Cupid and

Psyche

Cupid and Psyche is a story originally from Metamorphoses (also

called The Golden Ass), written in the 2nd century AD by Lucius
Apuleius Madaurensis (or Platonicus).[2] The tale concerns the
overcoming of obstacles to the love between Psyche (/ˈsaɪkiː/; Ancient
Greek: Ψυχή, lit. 'Soul' or 'Breath of Life', Greek pronunciation: [psyːkʰɛ̌ː])
and Cupid (Latin: Cupido, lit. 'Desire', Latin pronunciation: [kʊˈpiːd̪ oː]) or
Amor (lit. 'Love', Greek Eros, Ἔρως), and their ultimate union in a
sacred marriage. Although the only extended narrative from antiquity is
that of Apuleius from 2nd century AD, Eros and Psyche appear in Greek
art as early as the 4th century BC. The story's Neoplatonic elements
and allusions to mystery religions accommodate multiple
interpretations,[3] and it has been analyzed as an allegory and in light of
folktale, Märchen or fairy tale, and myth.[4]
:
 Psyche and Amor, also known
as Psyche Receiving Cupid's
First Kiss (1798), by François
Gérard: a symbolic butterfly
hovers over Psyche in a
moment of innocence poised
before sexual awakening.[1]

The story of Cupid and Psyche was known to Boccaccio in c. 1370, but
the editio princeps dates to 1469. Ever since, the reception of Cupid
and Psyche in the classical tradition has been extensive. The story has
been retold in poetry, drama, and opera, and depicted widely in
painting, sculpture, and even wallpaper.[5] Though Psyche is usually
referred to in Roman mythology by her Greek name, her Roman name
through direct translation is Anima.

In Apuleius
:
 Psyche Honoured by the People
(1692–1702) from a series of 12
scenes from the story by Luca
Giordano

The tale of Cupid and Psyche (or "Eros and Psyche") is placed at the
midpoint of Apuleius's novel, and occupies about a fifth of its total
length.[6] The novel itself is a first-person narrative by the protagonist
Lucius. Transformed into a donkey by magic gone wrong, Lucius
undergoes various trials and adventures, and finally regains human
form by eating roses sacred to Isis. Psyche's story has some
similarities, including the theme of dangerous curiosity, punishments
and tests, and redemption through divine favor.[7]

As a structural mirror of the overarching plot, the tale is an example of

mise en abyme. It occurs within a complex narrative frame, with Lucius
recounting the tale as it in turn was told by an old woman to Charite, a
bride kidnapped by pirates on her wedding day and held captive in a
cave.[6] The happy ending for Psyche is supposed to assuage Charite's
fear of rape, in one of several instances of Apuleius's irony.[8][9]

Although the tale resists explication as a strict allegory of a particular

Platonic argument, Apuleius drew generally on imagery such as the
laborious ascent of the winged soul (Phaedrus 248) and the union with
the divine achieved by Soul through the agency of the daimon Love
:
 (Symposium 212b).[10]

Story

Psyche's Wedding (Pre-

Raphaelite, 1895) by Edward
Burne-Jones

There were once a king and queen,[11] rulers of an unnamed city, who
had three daughters of conspicuous beauty. The youngest and most
beautiful was Psyche, whose admirers, neglecting the proper worship
of Aphrodite (love goddess Venus), instead prayed and made offerings
to her. It was rumored that she was the second coming of Venus, or the
daughter of Venus from an unseemly union between the goddess and a
mortal. Venus is offended, and commissions Cupid to work her
revenge. Cupid is sent to shoot Psyche with an arrow so that she may
fall in love with something hideous. He instead scratches himself with
his own dart, which makes any living thing fall in love with the first thing
it sees. Consequently, he falls deeply in love with Psyche and disobeys
his mother's order.

Although her two humanly beautiful sisters have married, the idolized
Psyche has yet to find love. Her father suspects that they have incurred
:
 the wrath of the gods, and consults the oracle of Apollo. The response
is unsettling: the king is to expect not a human son-in-law, but rather a
dragon-like creature who harasses the world with fire and iron and is
feared by even Jupiter and the inhabitants of the underworld.

