistencies between the accounts are arguably one of the great strengths of the

Christian case because they indicate that there was no collusion in the accounts.

The Problem of an Alternative

All alternative theories must satisfy our data—the terrible suffering and the verified

death of Jesus, the large stone across the entrance, the guard, the absence of a body, the

empty tomb, and the appearances. Any other solution requires arbitrary and indiscriminate

adaptation or rejection of the data without supporting evidence and often on an a priori basis.

Such a conclusion is unscientific and creates historical fiction. Anyone can come to the data,

delete one or more elements at a whim, and reconstruct the story to suit their assumptions.

However, there is no evidence to support such constructions. There is no evidence in ancient

literature or archaeology to support an alternative thesis. The best assessment of the data is

that Jesus died, was buried and rose again, and appeared to his followers. Such a claim is

strengthened when we consider the dramatic change in their lives and the impact of their

testimony (further below). The alternative theories are complex, inconsistent in their

treatment of the data, and less believable than the idea that Jesus rose, incredible as this

seems.

The Testimony of the Women

One of the intriguing aspects of the accounts is the priority of the women's testimony

in all the accounts. In each, Mary Magdalene and other women are the first witnesses to the

empty tomb and revelation of the angels. In Jewish and Greco-Roman society, a woman was
an inadequate witness in a court of law. 52 Yet we have the remarkable retention of women

witnesses as the basis for the resurrection account. The retention of women witnesses

reinforces the authenticity of the accounts. Interestingly, Paul does not include the female

witnesses, perhaps because of this very problem.

The Appearance Accounts

Any alternative theory has to reckon with the appearance accounts and write them off

as either hallucinations or constructs and that the early disciples were fools for believing

them. As noted above, there were ten or eleven such appearances in the literature: Mary

Magdalene, the Emmaus travelers, the Ten, the Eleven, Peter, Galilee (Great Commission),

all the apostles, the seven by the Sea of Galilee fishing, James, the 500 in 1 Cor 15, and Paul.

As discussed above, it is far-fetched to write them all off as hallucinations. The

inconsistencies in the accounts weaken the idea that they are constructs. The remarkable

change in the disciples' lives and their readiness to suffer and die for their beliefs also suggest

that the resurrection is not fiction (further below).

Jewish Acceptance of the Resurrection and Jesus’ Divinity

Many Jewish people initially and ultimately rejected Jesus’ resurrection, divinity, and

messiahship. However, the first Christians were Jews who accepted it. That they did so is

remarkable because Jews were (and many continue to be) committed monotheists. As they

see God as entirely other (holy), it is unconscionable that this God would deign to become

flesh. Somewhat like zealous Muslims today who have a very high view of God’s otherness,

they cannot understand the notion of an incarnate God, a crucified Messiah, or the

resurrection of the Messiah (something that is only hinted at in the OT, e.g., Ps 22:25; Isa

53:11; Ps 16:8–11). Yet, despite intense rejection and persecution from their fellow Jews and

52
On the notion a woman’s testimony was not valued see R. B. Bauckham, Gospel Women: Studies of Named
Women in the Gospels (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002), 258 esp. note 2.
plenty of non-Jews, 53 Jesus’ Jewish followers quickly accepted the resurrection and the

lordship of Jesus and spread the word. More than that, as the Gospel spread, they saw Jesus

as the culmination of their faith based on covenant, law, temple, sacrifice, election privilege,

and boundary markers. Their understanding of these beliefs was transformed through his

coming. They moved from a faith based primarily on the stories of Exodus, Sinai, and the

land, to one based not only on these things but principally on a Messiah, crucified for the

whole world, who rose again. They were prepared to allow new converts to be law free and

not circumcised and accept them as the people of God (Acts 15).

In particular, an alternative theory for the resurrection of Jesus has to account for the

transformation of Saul, a brilliant Jewish monotheistic zealot Pharisee (Rabbi Saul) who was

radically opposed to the Christian movement and the resurrection. Indeed, we have reference

to his zeal for persecution from his own writings (Gal 1:12–23; Phil 3:6; 1 Tim 1:13) and

those of Luke (Acts 7:58–8:3; 22:2–1; 26:4–11). Yet, we have in these accounts

the experience of a Pharisee sensationally converted after an encounter with the risen Christ

and becoming his key messenger to the Greco-Roman world. His transformation cannot be

doubted considering the evidence of Luke and Paul’s thirteen letters—of which at least seven

are undisputedly his. Paul gained little from this but great suffering and persecution (see esp.

2 Cor 11:22–33) and eventual death (see esp. 2 Tim 4:6–8; 1 Clem. 5:5–7). Indeed, Paul

himself ponders the futility of ongoing life and Christian ministry and suffering—through

facing danger every hour and fighting wild beasts in Ephesus—if the resurrection of Christ

had not occurred and if there is no hope of future resurrection (1 Cor 15:11–19, 30–32). If

not, he suggests, “let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die” (15:32). Yet, Paul pressed on

and died for his faith. Why? Because he was convinced that he had seen the risen Lord (Gal

1:15; Phil 1:19–25).

53
See for example Acts 7–8; 12:1–5; 13:50; 14:5, 19; 17:5–9, 13–15; 18:12–17; 21:27–23:22; 1 Thess 2:14–16.
 When I meet radical monotheists in the Middle East today, whether Jewish or

Muslim, I marvel at this radical change that caused the first Christians to shift from strict

monotheism to believe in Jesus as Messiah and Lord. It would require a cataclysmic event

such as the resurrection to turn radical monotheists like Paul into believers in a triune God.

The best explanation is that they, too, have met this Jesus, the Jesus whom Paul met on the

road to Damascus.

Greco-Roman Acceptance of the Resurrection and the Exclusivity of Christ

It is not a complete surprise that the Greeks and Romans deified Jesus. They were

prone to accept other deities into their pantheons. The ancient Emperors and other significant

figures were also deified. However, it is surprising that they accepted his bodily resurrection

and believed in Jesus as Lord above all lords. As noted above, post-mortem life was

understood spiritually, not physically, in the Greco-Roman world. This viewpoint is seen in

Athens, where Paul is mocked after suggesting Jesus had risen from death physically (Acts

17:31–32). The body was viewed as inferior, and death a release. Yet, increasingly over the

following three centuries, the Christian faith penetrated to the point that it became the state

faith. In a society that employed superstition and ritual to please the gods and maintain social

order, the new Christians faced incredible danger for believing in Christ and spreading the

faith. Yet, the gospel spread quickly through the Greek and Roman people. Accepting Jesus’

divinity was not unusual but accepting him as exclusive Lord was astonishing in a context

that believed in an array of gods. That Christianity spread so quickly, despite increasing

persecution over the first centuries, is powerfully suggestive that it is something more than a

myth.

The Remarkable Transformation of the Disciples

Another factor that must be accounted for in historical terms is the disciples' response.

Before the crucifixion, most ran for cover, and Peter denied Jesus for fear of being arrested.
Jesus was utterly abandoned at the crucifixion in the Synoptics, with only some of his female

followers standing at a distance. In John, some are closer, including the loved disciple (likely

John), and some of the women, including his mother. Otherwise, his followers have entirely

abandoned him. After the crucifixion, they withdrew into hiding and mourning, humiliated

and lost. We see their pain in the account of the resurrection appearance on the road to

Emmaus. The shattered disciples’ hopes that Jesus was the one to restore Israel had been

destroyed. They were likely heading home, their great dreams destroyed. Jesus was no longer

the Messiah and God’s Son but another dead prophet (Luke 24:13–24). The hopes of Israel

remained unfulfilled.