Psyche is arrayed in funeral attire, conveyed by a procession to the

peak of a rocky crag, and exposed. Marriage and death are merged into
a single rite of passage, a "transition to the unknown".[12] Zephyrus the
West Wind bears her up to meet her fated match, and deposits her in a
lovely meadow (locus amoenus), where she promptly falls asleep.

The transported girl awakes to find herself at the edge of a cultivated

grove (lucus). Exploring, she finds a marvelous house with golden
columns, a carved ceiling of citrus wood and ivory, silver walls
embossed with wild and domesticated animals, and jeweled mosaic
floors. A disembodied voice tells her to make herself comfortable, and
she is entertained at a feast that serves itself and by singing to an
invisible lyre.

Although fearful and without the proper experience, she allows herself
to be guided to a bedroom where, in the darkness, a being she cannot
see has sex with her. She gradually learns to look forward to his visits,
though he always departs before sunrise and forbids her to look upon
him. Soon, she becomes pregnant.

Violation of Trust
Psyche's family longs for news of her, and after much cajoling, Cupid,
still unknown to his bride, permits Zephyr to carry her sisters up for a
visit. When they see the splendor in which Psyche lives, they become
:
 envious, and undermine her happiness by prodding her to uncover her
husband's true identity, since surely as foretold by the oracle she was
lying with the vile winged serpent, who would devour her and her child.

Psyche Showing Her Jewelry to

Her Sisters (Neoclassical, 1815–
16), grisaille wallpaper by Merry-
Joseph Blondel

One night after Cupid falls asleep, Psyche carries out the plan her
sisters devised: she brings out a dagger and a lamp she had hidden in
the room, in order to see and kill the monster. But when the light
instead reveals the most beautiful creature she has ever seen, she is so
startled that she wounds herself on one of the arrows in Cupid's cast-
aside quiver. Struck with a feverish passion, she spills hot oil from the
lamp and wakes him. He flees, and though she tries to pursue, he flies
away and leaves her on the bank of a river.

There she is discovered by the wilderness god Pan, who recognizes the
signs of passion upon her. She acknowledges his divinity (numen), then
begins to wander the earth looking for her lost love.
:
 Amore e Psiche (1707–09) by
Giuseppe Crespi: Psyche's use of
the lamp to see the god is
sometimes thought to reflect the
magical practice of lychnomancy,
a form of divination or spirit
conjuring.[13]

Psyche visits first one sister, then the other; both are seized with
renewed envy upon learning the identity of Psyche's secret husband.
Each sister attempts to offer herself as a replacement by climbing the
rocky crag and casting herself upon Zephyr for conveyance, but
instead is allowed to fall to a brutal death.

Wanderings and Trials

In the course of her wanderings, Psyche comes upon a temple of
Ceres, and inside finds a disorder of grain offerings, garlands, and
agricultural implements. Recognizing that the proper cultivation of the
gods should not be neglected, she puts everything in good order,
prompting a theophany of Ceres herself. Although Psyche prays for her
aid, and Ceres acknowledges that she deserves it, the goddess is
prohibited from helping her against a fellow goddess. A similar incident
occurs at a temple of Juno. Psyche realizes that she must serve Venus
herself.
:
 Venus revels in having the girl under her power, and turns Psyche over
to her two handmaids, Worry and Sadness, to be whipped and tortured.
Venus tears her clothes and bashes her head into the ground, and
mocks her for conceiving a child in a sham marriage. The goddess then
throws before her a great mass of mixed wheat, barley, poppyseed,
chickpeas, lentils, and beans, demanding that she sort them into
separate heaps by dawn. But when Venus withdraws to attend a
wedding feast, a kind ant takes pity on Psyche, and assembles a fleet
of insects to accomplish the task. Venus is furious when she returns
drunk from the feast, and only tosses Psyche a crust of bread. At this
point in the story, it is revealed that Cupid is also in the house of Venus,
languishing from his injury.

Psyche's Second Task (Mannerist,

1526–28) by Giulio Romano, from
the Palazzo del Tè

At dawn, Venus sets a second task for Psyche. She is to cross a river
and fetch golden wool from violent sheep who graze on the other side.
These sheep are elsewhere identified as belonging to Helios.[14]
Psyche's only intention is to drown herself on the way, but instead she
is saved by instructions from a divinely inspired reed, of the type used
to make musical instruments, and gathers the wool caught on briers.

For Psyche's third task, she is given a crystal vessel in which to collect
:
 the black water spewed by the source of the rivers Styx and Cocytus.
Climbing the cliff from which it issues, she is daunted by the foreboding
air of the place and dragons slithering through the rocks, and falls into
despair. Jupiter himself takes pity on her, and sends his eagle to battle
the dragons and retrieve the water for her.

Psyche and the Underworld

The last trial Venus imposes on Psyche is a quest to the underworld
itself. She is to take a box (pyxis) and obtain in it a dose of the beauty
of Proserpina, queen of the underworld. Venus claims her own beauty
has faded through tending her ailing son, and she needs this remedy in
order to attend the theatre of the gods (theatrum deorum).

Psyché aux enfers (1865) by

Eugène Ernest Hillemacher:
Charon rows Psyche past a dead
man in the water and the old
weavers on shore
:
 Once again despairing of her task, Psyche climbs a tower, planning to
throw herself off. The tower, however, suddenly breaks into speech,
and advises her to travel to Lacedaemon, Greece, and to seek out the
place called Taenarus, where she will find the entrance to the
underworld. The tower offers instructions for navigating the
underworld:

The airway of Dis is there, and through the

yawning gates the pathless route is revealed.
Once you cross the threshold, you are committed
to the unswerving course that takes you to the
very Regia of Orcus. But you shouldn't go
emptyhanded through the shadows past this
point, but rather carry cakes of honeyed barley in
both hands,[15] and transport two coins in your
mouth.

The speaking tower warns her to maintain silence as she passes by

several ominous figures: a lame man driving a mule loaded with sticks,
a dead man swimming in the river that separates the world of the living
from the world of the dead, and old women weaving. These, the tower
warns, will seek to divert her by pleading for her help: she must ignore
them. The cakes are treats for distracting Cerberus, the three-headed
watchdog of Orcus, and the two coins for Charon the ferryman, so she
can make a return trip.

Everything comes to pass according to plan, and Proserpina grants

Psyche's humble entreaty. As soon as she reenters the light of day,
however, Psyche is overcome by a bold curiosity, and can't resist
:
 opening the box in the hope of enhancing her own beauty. She finds
nothing inside but an "infernal and Stygian sleep", which sends her into
a deep and unmoving torpor.

The abduction of Psyche by

William-Adolphe Bouguereau,
1895.

Reunion and immortal love

Meanwhile, Cupid's wound has healed into a scar, and he escapes his
mother's house by flying out of a window. When he finds Psyche, he
draws the sleep from her face and replaces it in the box, then pricks her
with an arrow that does no harm. He lifts her into the air, and takes her
to present the box to Venus.
:
 He then takes his case to Zeus, who gives his consent in return for
Cupid's future help whenever a choice maiden catches his eye. Zeus
has Hermes convene an assembly of the gods in the theater of heaven,
where he makes a public statement of approval, warns Venus to back
off, and gives Psyche ambrosia, the drink of immortality,[16] so the
couple can be united in marriage as equals. Their union, he says, will
redeem Cupid from his history of provoking adultery and sordid
liaisons.[17] Zeus's word is solemnized with a wedding banquet.

With its happy marriage and resolution of conflicts, the tale ends in the
manner of classic comedy[18] or Greek romances such as Daphnis and
Chloe.[19] The child born to the couple will be Voluptas (Greek Hedone
‘Ηδονή), "Pleasure".