Yet, within a month, we find these same disillusioned and fearful disciples are

prepared to enter the Temple courts, the center of the fiercely patriotic monotheistic Israel, in

the face of Jewish and Roman authorities alike, whose leaders have just killed Jesus off, and

proclaim a message that Jesus has risen, that these leaders are guilty of killing God’s

Messiah, that he is the savior of the world, and that they must repent and believe (e.g., Acts

2:46; 3:1–4:31; 5:12–42; 6:8–8:4). They challenged the Jewish systems of the temple, law,

sacrifice, and boundary markers, and claimed that belief in Jesus is for all peoples—that he is

the fulfillment of the hopes of Israel and all humankind. Preaching this way was extremely

dangerous—they proclaimed that the man the Jewish authorities had caused to be crucified

was alive and the Son of God (the very reasons they had killed him in the first place). Their

message was also provocative from the Greco-Roman point of view—the disciples

proclaimed that a man they had crucified as an insurgent is the Lord of all (rather than

Caesar). A movement around him as a martyr was a threat to Pax Romana. Any rejection of

the resurrection must account for this transformation and the rapid spread of the gospel on

other grounds.
 Yet, the disciples refused to relent in the face of potential and actual death (further

below). What transformed them? Something surely did. It is hardly likely that they sat around

and devised the account of a resurrected Jesus, supposedly because of a range of bizarre so-

called dying-and-rising fertility god stories, agreed to it, and then went out to face the threats

around them only to be persecuted and die for the fallacy. That is more bizarre than the idea

that Jesus had appeared to them, convincing them that he is alive. The resurrection remains

the best explanation for the dramatic change in their lives.

The Suffering and Martyrdom of Many of the Disciples

For a brief time, the Christian church was viewed positively (Acts 2:47). Quickly, the

mood of many Jewish people shifted, and the first believers came under pressure (Acts 4).

The response of the people at Pentecost and the healing of the disabled man at the temple

caused members of the Jewish leadership (Priests, captain of the guard, and the Sadducees) to

be upset precisely because the disciples were proclaiming Jesus had risen from the dead (Acts

4:2). This led to Peter and John being imprisoned and forbidden to speak on the resurrection

in future (Acts 4:3, 18). The apostles’ response is paradigmatic for the church as it spread in

the subsequent decades and for us today: “But Peter and John replied, ‘Judge for yourselves

whether it is right in God’s sight to obey you rather than God. For we cannot help speaking

about what we have seen and heard’” (Acts 4:20). Driven by their certainty that Christ had

risen, rather than concede, they prayed for even more courage to preach their message in the

face of suffering (Acts 4:29).

Later their response to another ban is similar: “We must obey God rather than

people!” (Acts 5:29). This is followed by the tragic stoning of Stephen (Acts 7), the first

Christian martyr. His killing was an illegal act of spontaneous mob lynching, not unlike the

earlier destructive days of the Ku Klux Klan (Acts 7:1–58). This and further persecution

instigated by the Pharisee Saul against the Christian church in Judea (later the Apostle Paul)
led to the scattering of the church as people fled (Acts 8). Yet, as they went, the scattered

Christians of Jerusalem continued to preach (Acts 8:4; 11:19–21). Indeed, as is often the case

when martyrs are made, the persecution only helped the movement spread.

The first Christian martyr is Stephen, who was illegally stoned to death by Jewish

leaders. The beheading of James, John's brother, at Agrippa's hands is found in Acts 12:1–4.

Josephus also records that James, the brother of Jesus, was stoned to death in Jerusalem in

AD 62 (Josephus, Ant. 20.200). 54 Tradition has it that all the Twelve except Judas (who

committed suicide, Matt 27:5; Acts 1:18) and John, who is said to have died as an elderly

man in Ephesus, 55 died as martyrs due to their belief in the resurrected Jesus. While not all

these traditions are assured, some of them are strong. Peter’s death through martyrdom is

mentioned in John 21:18–19. When old, “you will stretch out your hands,” suggesting

crucifixion. 56 The tradition that he was crucified under Nero is attested broadly (Eusebius,

Hist. eccl. 2.25.5–8; Tertullian, Scorp. 15; 1 Clem. 5:4; Acts Pet. 30–41). Paul was beheaded

around the same time in Rome (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 2; 1 Clem. 5.5; Acts Paul 10.5). 57

54
Josephus reports that this was at the instigation of the High Priest Ananus and the Sanhedrin, James and
others were stoned, due to their being “breakers of the law” (paranomeō).
55
If the same John wrote Revelation and John’s Gospel, then he suffered greatly under Domitian imprisoned on
Patmos (Rev 1:9). The tradition is found in Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 3.18.1; 23.3–4; 39.3–4; 4.18.6–8; 5.8.4; 18.14;
20.6; PG 20.252, 255–64, 296–98, 376, 449, 479–82, 486; Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. 3.1.1; 3.3.4 and elsewhere.
56
See Borchert, John 12–21, 338; Carson, The Gospel According to John, 679; W. Bauer, Das Johannes-
Evangelium (Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1933), 232; M. Hengel, Crucifixion (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977), esp.
Ch. 4. Borchert, John, 338 notes that “it was a fitting description of the ancient custom of crucifixion.”
Examples include: Epictetus, Diatr. 3.26.22; Seneca, Marc. 20.3; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Ant. rom. 7.69;
Tertullian, Pud. 22.
57
The outcome of other Apostles is uncertain. Philip is said to have settled in Hierapolis and it is uncertain
whether he died naturally or as a martyr (Walter A. Elwell and Barry J. Beitzel, “Philip,” BEB 1676). However,
it could be that Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 3.31.3 confuses Philip the evangelist buried in Hierapolis with the apostle.
According to D. A. Hagner, “James,” ABD 3:618, later tradition suggests James the son of Alphaeus worked in
southern Israel and Egypt and was martyred by crucifixion in Ostrakine, in lower Egypt (Nicephorus, 2.40) or in
Persia according to Martyrologium Hieronymi [Patrol. 30.478]). There is uniform tradition that Thomas died a
martyr in India. However, these are late and unreliable. The traditions surrounding Andrew suggest he died at
Patrae in Achaia (BEB, 1.87). However, this is very uncertain as there are a range of traditions associated with
Andrew. The traditions around Bartholomew are various, with one tradition that he was flayed alive and
beheaded in Armenia (e.g., Michael J. Wilkens, “Bartholomew,” ABD 1:615). There are also confusing
traditions about Matthew who may have been martyred but may have died a normal death (Clement of
Alexandria, Strom. 5.9) (D. A. Hagner, “Matthew,” ISBE 3:280). Traditions around Thaddeus and Simon the
Zealot are unreliable.
 Recanting or desisting from God’s mission was not an option for the first Christians.

Such was their belief in the resurrection of Jesus that they were prepared to suffer and die for

spreading the message.

It can be argued that people are prepared to propagate a lie if they can gain

significantly in some way, such as power or material possessions. Yet these people were not

from the elite and gained little in those initial years except struggle, suffering, and death. In

addition, they did not use any arms to spread the gospel; instead, they propagated a message

of love, forgiveness, and service. They had little to gain from pretending Jesus rose from the

dead if he did not. If it was a big self-created fiction, they were idiots or mad. Their

preparedness to die for their belief is one of the most potent arguments for the reality of the

resurrection; why would people die for a lie for no apparent personal gain? They were

obviously convinced of its reality. Why?

Josephus (the Testimonium Flavianum)

Another line of evidence is a disputed reference to the resurrection in the work of the

nearly contemporary Jewish historian Josephus. As we have mentioned, Josephus includes a

paragraph detailing aspects of Jesus’ life, including the resurrection. He writes concerning the

resurrection: “And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had

condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him; for he

appeared to them alive again at the third day; as the divine prophets had foretold ...”

(Josephus, Ant. 18.63).

This passage, known as the Testimonium Flavianum, is highly disputed by scholars

who find it difficult to accept that a non-Christian Jewish historian would write in this way.

The passage is believed to be an interpolation by Christian apologists or a Christian

expansion of a minor reference to Jesus. While this is possible as there are many obvious

interpolations in the Christian Pseudepigrapha, there is absolutely no actual textual evidence

to support this (e.g., various versions). 58 This is critical in ascertaining whether a passage is

an interpolation (inserted and not original). Further, this reference is not the only mention of

Christ in Josephus. In Ant. 20.200, Josephus writes, “… and bought before them [Sanhedrin]

the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some others ... to be

stoned.” Another passage mentions the death of John the Baptist by Herod (Ant. 18.116–118).

Scholars generally accept these references as authentic. As such, a good case can be made for

resurrection passage’s authenticity. In this vein, Feldman writes, “there are no other passages

in Josephus the authenticity of which has been questioned; therefore the burden of proof rests

upon anyone who argues that these are later interpolations.” 59

The Historical Impact of the Resurrection

Although not a primary argument for the resurrection, Christianity's extraordinarily

rapid spread is suggestive that something empowered its expansion. By the end of the first

century, Christianity was well established from Alexandria in Africa, through Israel and

modern Lebanon, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy. In the second–century, it spread through

France and Britain. In the early fourth century (AD 312+), Emperor Constantine had a

religious experience that many believe was his conversion, and Christianity became the state

religion of the Roman Empire. Until this point, Christianity used only the power of love,

witness, martyrdom, and service to spread its message (regrettably, things changed as

Christianity was melded into the State). It is astonishing that such growth was possible

without the use of force in a world where military strength generally decided who held

power. This possibility is particularly so when one considers the outbreaks of terrible

persecution against Christians, which were intended to stop the movement (esp. under Nero,

AD 64; Domitian, AD 81–96; Trajan, AD 98–117; Marcus Aurelius, AD 177; Septimus

58
That is, all extant versions of Josephus’ work include this section (see L. H. Feldman, “Josephus,” ABD
3:990).
59
Feldman, “Josephus,” 3.990. See his whole discussion on “Josephus and Christian History” (pp. 990–92)
which discusses the problems leading to many scholars questioning its authenticity.
Severus, AD 193–211; Decius Trajan, AD 250; and Diocletian, AD 301–311). The most

likely explanation for the spread of Christianity and how it spread is that there is a power in

the Christian story that transcends the norm and that Christians held firm to the belief that

Jesus was resurrected Lord and that they must live by his command of love. It was the

resurrection power of God that transformed the Roman world.

The Personal Testimonies of Christians

Another secondary argument for the power of the resurrection is Christianity’s power

to transform lives throughout history. Space precludes entering a detailed discussion of this,

but since the time of the apostles, we have seen the power of God transform lives in a way

that goes beyond naturalistic explanation. Examples of transformed lives include Mary

Magdalene, Paul, Augustine, and present-day figures such as Chuck Colson (who was

involved in the Watergate scandal and went on to found Prison Fellowship), Nicky Cruz (a

gangster who became an evangelist), and more. I know this power, having been transformed

from an egotistical, self-absorbed lost sinner into one who has left behind this life of sin

(although still far from perfect)! 60 The power of the resurrection is alive and well and

continues to transform people all over the world.

Preaching Truth, Lying, and the Resurrection

The first Christians, following Jesus’ ethic of honesty, preached ethical integrity (see

Matt 5:33–37; Col 3:9; Eph 4:25). While people can be unscrupulous and preach integrity

and yet be found to be dishonest, several factors make this unlikely with the early Christians.

First, they died for the gospel in many instances. They were in a position to know if the

resurrection was a lie; usually, someone will back off a lie when their life is on the line!

Second, they did not gain materially or in any other worldly way in the initial phase of the

60
Mark J. Keown, “My Story Part 1,” http://godztuff.blogspot.co.nz/2006/12/my-story-part-1.html; idem, “My
Story Part 2,” http://godztuff.blogspot.co.nz/2006/12/my-story-part-2.html; idem, “My Story Part 3,”
http://godztuff.blogspot.co.nz/2006/12/my-story-part-3.html.
church. It seems incongruent to preach an ethic of honesty, make up the story, spread it to the

world, and die for it for no gain.

Modern Science and the Question of Ongoing Life

In the period of modern science up to recent times, it seemed that science pointed us

away from the idea of resurrection and eternal life as preposterous. Now, as science develops,

it becomes less unlikely. First, people commonly believe in the possibilities of alien life and

perhaps prior alien involvement on earth. 61 While I would not call Jesus an alien in the way

we commonly use the term, his story is effectively that of an alien impregnating a young

woman, the child growing up as an alien/human, Jesus accomplishing astonishing feats, and

then the same alien power that catalyzed his conception, raising his corpse. Allied with this is

an openness to the possibilities of other universes (a multiverse) and more to life than our

cosmic system. Perhaps the God of Jesus is from beyond our universe in another dimension.

Resurrection and eternal life are not as far-fetched as modernism and its children would tell

us. It is an alternative explanation that uses many of the same ideas.

Secondly, scientists are gaining an increased understanding of aging and reversing its

effects. 62 Rather than targeting one disease, they are seeking to understand the aging process

to seek ways to delay or prevent it. Scholars debate how far life can be extended, with some

believing life is limited to 120 years. Still, others believe that aging can be removed as a

problem almost indefinitely. Their passion and confidence are based on some scientists

successfully intervening in the aging of some animals. David Masci of the Pew Research

Center, noting that there is serious research into resolving aging, states, “Radical life

extension isn’t consigned to the realm of cranks and science fiction writers anymore [sic].” 63

61
A popular example is Nadia Drake, “An Alien Origin for Life on Earth,” National Geographic (May 20.,
2014), https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/an-alien-origin-for-life-on-earth.
62
See Zoë Corbyn, “Live for ever: Scientists say they’ll soon extend life well beyond 120,” The Observer (11
Jan 2015), https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/jan/11/-sp-live-forever-extend-life-calico-google-
longevity.
63
Cited in Corbyn, “Live for ever.”
Drugs that lengthen life are being tested. The drug rapamycin, used in organ transplants and

cancers, can extend the life of mice by twenty–five percent. Another drug, Resveratrol, found

in red wine, is suspected of slowing the aging process and has been effective with mice. The

compound NAC+ is now being tested on humans after reversing cell aging in mice. 64 The use

of the blood of the youth for the elderly is also being tested on people living with Alzheimers.

At least twenty drugs can lengthen the lifespan or healthy lifespan in mice. One scientist has

increased the lifespan of roundworms up to six times. 65 Others are mapping the Genome

seeking genetic solutions.

As a result, many business and scientific initiatives are chasing the holy grail of

resolving the aging issue and doing so with genuine enthusiasm and belief. When considering

the resurrection, are we dealing with the sort of advanced theology that could restore Jesus to

life despite his horrific injuries? Is such a restoration inconceivable when we recognize that

scientists today are beginning to realize that extending life may be scientifically possible?