The Wedding of Cupid and

Psyche

The Wedding Banquet of Cupid and Psyche (1517) by Raphael

and his workshop, from the Loggia di Psiche, Villa Farnesina
:
 Godefroy Engelmann after Raphael, Marriage
of Cupid and Psyche, 1825, lithograph

The assembly of the gods has been a popular subject for both visual
and performing arts, with the wedding banquet of Cupid and Psyche a
particularly rich occasion. With the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, this
is the most common setting for a "Feast of the Gods" scene in art.
Apuleius describes the scene in terms of a festive Roman dinner party
(cena). Cupid, now a husband, reclines in the place of honor (the "top"
couch) and embraces Psyche in his lap. Zeus and Hera situate
themselves likewise, and all the other gods are arranged in order. The
cupbearer of Jove (Zeus's other Roman name) serves him with nectar,
the "wine of the gods"; Apuleius refers to the cupbearer only as ille
rusticus puer, "that country boy", and not as Ganymede. Liber, the
Roman god of wine, serves the rest of the company. Vulcan, the god of
fire, cooks the food; the Horae ("Seasons" or "Hours") adorn, or more
literally "empurple", everything with roses and other flowers; the
Graces suffuse the setting with the scent of balsam, and the Muses
with melodic singing. Apollo sings to his lyre, and Venus takes the
starring role in dancing at the wedding, with the Muses as her chorus
girls, a satyr blowing the aulos (tibia in Latin), and a young Pan
:
 expressing himself through the pan pipes (fistula).

The wedding provides closure for the narrative structure as well as for
the love story: the mysteriously provided pleasures Psyche enjoyed in
the domus of Cupid at the beginning of her odyssey, when she entered
into a false marriage preceded by funeral rites, are reimagined in the
hall of the gods following correct ritual procedure for a real
marriage.[20] The arranging of the gods in their proper order (in
ordinem) would evoke for the Roman audience the religious ceremony
of the lectisternium, a public banquet held for the major deities in the
form of statues arranged on luxurious couches, as if they were present
and participating in the meal.[21]

Marriage of Cupid and Psyche (c.

1773), jasperware by Wedgwood
based on the 1st-century
Marlborough gem, which most
likely was intended to depict an
initiation rite (Brooklyn Museum)

The wedding banquet was a favored theme for Renaissance art. As

early as 1497, Giovanni Sabadino degli Arienti made the banquet
central to his description of a now-lost Cupid and Psyche cycle at the
Villa Belriguardo, near Ferrara. At the Villa Farnesina in Rome, it is one
of two main scenes for the Loggia di Psiche (ca. 1518) by Raphael and
his workshop, as well as for the Stanza di Psiche (1545–46) by Perino
del Vaga at the Castel Sant' Angelo.[21] Hendrick Goltzius introduced
:
 the subject to northern Europe with his "enormous" engraving called
The Wedding of Cupid and Psyche (1587, 43 by 85.4 cm),[22] which
influenced how other northern artists depicted assemblies of the gods
in general.[23] The engraving in turn had been taken from
Bartholomaeus Spranger's 1585 drawing of the same title, considered
a "locus classicus of Dutch Mannerism" and discussed by Karel Van
Mander for its exemplary composition involving numerous figures.[24]

In the 18th century, François Boucher's Marriage of Cupid and Psyche

(1744) affirmed Enlightenment ideals with the authority figure Jupiter
presiding over a marriage of lovely equals. The painting reflects the
Rococo taste for pastels, fluid delicacy, and amorous scenarios infused
with youth and beauty.[25]

As Allegory
:
 Psyche in the grove of
Cupid, 1345 illustration of
the Metamorphoses,
Biblioteca Apostolica
Vaticana[26]

The story of Cupid and Psyche was readily allegorized. In late antiquity,
Martianus Capella (5th century) refashions it as an allegory about the
fall of the human soul.[27] For Apuleius, immortality is granted to the
soul of Psyche as a reward for commitment to sexual love. In the
version of Martianus, sexual love draws Psyche into the material world
that is subject to death:[28] "Cupid takes Psyche from Virtue and
shackles her in adamantine chains".[29]

The tale thus lent itself to adaptation in a Christian or mystical context,

often as symbolic of the soul.[30] In the Gnostic text On the Origin of
the World, the first rose is created from the blood of Psyche when she
loses her virginity to Cupid.[31] To the Christian mythographer
Fulgentius (6th century), Psyche was an Adam figure, driven by sinful
curiosity and lust from the paradise of Love's domain.[32] Psyche's
sisters are Flesh and Free Will, and her parents are God and Matter.[33]
:
 To Boccaccio (14th century), the marriage of Cupid and Psyche
symbolized the union of soul and God.[32]

The temptation to interpret the story as a religious or philosophical

allegory can still be found in modern scholarship. Psyche by her very
name represents the aspirations of the human soul – towards a divine
love personified in Cupid. But this misses the characterisation of Cupid
as a corrupter who delights in disrupting marriages (The Golden Ass IV.
30) and is himself "notorious for his adulteries" (VI. 23), the marked
sensuality of his union with Psyche (V. 13), the help Jupiter offers him if
he provides a new girl for Jupiter to seduce (VI. 22) and the name given
to Cupid and Psyche's child – Voluptas (Pleasure).

Classical Tradition
Apuleius's novel was among the ancient texts that made the crucial
transition from roll to codex form when it was edited at the end of the
4th century. It was known to Latin writers such as Augustine of Hippo,
Macrobius, Sidonius Apollinaris, Martianus Capella, and Fulgentius, but
toward the end of the 6th century lapsed into obscurity and survived
what was formerly known as the "Dark Ages" through perhaps a single
manuscript.[34] The Metamorphoses remained unknown in the 13th
century,[35] but copies began to circulate in the mid-1300s among the
early humanists of Florence.[36] Boccaccio's text and interpretation of
Cupid and Psyche in his Genealogia deorum gentilium (written in the
1370s and published 1472) was a major impetus to the reception of the
tale in the Italian Renaissance and to its dissemination throughout
Europe.[37]
:
 One of the most popular images from the tale was Psyche's discovery
of a naked Cupid sleeping, found in ceramics, stained glass, and
frescos. Mannerist painters were intensely drawn to the scene.[38] In
England, the Cupid and Psyche theme had its "most lustrous period"
from 1566 to 1635, beginning with the first English translation by
William Adlington. A fresco cycle for Hill Hall, Essex, was modeled
indirectly after that of the Villa Farnesina around 1570,[39] and Thomas
Heywood's masque Love's Mistress dramatized the tale to celebrate
the wedding of Charles I and Henrietta Maria, who later had her
withdrawing chamber decorated with a 22-painting Cupid and Psyche
cycle by Jacob Jordaens. The cycle took the divinization of Psyche as
the centerpiece of the ceiling, and was a vehicle for the Neoplatonism
the queen brought with her from France.[40] The Cupid and Psyche
produced by Orazio Gentileschi for the royal couple shows a fully robed
Psyche whose compelling interest is psychological, while Cupid is
mostly nude.[41]

Orazio Gentileschi exposed the

erotic vulnerability of the male
figure in his Cupid and Psyche
(1628–30)

Another peak of interest in Cupid and Psyche occurred in the Paris of

the late 1790s and early 1800s, reflected in a proliferation of opera,
:
 ballet, Salon art, deluxe book editions, interior decoration such as
clocks and wall paneling, and even hairstyles. In the aftermath of the
French Revolution, the myth became a vehicle for the refashioning of
the self.[42] In English intellectual and artistic circles around the turn of
the 18th and 19th centuries, the fashion for Cupid and Psyche
accompanied a fascination for the ancient mystery religions. In writing
about the Portland Vase, which was obtained by the British Museum
around 1810, Erasmus Darwin speculated that the myth of Cupid and
Psyche was part of the Eleusinian cycle. With his interest in natural
philosophy, Darwin saw the butterfly as an apt emblem of the soul
because it began as an earthbound caterpillar, "died" into the pupal
stage, and was then resurrected as a beautiful winged creature.[43]

Literature
In 1491, the poet Niccolò da Correggio retold the story with Cupid as
the narrator.[44] John Milton alludes to the story at the conclusion of
Comus (1634), attributing not one but two children to the couple: Youth
and Joy. Shackerley Marmion wrote a verse version called Cupid and
Psyche (1637), and La Fontaine a mixed prose and verse romance
(1699).[44]

William Blake's mythology draws on elements of the tale particularly in

the figures of Luvah and Vala. Luvah takes on the various guises of
Apuleius's Cupid: beautiful and winged; disembodied voice; and
serpent. Blake, who mentions his admiration for Apuleius in his notes,
combines the myth with the spiritual quest expressed through the
:
 eroticism of the Song of Solomon, with Solomon and the Shulamite as a
parallel couple.[45]