While we cannot yet cause life initially, is it that implausible that there is a being out there

who is advanced scientifically and able to do so? And especially so when we consider the

extraordinary complexity of our world and the possibility that the same intelligence that

raised Jesus from the dead may have initially created the cosmos and our world, including

human life. The scientific case against the resurrection, at least from an a priori point of view,

64
See also Fiona MacDonald, “It’s Happening: Scientists Can Now Reverse DNA Ageing in Mice,” Science
Alert (25 March, 2017), https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-have-successfully-reversed-dna-ageing-in-
mice. They use NAC+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide a natural compound found in every cell in the human
body). Another example of multiple articles on the net is Sarah Knapton, “Scientists Reverse Ageing in
Mammals and Predict Human Trials in Ten Years,” The Telegraph (15 Dec 2016)
(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2016/12/15/scientists-reverse-ageing-mammals-predict-human-trials-
within/).
65
In “Live for ever,” these are mentioned: Calico (https://www.calicolabs.com/); Human Longetivity, Inc.
(http://www.humanlongevity.com/); Sens (Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence Research
Foundation) (http://www.sens.org/); Glenn Foundation for Medical Research (http://glennfoundation.org/). Big
money is being poured in from the likes of Larry Ellison, Peter Thiel, Sergey Brin, Craig Venter, and Dmitry
Itskov.
is no longer justifiable. A technologically advanced being raising a person from the dead

seems entirely possible if such a being exists.

Whereas in the early days of modern science, evidence pushed away from God-

hypotheses and possibilities concerning Jesus’ power and resurrection, the opposite is now

the case. Our understanding of the universe and biology suggest that it is conceivable that

there is a being(s) who has far superior technology than our primitive human species and can

do such things as fertilize an ovum, produce a “God-human” being with extraordinary powers

to heal and multiply food, and repair a damaged, dead body and reanimate it to life. Atheistic

rejection of God, incarnation, miracles, and resurrection is modernistic and outdated

thinking.

The Resurrection in the Wider NT

Acts
There are examples of the reanimation of believers in Acts, including Tabitha

(Dorcas) through Peter (Acts 9:37–41), possibly Paul in Lystra (Acts 14:19–20), 66 and

Eutychus through Paul (Acts 20:9–12). However, the resurrection of Jesus is uniquely the

center of God’s work in bringing resurrection life into the world through his one-off arising

from death.

Acts begins with Jesus’ presenting himself alive over forty days, giving ample proof

of his resurrection (Acts 1:3). Its importance is seen in the selection of the replacement for

Judas—that person must be a “witness to his resurrection” (Acts 1:22).

In the sermons of Acts, the resurrection is a central plank in the early church kerygma.

At Pentecost, Peter states that “God raised him up, loosing the pangs of death, because it was

not possible for him to be held by it” (Acts 2:24). This implies his sinlessness as death is a

consequence of sin. He cites Ps 16:8–11, arguing that as David died (Acts 2:29), Jesus fulfills

66
The language is unclear—“supposing that he was dead. But when the disciples gathered about him, he rose up
and entered the city” (Acts 14:19–20).
the hope of the Psalm that God “will not abandon my soul to Hades or let your Holy One see

corruption.” He has made known to him the paths of life (Acts 2:27–28). David in the Psalms

“foresaw and spoke about the resurrection of the Christ” in fulfillment of the Psalm’s hope

(Acts 2:31). Further, Peter and the other witnesses to his resurrection are witnesses to his

resurrection having seen him (Acts 2:32). Again, in the Temple sermon in Acts 3:15, God

raised Jesus, the Author of life, from the dead, and the apostles are witnesses.

In Acts 4:2, their preaching that “in Jesus [is] the resurrection from the dead” annoyed

the Sanhedrin and led to them being brought in for questioning. Before the Sanhedrin, again

Peter and John testified that God raised Jesus from the dead (Acts 4:10). After being

forbidden, the apostles continued to give “their testimony to the resurrection of the Lord

Jesus” (Acts 4:33). When summoned again for questioning, Peter and John directly tell the

Sanhedrin that God raised Jesus (Acts 5:30).

At the home of the Roman soldier, Peter tells Cornelius and other hearers that “God

raised him on the third day and made him to appear,” speaking both of the resurrection and

his appearances (Acts 10:40). In the synagogue of Pisidian Antioch, Paul preaches that Jesus

was taken from the cross, was laid in a tomb, and that God raised him from the dead (Acts

13:30). Like Peter, he cites Ps 16:10 (cf. Acts 2:27) along with Isa 55:3 (Acts 13:34–35),

seeing Jesus’ resurrection as their fulfillment as it hopes that its subject would not experience

corruption (Acts 13:37). Clearly, Ps 16 is a crucial text for the early Christians concerning the

resurrection and its fulfillment of Israel’s hope—“according to the Scriptures” (cf. 1 Cor

15:4).

The accounts of Paul’s conversion all reference his seeing a bright light, meeting and

conversing with Jesus, something Luke clearly accepts, indicating Paul’s personal experience

and his and Luke’s acceptance of Jesus’ resurrection (Acts 9:3–6; 22:6–10; 26:13–19, 23).
 His ministry to the Jews in synagogues was intent on proving the necessity of Christ’s

suffering and resurrection (Acts 17:3), recalling Luke 24:24–27, 44–46. Paul’s proclamation

in Athens also centered on Jesus and the resurrection (Acts 17:18), leading some to mock him

(Acts 17:32). This is seen as Paul threw the Sanhedrin into disarray by claiming that he was

on trial for the hope of the resurrection of the dead, causing Pharisees and Sadducees to clash

over their different beliefs in this regard (Pharisees believed in the resurrection, the

Sadducees did not) (Acts 23:6–10). Paul also raised a future “resurrection of both the just and

the unjust” before Felix and that this hope was the reason for his trial (Acts 24:15, 21). As

such, Luke’s Paul advocated the general resurrection followed by judgment. Festus’

testimony to Agrippa and Bernice affirms his belief in Jesus’ resurrection (Acts 25:19).

Acts then affirms the certainty of Jesus’ resurrection for these first Christians, the

agency of God in his resurrection, his appearances, the general resurrection of the dead, and

the hope of eternal life for believers.

Paul
The center of Paul’s theology in the letters is Jesus, particularly his death (see the

previous chapter) and his resurrection. His gospel includes Jesus being declared the Son of

God through his resurrection from the dead through the agency of the Spirit (Rom 1:4).

Indeed, alongside the death and burial of Jesus, Christ being risen according to the Scriptures

is central to the gospel (1 Cor 15:4, s.a. Gal 1:1; Eph 1:20; 1 Thess 1:10; 2 Tim 2:8).

“According to the Scriptures” indicates the fulfillment of OT hope. While it is a little

unclear precisely what Paul means here, it probably refers to the same set of passages

mentioned earlier in terms of his death “according to the Scriptures,” especially Isa 53:11, Ps

22, and the “sign of Jonah,” which Jesus used himself as a type of his death and resurrection

(Jon 1:17; Matt 12:39–40; 16:4).

 Along with the mention of Jonah, the three-day notion features in Hos 6:2 (above),

which speaks of God’s restoration on the third day, and the restoration of Hezekiah “on the

third day” in 2 Kings 20:5 (also above). Another possibility is that “according to the

Scriptures” should link to “was raised” and speak of texts in the OT that pointed to the

resurrection of the Messiah to the early Christians, like Acts 16:9b–10 (cf. Acts 2:26b–27). 67

Blomberg suggests some typological significance from references to God’s

vindication of his people (cf. Gen 42:18; Exod 19:16; Josh 2:22; Ezek 8:32; Esther 5:1; Jon

1:17 (cf. Matt 12:20); Hos 6:2). 68 Fee takes as the OT as a whole. 69 Wright similarly rejects a

proof-text approach arguing that God’s dealing with sins once for all is found throughout the

second-Temple tradition (cf. Ezek 37; Isa 40:1–11; Jer 31:31–34; Dan 9; Hos 6:2). 70 Hence:

Paul is not proof-texting; he does not envisage one or two, or even half a dozen,
isolated passages about a death for sinners. He is referring to the whole biblical
narrative as the story which reaches its climax in the Messiah, and has now given rise to
the new phase of the same story, the phase in which the age to come has broken in with
its central characteristic being (seen from one point of view) rescue from sins, and
(from another point of view) rescue from death, i.e., resurrection. 71

Clearly, we should also not overlook the two passages referenced by Paul in 1 Cor

15:54–55. First, in Isa 25:8, the prophet looks forward to the day when “death is swallowed

up in victory.” Secondly, in Hos 13:14, Hosea cries out concerning death, “where is your

victory? … where is your sting?” For Paul, in Jesus, these passages are fulfilled.