Cupid and Psyche (1817) by Jacques-Louis

David: the choice of narrative moment—a
libertine adolescent Cupid departs
Psyche's bed with "malign joy"[46]—was a
new twist on the well-worn subject[47]

Mary Tighe published her poem Psyche in 1805. She added some
details to the story, such placing two springs in Venus' garden, one with
sweet water and one with bitter. When Cupid starts to obey his
mother's command, he brings some of both to a sleeping Psyche, but
places only the bitter water on Psyche's lips. Tighe's Venus only asks
one task of Psyche, to bring her the forbidden water, but in performing
this task Psyche wanders into a country bordering on Spenser's Fairie
Queene as Psyche is aided by a mysterious visored knight and his
squire Constance, and must escape various traps set by Vanity,
Flattery, Ambition, Credulity, Disfida (who lives in a "Gothic castle"),
Varia and Geloso. Spenser's Blatant Beast also makes an appearance.
Tighe's work influenced English lyric poetry on the theme, such as the
Ode to Psyche (1820) by John Keats.[48] Letitia Elizabeth Landon's
poem Cupid and Psyche (1826) illustrates an engraving of a painting by
W. E. West.
:
 William Morris retold the Cupid and Psyche story in verse in The Earthly
Paradise (1868–70), and a chapter in Walter Pater's Marius the
Epicurean (1885) was a prose translation.[44] About the same time,
Robert Bridges wrote Eros and Psyche: A Narrative Poem in Twelve
Measures (1885; 1894).

Sylvia Townsend Warner transferred the story to Victorian England in

her novel The True Heart (1929), though few readers made the
connection till she pointed it out herself.[49] Other literary adaptations
include The Robber Bridegroom (1942), a novella by Eudora Welty; Till
We Have Faces (1956), a version by C.S. Lewis narrated by a sister of
Psyche; and the poem "Psyche: 'Love drove her to Hell'" by H.D. (Hilda
Doolittle).[50]Robert A. Johnson made use of the story in his book She:
Understanding Feminine Psychology, published in 1976 by
HarperCollinsPublishers (http://www.harpercollins.com/search-results?
contributor=robert-a-johnson) .

Translations
William Adlington made the first translation into English of Apuleius's
Metamorphoses in 1566, under the title The XI Bookes of the Golden
Asse, Conteininge the Metamorphosie of Lucius Apuleius. Adlington
seems not to have been interested in a Neoplatonic reading, but his
translation consistently suppresses the sensuality of the original.[38]
Thomas Taylor published an influential translation of Cupid and Psyche
in 1795, several years before his complete Metamorphoses.[51] A
translation by Robert Graves appeared in 1951 as The Transformations
of Lucius Otherwise Known as THE GOLDEN ASS, A New Translation by
Robert Graves from Apuleius, published by Farrar, Straus & Giroux,
:
 New York.

Folklore and Children's

Literature

Pan and Psyche (1872-74)

by Edward Burne-Jones

Origins
Folklore scholarship has also occupied itself with the possible origin of
the narrative.[52][53] Swedish folklorist Jan-Öjvind Swahn, who
authored a long study on the story, and German philologist Ludwig
Friedländer defended the idea that it originated from a legitimate
folklore source.[54][55]

Some scholars tend to look for a single source: Stith Thompson

suggested an Italian origin,[56] while Lesky, Gédeon Huet[57] and
Georgios A. Megas indicated a Greek origin.[58] French Émile
Dermenghem favoured a North African source,[59] followed by French
:
 researchers Nedjima and Emmanuel Plantade, who all argue that the
tale is a reworking of Berber folklore, since Apuleius was born and lived
in Madauros, Numidia, located in what is modern day Algeria.[60]

Another line of scholars argue for some myth that underlines the
Apuleian narrative. German classicist Richard August Reitzenstein
supposed on an "Iranian sacral myth", brought to Greece via
Egypt.[61][62] Graham Anderson argues for a reworking of mythic
material from Asia Minor (namely, Hittite: the Myth of Telipinu).[63] In a
study published posthumously, Romanian folklorist Petru Caraman also
argued for a folkloric origin, but was of the notion that Apuleius
superimposed Graeco-Roman mythology on a pre-Christian myth
about a serpentine or draconic husband, or a "King of Snakes" that
becomes human at night.[64]

On the other extreme, German classicist Detlev Fehling took a hard and
skeptical approach and considered the tale to be a literary invention of
Apuleius himself.[65]

Literary Legacy
Friedländer also listed several European tales of marriage between a
human maiden and prince cursed to be an animal, as related to the
"Cupid and Psyche" cycle of stories (which later became known as
"The Search for the Lost Husband" and "Animal as
Bridegroom").[66][67]

Bruno Bettelheim notes in The Uses of Enchantment that the 18th-

century fairy tale Beauty and the Beast is a version of Cupid and
Psyche. Motifs from Apuleius occur in several fairy tales, including
:
 Cinderella and Rumpelstiltskin, in versions collected by folklorists
trained in the classical tradition, such as Charles Perrault and the
Grimm brothers.[68] In the Grimm version, Cinderella is given the task
of sorting lentils and peas from ash, and is aided by birds just as ants
help Psyche in the sorting of grain and legumes imposed on her by
Venus. Like Cinderella, Psyche has two envious sisters who compete
with her for the most desirable male. Cinderella's sisters mutilate their
own feet to emulate her, while Psyche's are dashed to death on a rocky
cliff.[69] In Hans Christian Andersen's The Little Mermaid, the Little
Mermaid is given a dagger by her sisters, who, in an attempt to end all
the suffering she endured and to let her become a mermaid again,
attempt to persuade her to use it to slay the Prince while he is asleep
with his new bride. She cannot bring herself to kill the Prince, however.
Unlike Psyche, who becomes immortal, she doesn't receive his love in
return, but she, nevertheless, ultimately earns the eternal soul she
yearns for.

Thomas Bulfinch wrote a shorter adaptation of the Cupid and Psyche

tale for his Age of Fable, borrowing Tighe's invention of Cupid's self-
wounding, which did not appear in the original. Josephine Preston
Peabody wrote a version for children in her Old Greek Folk Stories Told
Anew (1897).

C.S. Lewis' Till We Have Faces is a retelling of Apuleius' Cupid and

Psyche from the perspective of one of Psyche's sisters. Till We Have
Faces is C.S. Lewis' last work of fiction and elaborates on Apuleius'
story in a modern way.
:
 Performing Arts
In 1634, Thomas Heywood turned the tale of Cupid and Psyche into a
masque for the court of Charles I.[70] Lully's Psyché (1678) is a Baroque
French opera (a "tragédie lyrique") based on the 1671 play by Molière,
which had musical intermèdes by Lully. Matthew Locke's semi-opera
Psyche (1675) is a loose reworking from the 1671 production. In 1800,
Ludwig Abeille premièred his four-act German opera (singspiel) Amor
und Psyche, with a libretto by Franz Carl Hiemer based on Apuleius.

Psyche et L'Amour (1889)

by Bouguereau

In the 19th century, Cupid and Psyche was a source for

"transformations", visual interludes involving tableaux vivants,
transparencies and stage machinery that were presented between the
scenes of a pantomime but extraneous to the plot.[71] During the
1890s, when tableaux vivants or "living pictures" were in vogue as a
:
 part of vaudeville, the 1889 Psyché et l'Amour of Bouguereau was
among the artworks staged. To create these tableaux, costumed
performers "froze" in poses before a background copied meticulously
from the original and enlarged within a giant picture frame. Nudity was
feigned by flesh-colored bodystockings that negotiated standards of
realism, good taste, and morality.[72] Claims of educational and artistic
value allowed female nudes—a popular attraction—to evade
censorship.[73] Psyché et l'Amour was reproduced by the scenic painter
Edouard von Kilanyi, who made a tour of Europe and the United States
beginning in 1892,[74] and by George Gordon in an Australian
production that began its run in December 1894.[75] The illusion of
flight was so difficult to sustain that this tableau was necessarily
brief.[73] The performer billed as "The Modern Milo" during this period
specialized in recreating female sculptures, a Psyche in addition to her
namesake Venus de Milo.[76]