As Jesus is raised from the dead, he will never die again, and death no longer has

dominion over him (Rom 6:9). In Rom 4:24–25, God raised Jesus from the dead for the

justification of believers. Our death is Jesus’ death, in which we participate, symbolized by

baptism (Rom 6:4). We are declared righteous in Christ. We are risen in him, spiritually, in

67
Richard B. Hays, First Corinthians, Interpretation (Louisville, KY: WJK, 2011), 256.
68
Craig L. Blomberg, 1 Corinthians, NIVAC (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1995), 296.
69
Fee, 1 Corinthians, 727.
70
Wright, The Resurrection, 320.
71
Wright, The Resurrection, 320.
the present. We will rise from the dead in the fullest sense, body, soul, and spirit, at the

consummation. We will “walk in the newness of life,” and “we shall certainly be united with

him in a resurrection like his” (Rom 6:4–5). Just as God raised Christ, he will “raise us up by

his power” (1 Cor 6:14). Similarly, in 2 Cor 4:14, “he who raised the Lord Jesus will raise us

also with Jesus and bring us … into his presence.”

In Ephesians, where Paul uses a more realized eschatology to assure the Asian readers

of Christ’s supremacy over the powers and their status in him, believers are already made

alive together with Christ and raised with him, seated in the heavenly places (Eph 2:5–6).

These ideas, of course, concern the Christian eschatological present identity, as readers are

obviously still living in mortal bodies in Asia Minor. Their challenge is to live up to this

identity, doing the good works that God has prepared in advance for them to do, and being

the people of God unified in Christ (Eph 2:10–22; 4:1–6:18). Colossians also speaks of the

resurrection as a present reality for believers—they are forgiven and raised by God with him

through faith in the powerful working of God who raised Christ from the dead (Col 2:12–13).

As such, they must resist the heretical Judaizing views of the false teachers besetting them.

As those raised with Christ, they are to live the “in-Christ” resurrected life, shedding the

vices of their context and putting on the virtues of Christ, most especially love (see Col 3:1–

4:6).

The resurrection is one of the core foundations of Christian ethics. As we have died

with Christ and will rise with him, having received his Spirit in the present, we are to live the

virtuous resurrection life now. Paul repudiates a realized eschatology that claims we should

all be rich and healthy (e.g., 1 Cor 4:8–13). However, he advocates a realized ethical

understanding, where our present lives are shaped by the life God wants for us in the Spirit.

He repudiates any idea that as we are raised in Christ now spiritually, we can sin as we wish.

Such things are repulsive to Paul. We are raised to live the resurrection life of righteousness
now. We are alive to God in Christ Jesus and servants of righteousness (Rom 6:11–19).

Indeed, Jesus was raised from the dead “that we may bear fruit for God” now! (Rom 7:4).

Similarly, in 2 Cor 5:15, Paul writes of Jesus' death for everyone so that they “might no

longer live for themselves but for him who for their sake died and was raised.” For Paul, the

Christian life is coming to know “the power of his resurrection,” which speaks of the Spirit

who raised Jesus from the dead. By this power, believers share in Christ’s sufferings and

become like him in his death as they live the cruciform life. They then aspire to the

resurrection of the dead, which is theirs if they remain faithful, working out their own

salvation by his power, pressing on to take hold of their eternal prize to which they are

summoned by the Lord Jesus (Phil 2:12–13; 3:10–14).

The resurrection of Jesus by the agency of the Spirit will also give life to our mortal

bodies (Rom 8:11). Again, this is the foundation of ethics as we put to death misdeeds of the

flesh by God’s resurrection power in us, living lives led by the Spirit (Rom 8:12–14).

The resurrection of Jesus is also the basis of hope as he now intercedes for us at the

right hand of God (Rom 8:34). Essential to being a Christian is believing in our heart that

God raised Jesus from the dead; where such faith is found and a confession of his Lordship,

there is salvation (Rom 10:9).

1 Corinthians 15, 2 Corinthians 5:1–10, and 1 Thess 4:13–18 are the most sustained

pieces on the resurrection, giving us rich insight into Paul’s understanding of it. In Corinth,

some in the community appeared to accept the resurrection of Jesus as a one-off moment but

rejected believers experiencing anything other than a spiritual resurrection (1 Cor 15:12).

This fits with a Greco-Roman worldview which centered on “a disembodied immortality of

the soul.” 72 The phrase “resurrection from the dead” (anastasis nekrōn) means “rising of the

corpses,” and this they did not accept. Tom Wright has engaged in a full discussion of every

72
Blomberg, 1 Corinthians, 295.
text in Greco-Roman literature concerning life after death, and no text points to any

understanding of resurrection. 73 They had no space in their thinking for the reanimation of

corpses to eternal life. As Hays puts it, “for the spiritually refined Corinthians, this was not

the stuff of Christian hope; it was a scenario for a horror story.” 74 This idea held for them

because the human body was to be shed at death, with death being a blessed release. For Paul

and most Jews, this is not the case—they longed for the transformation of the body.

Hays also notes that in the mid-second century, the apologist Justin Martyr dealt with

this very issue. In his debate with Trypho, the Jew Justin notes that

some who are called Christians … who say that there is no resurrection of the dead
(anastasis nekrōn) and that their souls, when they die, are taken to heaven.” Justin
calls them “godless, impious heretics” and takes an uncompromising stand asking,
“do you imagine that they are Christians?” 75

The philosophically sophisticated Corinthians probably believed that resurrection was

the liberation of the soul from the limits of the mortal body. Plutarch argued that only the soul

could attain the divine realm by freeing itself from the body and becoming “pure, fleshless

and undefiled.” 76 Hays contends the Corinthians would argue something like this:

The resurrection of Jesus is a wonderful metaphor for the spiritual change that
God works in the lives of those who possess knowledge of the truth.
“Resurrection” symbolises the power of the Spirit that we experience in our
wisdom and our spiritual gifts. But the image of resuscitated corpses (anastasis
nekrōn) is only for childish fundamentalists. Those of us who are spiritual find it
repugnant. 77

The whole chapter in 1 Corinthians 15 is designed to refute the argument. It can be

broken up into nine sections:

73
Wright, The Resurrection, 32–84.
74
Hays, 1 Corinthians, 253.
75
Justin Martyr, Dial. 80, as quoted in Hays, 1 Corinthians, 259.
76
Plutarch, Rom. 28.6, as quoted in Hays, 1 Corinthians, 259.
77
Hays, 1 Corinthians, 260.
1) The past preaching they must continue to believe (1 Cor 15:1–2): Paul reminds
them of the gospel by which they are saved. They must hold fast to this gospel of a
resurrected Jesus to be saved.
2) The historical events of the appearances of Christ (1 Cor 15:3–11): Paul reminds
them that the gospel includes Jesus’ death, burial, and resurrection, in accordance
with the Scriptures. He then lists six of the resurrection appearances of Jesus—Peter,
the Twelve, 500 brothers, all the apostles, James (brother of Jesus), and Paul himself
(although undeserving). These historical moments lie at the heart of the kerygma of
the church.
3) The present consequences for Christian faith if Christ has not been raised (1 Cor
15:12–19): Paul works from the logic that if there is no resurrection, Christ has not
been raised. He then draws seven consequences of Christ not having been raised: then
Christian preaching is in vain; faith is in vain; Christians are false witnesses
concerning God; the Corinthians’ faith is futile; they are still in their sins; the dead
who believed in Christ are lost eternally, and Christians above all are to be pitied for
their futile belief.
4) The eschatological events surrounding the culmination of history center on
resurrection (1 Cor 15:20–28): Christ has been raised from the dead, firstfruits of a
harvest of resurrected believers; death came through Adam, now resurrection through
Christ (the new Adam). He gives the order of what will transpire: Christ raised
(completed, for Paul, a fact); his coming, and the resurrection of who belong to him;
the end when he will give the kingdom to God having destroyed every ruler and every
authority and power (judgment implied). The last enemy defeated is death itself—the
destruction of death, eternal life for God’s people. Then, God will “be all in all.”
5) Christian practice, suffering, and ethics and the hope of the resurrection (1 Cor
15:29–34): Paul asks a series of questions concerning why Christians do what they do
if there is no resurrection of the dead—why baptize on behalf of the dead; 78 why
suffer danger every hour including Paul himself?—if the dead are not raised, let’s just
party until we drop. He then tells the Corinthians not to be deceived, to reject those
who reject the resurrection, and to stop sinning.
6) The imperishable, incorruptible, immortal nature of the resurrection body (1 Cor
15:35–49): Paul answers the second question raised in 1 Cor 15:35, “what kind of
body do the resurrected have?” He uses analogies: a seed that dies (our death) and
produces a plant (our resurrected body); different types of bodies (humans, animals,
birds, fish, heavenly bodies which differ in glory). He speaks of the transformation of
the seed to plant (in us): perishable to dishonor; dishonor to glory; weakness to power;
a natural body to a spiritual body; the first Adam to the Last Adam (Jesus); and from
an earthly body to a heavenly body.
7) The glorious moment of physical transformation when death is finally defeated
(1 Cor 15:50–53): Paul states two theological axioms: 1) Flesh and blood cannot
inherit the consummated kingdom of God; 2) The perishable cannot inherit the
imperishable. Hence, God has resolved this—we shall not all die but will be
transformed in an instant at the end: the dead are raised imperishable, and the mortal

78
The three main views are: 1) Vicarious baptism of deceased unbelievers (e.g., Conzelmann); 2) Vicarious
baptism for deceased believers; 3) Reuniting with believers who have died. See for a discussion Thiselton, The
First Epistle to the Corinthians, 1243–44.
 will put on immortality. Paul speaks of this same process in Phil 3:20, when the
Christian’s body of humiliation (fallen and beset by sin and death) will be
transformed to be like Jesus’ body of glory—immortal and imperishable.
8) The Fulfilment of the Prophetic Hope (1 Cor 15:54–55): As noted above, Paul cites
two OT texts seeing in Jesus’ resurrection the fulfillment of Isaiah’s vision of death
being swallowed up in victory and Hosea asking death where its victory and sting has
gone (Isa 25:8; Hos 13:14; 1 Cor 15:54–55). Thus, Jesus rose from the dead, so the
Scriptures' hopes could be fulfilled.
9) Perseverance and continued service because of the promise of the resurrection (1
Cor 15:58): Paul concludes his magnificent chapter on the resurrection by appealing
to the Corinthians to be steadfast and immovable and to overflow in the Lord’s work,
as they know that they will be rewarded with resurrection life for their labor.

2 Corinthians 5:1–10 is to be read in the context of Paul’s apology through 2 Cor 2–7.

In 2 Cor 4:7–18, he has written of life in “jars of clay,” in which everyday life is suffering in

and for Christ. Yet, through it all, he is sustained and not vanquished because he knows that

“he who raised the Lord Jesus will raise us also with Jesus and bring us with you into his

presence” (2 Cor 4:14). As such, even though the Christian life is one of wasting away, by the

Spirit, he is renewed day by day. He knows that “this light momentary affliction is preparing

for us an eternal weight of glory beyond all comparison,” i.e., the resurrection of the body.

So, in 2 Cor 5, he speaks of his knowledge that if our bodies (tents) in which we groan

are destroyed, at the resurrection, we will receive the eternal resurrection body (2 Cor 5:1–4).

The Spirit guarantees this future resurrection (2 Cor 5:5). As such, he is full of faith, courage,

a desire to please God, and confident as he faces him in judgment (2 Cor 5:5–10). While

some scholars have found in this passage a different eschatology to 1 Cor 15, this is a

misnomer; the passage speaks of the same event we read of in 1 Cor 15:50–54—the

transformation of these jars of clay into immortal and imperishable spiritual bodies. The

resurrection of Jesus anticipates our resurrection; the two are intertwined.

In 1 Thess 4:13–18, Paul deals with the question of the Christians who have died

(asleep) and their fate. Unlike unbelievers, with no hope of the resurrection, the

Thessalonians and all Christians need not grieve (1 Thess 4:13). This is because (gar),
Christians (we) believe that Jesus died and rose again; referring to the event, he defends in 1

Cor 15:5–8. As a result, God will bring with him those who have died (1 Thess 4:14). This

cryptic phrase is clarified in what follows. Paul cites Jesus’ teaching (a word from the Lord).

At the second coming of Christ, the dead will rise in Christ first, and together with them, the

remainder of the believers alive at the time will be caught up together to meet the Lord in the

air. They will then be with the Lord forever. Leaving aside debates about what is meant by

meeting the Lord in the air, this clearly states that deceased believers will experience the

resurrection at the second coming and will be with the Lord forever.

There is also evidence of a corrupted understanding of the resurrection in Ephesus.

Whereas the Corinthians appeared to accept that Jesus rose from the dead but held that any

resurrection of believers was spiritual and not bodily, some in Ephesus (Hymenaeus and

Philetus) maintained that “the resurrection had already happened” (2 Tim 2:18). They

“probably asserted that the resurrection had already occurred in the spiritual renewal of the

believer by regeneration.” 79 These people denied any notion of resurrection and saw it purely

as a spiritual experience. Paul warns that their teaching had a gangrenous nature and that they

were upsetting the faith of some in the church.

In sum, Paul believes in the resurrection, having met the resurrected Christ. Christ is

raised, and his body is now imperishable and incorruptible. The agency was God, by his

Spirit. His resurrection is the first of a harvest of resurrected believers, a guarantee of our

future resurrection. The resurrection will happen when Jesus returns. All humanity will be

raised. They will face God in judgment. Those who are his will go through a metamorphosis

from bodies of humiliation to receiving a body of glory from God like Jesus. They will be

imperishable and immortal. They will live with God forever.

79
Thomas D. Lea and Hayne P. Griffin Jr., 1, 2 Timothy, Titus, NAC 34 (Taylor, Mark. 1 Corinthians. Edited
by E. Ray Clendenen. Vol. 28 of The New American Commentary. Nashville, TN: B&H Publishing Group,
1992), 216. They note that Irenaeus ascribed a spiritualized view of the resurrection to Menander (Irenaeus,
Haer. 1.23.5).
Hebrews
For the author of Hebrews, the resurrection of the dead is one of the core fundamental

doctrines of the faith (Heb 6:2). This likely refers to both the resurrection of Jesus and that of

believers at the consummation. He uses the resurrection figuratively to describe Abraham’s

hope of an heir, a demonstration of his faith (Heb 11:19). He mentions women in Israel’s

story receiving back their dead by resurrection, likely, referring to those performed by Elijah

and Elisha (1 Kings 17:22; 2 Kings 4:35). The whole concept of Jesus as High Priest in the

heavenlies relies on his resurrection as does the eternal hope for believers.

The General Epistles

Peter explicitly refers to Jesus’ resurrection by God (1 Pet 1:21; 3:18). His

resurrection, symbolized in baptism, saves believers (1 Pet 3:21).

Revelation
In Revelation, Jesus died but is “alive forevermore.” He holds the keys to Death and

Hades and as such, can liberate people from its snare (Rev 1:18). The two witnesses will be

raised from the dead, perhaps speaking of the resurrection of believers (the church) (Rev

11:11). The faithful who resisted the Beast and its image, are raised and reign with Jesus for

the millennium (Rev 20:5). They live forever with God in the new heavens and earth,

whereas rejecting and sinful humanity and Death and Hades themselves are thrown into the

lake of fire, the second death (Rev 20:13), and are shut out of the city of God forever. The

whole notion of the Lamb that was slain and Jesus’ direct speech and action speak of his

resurrection from the dead. The conclusion of the Apocalypse speaks of the general

resurrection his completed work achieved.

Other Questions
A few other questions remain concerning the resurrection that can now be considered.
By What Agency Was He Raised?
The actual accounts give little away in this regard. Paul suggests the power of the

Holy Spirit raised him (e.g., Rom 1:4; 8:11). The agency of Christ himself is possible (John

2:19). The Father raises the dead as well (John 5:21). Certainly, Luke records Peter and Paul

saying, “God raised him up” (Acts 2:24, 32; 3:15, 26; 4:10; 5:30; 10:40; 13:30; Rom 10:9).

The first explanation is probably the best; God raised Jesus from the dead by the agency of

the Spirit. With that said, the perichoretic unity of Father, Son, and Spirit, renders the

question moot, as it is likely that, as in the creation of the cosmos, all were involved.

Where Did Jesus Go Between His Death and Resurrection and During the
Forty Days of Appearances?
The church's traditional view is that he went to hell to save all those who had never

heard the gospel before his incarnation and death. This doctrine is described as the

“Harrowing of Hell,” or the Descensus Christi ad Ineros, “the descent of Christ into hell.”

The idea was found first in the fourth century and is found in the Apostles Creed, the

Athanasian Creed, and Nicene Creed (see below). It is defended by NT texts which state that

he rose “from the dead,” rather than those that state he rose “from death,” including Matt

17:9; Luke 24:5; Acts 4:10; Rom 4:24; 1 Cor 15:20 (see further below). Other later writings

pick up the idea and develop it. 80

Luther accepted the idea, describing Jesus’ descent first as a “vicarious identification

with the sinner” and secondly as “victor over hell.” 81 Calvin also accepted it, arguing that

omitting it “greatly detracts from the benefit of Christ’s death.” 82 He rejects that “hell”

80
Dale A. Brueggemann, “Descent into the Underworld, Critical Issues,” LBD. Brueggemann notes that it is
found in the Shepherd of Hermas, Justin Martyr, and Irenaeus. He also notes that the medieval writer Aquinas
accepted the doctrine writing of Jesus going to hell to deal with sinners and saints in Purgatory and Limbo
(Aquinas, Summa Theologica III.52.2, 4–8).
81
Brueggemann, “Descent.” He cites Luther’s “Tourgau Sermon on Christ’s Descent into Hell” from Robert
Kolb and James. A. Nestingen, Sources and Contexts of the Book of Concord (Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress,
2001), 245–55.
82
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion (Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software, 1997), II.16.8. He
rejects the use of Ps 107:16 and Zech 9:11 and the idea of some Limbo. He speaks of the event as the fulfilment
of Jesus’ suffering (esp. Isa 53:5).
merely equates to a sepulcher, “a grave.” He writes, “not only was the body of Christ given

up as the price of redemption, but that there was a greater and more excellent price—that he

bore in his soul the tortures of condemned and ruined man [humanity].” 83 He adds, “Thus by

engaging with the power of the devil, the fear of death, and the pains of hell, he gained the

victory, and achieved a triumph, so that we now fear not in death those things which our

Prince has destroyed.” 84

The doctrine is found in other significant statements of faith. So, for example, Article

3 of the Anglican Thirty–Nine Articles is entitled: “Of the going down of Christ into Hell.” It

then reads, “As Christ died for us, and was buried, so also is it to be believed, that he went

down into Hell.” 85 Similarly, the Westminster Larger Catechism includes Question 50:

“Wherein consisted Christ’s humiliation after his death? The answer is ‘Christ’s humiliation

after his death consisted in his being buried, and continuing in the state of the dead, and under

the power of death till the third day; which hath been otherwise expressed in these words, He

descended into hell.’” 86

Some argue that Jesus literally took upon himself the sins of the world, crying out,

“My God, my God, why have you forsaken me!” (Mark 15:34; Matt 27:46; Ps 22:1), because

he had sin upon him, he descended to hell, and was freed because of his innocence. However,

this reads the text out of context. 87

The more “concrete” biblical evidence is found in the main in Acts 2:31 and 1 Pet

3:19 and 4:6.

1) Acts 2:31: “… and spoke about the resurrection of the Christ, that he was not abandoned
to Hades, nor did his flesh see corruption.”

83
Calvin, Institutes, II.16.10.
84
Calvin, Institutes, II.16.11.
85
Church of England, “Articles,” (https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-worship/worship/book-of-common-
prayer/articles-of-religion.aspx#III/) (italics mine).
86
Center for Reformed Theology and Apologetics, “The Larger Catechism,”
http://www.reformed.org/documents/wlc_w_proofs/ (italics original).
87
See on this Mark J. Keown, “My God, my God, Why have you Forsaken Me?” Did God Forsake Jesus on the
Cross?” (http://drmarkk.blogspot.de/2013/08/my-god-my-god-why-have-you-forsaken-me.htm).
 The Greek for “abandoned” here is ekataleipō which can mean “to leave” something

in a state, or “to forsake, abandon, desert.” 88 If it is read in the former way, it could mean

Jesus went to Hades but was not left there by God. However, if it is taken the second way,

Jesus was never sent there at all. Further, this is a prophetic oracle of David foreseeing that

Jesus would not be “forsaken to Hades,” and it is a weak basis for a descent into hell doctrine

(cf. Acts 2:27; Ps 16:8–11).

2) 1 Pet 3:18–20 and 1 Pet 4:6:

He was put to death in the body but made alive by the Spirit, through whom also he
went and preached to the spirits in prison who disobeyed long ago when God waited
patiently in the days of Noah while the ark was being built ... For this is the reason the
gospel was preached even to those who are now dead, so that they might be judged
according to human standards in regard to the body, but live according to God in
regard to the spirit.”

The majority view of these texts is that they do not refer to a post-mortem descent to

hell to preach to sinners. Instead, 1 Pet 3:18–20 speaks of Jesus declaring the victory of God

over the spiritual forces of darkness in hell rather than his going to hell to liberate people in a

literal sense. However, it could refer to his going to the place of demonic containment (2 Pet

2:4; Jude 6) to declare God’s victory. If so, the doctrine is not entirely wrong and speaks not

of Jesus saving sinners from hell in a literal sense but of declaring God’s victory over

demonic forces. 1 Peter 4:6 is probably referring to the gospel being preached to people when

they were alive but who are now dead. 89

In the Gospels, there is no speculation about Jesus’ whereabouts between the cross

and the empty tomb or about where he went between appearances for forty days after the

resurrection (Acts 1:3). The idea of Jesus being “raised from the dead” (tōn nekrōn)” is

prevalent. 90 However, it is also used of others like John the Baptist being raised “from the

88
BDAG 273.
89
See Michaels, 1 Peter, 206–208, 235–41.
90
Matt 17:9; 27:64; 28:7; Mark 9:9, 10; Luke 24:46; John 2:22; 20:9; 21:14; Acts 3:15; 4:2, 10; 10:41; 13:30,
34; 17:3, 31; 26:23; Rom 1:4; 4:24; 6:4, 9; 7:4; 8:11; 10:7, 9; 11:15; 1 Cor 15:12, 20; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:20; 5:14;
Col 1:18; 2:12; 1 Thess 1:10; 2 Tim 2:8; Heb 13:20; 1 Pet 1:3, 21.
dead” (e.g., Matt 14:2; Mark 6:14; Luke 9:7, s.a. Mark 12:25; Luke 16:30–31; Luke 20:35;

Heb 11:19). Similarly, it is used of Lazarus (John 12:1, 9, 17) and Paul’s future resurrection

(Phil 3:11). In such instances, it does not speak of any mission to save them. The genitive of

nekrōn is also vague and can be neuter or masculine, referring to a place or a people. In

reality, it is just a way of describing resurrection—coming from the realm of the dead. In

none of Jesus’ references to his death, such as the three Synoptic passion predictions, does

Jesus mention going to hell (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33, see above for other instances of Jesus’

referencing his death).

Luke 24:26 suggests that Jesus had to “suffer many things and then enter his glory.”

However, this is ambiguous because his suffering could be merely the cross and its leadup or

descent to hell. Similarly, his glory could be heavenly, earthly, or both. In John 20:17, when

Mary Magdalene holds his feet, Jesus stops her and says, “Do not hold on to me, for I have

not yet ascended to the Father. Go instead to my brothers and tell them, ‘I am ascending to

my Father and your Father, to my God and your God.’” John here leaves open the question of

where Jesus went in the period between his death and resurrection. Hence, based on the

Gospels, it cannot be argued where Jesus was between his death and resurrection. While he

was alive in that period, as evidenced by his appearances, it is unclear whether he was in

heaven, moved freely between heaven and earth, and/or descended to hell, and was limited to

the time-space continuum until his ascension. If he did go to “hell,” in any sense, the most we

can say is that he went and declared the victory of God over the demonic forces contained in

Tartarus (2 Pet 2:4; Jude 6).

The Nature of the Resurrection Body

In the Gospel accounts, the resurrected Jesus is very much human, physical, and

continuous with the earthly Jesus. Some examples of this include:

1) He could appear and be recognized as the earthly Jesus. 91 However, he could also
disappear into the clouds hidden from sight (Acts 1:9).
2) He could speak in an audible human voice in a language the disciples understood. 92
3) His body could be touched and experienced: his feet could be grasped (Matt 28:9; John
20:17 [note Jesus here asks Mary to desist because he was yet to return to the Father]).
His hands and feet could be seen, and the scarring or wounds were recognizable (Luke
24:37–39; John 20:20, 27). He could also walk (Luke 24:17, s.a. Mark 16:12), eat broiled
fish (Luke 24:42), breathe on the disciples (John 20:22), 93 cook for them and break bread
(Luke 24:30, 35; John 21:13), and he could “eat with them” (Acts 1:4). Jesus also states
that he is not a “spirit” (Luke 24:38–39 [pneuma]) and that he has “flesh and bone” (Luke
24:39). 94

On the other hand, notes of discontinuity suggest Jesus was something more than our

human, earthly, fleshly form:

1) His form appeared different. In Luke’s account, the disciples failed to recognize Jesus
until he broke bread and disappeared (Luke 24:31). In John, at the fishing appearance, the
disciples initially did not recognize him (John 21:4). Although written after the NT in the
second century, the longer ending of Mark states that Jesus appeared to the disciples on
the road in a “different form” (morphē, Mark 16:12). These suggest some degree of
discontinuity with his original appearance.
2) He could appear suddenly and leave equally quickly (Mark 16:14; Luke 24:31, 36; John
20:19). In John 20:19, 22, he appears in a room with locked doors. He thus seems to have
the capacity to translate across space at will. There is an instance of Philip also doing this
in Acts 8:40.
3) He could do things that defied natural boundaries, such as enter and leave locked rooms
(above), ascend into heaven (Acts 1:9, s.a. Mark 16:19), and breathe on them (John
20:22), and appear in light with a loud voice (Acts 9:3–4).
4) He was concerned on one occasion not to be “grasped” as he had not ascended (John
20:17).
5) He could breathe on them the Holy Spirit (John 20:22).

We can conclude that Jesus was still recognizable and functioned as a human. Hence,

his resurrection was bodily and not merely spiritual. However, aspects of his physicality

91
Matt 28:8–10, 16–20; Luke 24:13–29, 36–49; John 20:14–18, 19–23, 24–29; 21:1–23; Acts 1:4–9 (s.a. Mark
16:9, 12–13, 14–18).
92
Matt 28:8–10, 16–20; Luke 24:13–29, 36–49; John 20:14–18, 19–23, 24–29; 21:1–23; Acts 1:4–9; 9:3–6;
22:6–10; 26:12–18 (s.a. Mark 16:13–20).
93
Admittedly, it is unclear whether this is literal—the Holy Spirit came upon them as a result of his breathe.
94
Not “flesh and blood,” which Paul states cannot inherit the Kingdom (1 Cor 15:50) and which the author of
Hebrews states Jesus participated in (Heb 2:14). Hence, Luke may have chosen this phrase carefully to show the
transformation—something had changed in Jesus’ flesh (certainly, he is no longer mortal and perishable).
suggest that his resurrection body was significantly different and not subject, in the same

way, to some aspects of the physical laws of earthly existence.

This perspective aligns nicely with Paul’s description of Jesus’ resurrected body as a

“spiritual body” (1 Cor 15:44), i.e., not merely a Spirit but a physical body that the Spirit of

God fully animates. Paul contrasts this body with the “natural” body formed through God

breathing on Adam’s inanimate form at creation (1 Cor 15:45, 47). The spiritual body will no

longer be corruptible “flesh and blood” (1 Cor 15:50). The effect of the fall will be reversed,

and the resurrection body will be indestructible, imperishable, incorruptible, and glorious. At

the return of Christ, there will be an instantaneous glorious transformation of the natural body

into a spiritual, incorruptible body (1 Cor 15:51–52, cf. Phil 3:21). This resurrection has

begun with Jesus’ resurrection. Jesus is the first fruit of the resurrection, and his resurrection

guarantees the resurrection of all believers (1 Cor 15:23) on his return (cf. 1 Thess 4:13–18).

The Importance of Jesus’ Resurrection

It goes without saying that Jesus’ resurrection is essential for the Christian faith. It

marks the decisive moment where Jesus is declared unique and rises above the greatest

human enemy, death. It is the center of our hope; just as Jesus rose from the dead, we can

hope for the same as he has promised it and his resurrection establishes it. The risen Christ is

the firstfruits of the resurrection of the dead (1 Cor 15:20). Theologically, it also ushers in the

new age, when heaven entered earth by God’s Spirit and the eschaton (“last days”) began.

Since the resurrection of Christ, the power of the Spirit and life have been at work

transforming the world, renewing believers inwardly, and working in the world to bring

shalom. It is the first moment of the resurrection of all God’s people, the launch of a new

creation and humanity. Death and Hades have been defeated in the tomb, although they rage

on, seeking to steal, kill, and destroy (John 10:10), and take as many with them as they can.

However, Jesus’ resurrection is the beginning of their doom. The resurrection of Jesus is the
prelude to the end, where the resurrection of the world and God’s people are complete. The

resurrection is our hope. Marana tha, “Our Lord Come!” (1 Cor 16:22).

Questions to consider
• How do we account for the differences in the gospel accounts?
• From what we have, how many appearances were made by Jesus to his followers (have a
crack at harmonizing the accounts)?
• How important for our proclamation of Jesus as Lord is the resurrection?
• What heresies do the Christians of today hold concerning the resurrection?
• Why is the resurrection important for Christian theology?
• What are the implications of the resurrection for Christian life, for all humanity, and for
creation itself?