Frederick Ashton choreographed a ballet Cupid and Psyche with music

by Lord Berners and decor by Sir Francis Rose, first performed on 27
April 1939 by the Sadler's Wells Ballet (now Royal Ballet). Frank Staff
danced as Cupid, Julia Farron as Psyche, Michael Somes as Pan, and
June Brae as Venus.[77]

Modern Adaptations
Cupid and Psyche continues to be a source of inspiration for modern
playwrights and composers. Notable adaptations include:

Psyche (symphonic poem) by

:
 César Franck (1888)[78]
Till We Have Faces: A Myth
Retold by C.S. Lewis [79]
"Psyché:poème dramatique en
trois actes," (play) by Gabriel
Mourey, Paris, Mercure de
France, 1913. "Syrinx" was
composed by Claude Debussy
as incidental music for the
play.[80]
Eros and Psyche (opera) with
libretto by Jerzy Żuławski,
composed by Ludomir Różycki
:
 (Wroclaw, Poland, 1917) [81]
Psyche: An Opera in Three Acts
(opera) based on the novel
Psyche by Louis Couperus,
composed by Meta Overman
(1955) [82][83]
Metamorphoses (play) by Mary
Zimmerman, adapted from the
classic Ovid poem
Metamorphoses, including the
myth of Eros and Psyche
(Northwestern University, 1996;
Circle in the Square Theatre,
Broadway, NYC 2002)
:
 The Golden Ass (play) by Peter
Oswald, adapted from Apuleius,
commissioned for Shakespeare's
Globe (London, England 2002)
[84]

Cupid and Psyche (musical) by

with book and lyrics by Sean
Hartley and music by Jihwan Kim
(New York City, NY 2003).[85]
Cupid and Psyche (verse drama)
by Joseph Fisher (Stark Raving
Theatre, Portland, OR 2002;
Staged Reading: Oregon
:
 Shakespeare Festival, 2002) [86]
Amor & Psyche (pastiche opera)
arranged by Alan Dornak (Opera
Feroce (http://www.operaferoce.
com/) , part of Vertical Player
Repertory, New York City,
2010)[87][88]
Cupid and Psyche: An Internet
Love Story (play) by Maria
Hernandez, Emma Rosecan and
Alexis Stickovitch (YouthPLAYS,
2012) [89]
Psyche: A Modern Rock Opera
:
 (rock opera) by Cindy Shapiro
(Greenway Court Theater, Los
Angeles, CA, 2014) [90][91]
Cupid and Psyche (verse drama)
by Emily C. A. Snyder (Turn to
Flesh Productions (http://www.tu
rntoflesh.org) [TTF], New York
City, NY, 2014).[92] As part of the
Love and Death Trilogy (Staged
Reading, TTF, New York City, NY
2018) [93]
Amor and Psyche (In Times of
Plagues) (Short film) by
VestAndPage (2020) [94]
:
 Amore e Psiche (electronic
poem) by Fabio Mengozzi
(2023)[95]

Psychology

Psyche showing her Sisters her Gifts

from Cupid, Painting by Jean-Honoré
Fragonard

Viewed in terms of psychology rather than allegory, the tale of Cupid

and Psyche shows how "a mutable person … matures within the social
constructs of family and marriage".[96] In the Jungian allegory of Erich
Neumann (1956), the story of Psyche was interpreted as "the psychic
development of the feminine".[97][98]

Cupid and Psyche has been analyzed from a feminist perspective as a

paradigm of how the gender unity of women is disintegrated through
:
 rivalry and envy, replacing the bonds of sisterhood with an ideal of
heterosexual love.[99] This theme was explored in Psyche's Sisters:
Reimagining the Meaning of Sisterhood (1988) by Christine
Downing,[100] who uses myth as a medium for psychology.

James Hillman made the story the basis for his critique of scientific
psychology, The Myth of Analysis: Three Essays in Archetypal
Psychology (1983). Carol Gilligan uses the story as the basis for much
of her analysis of love and relationships in The Birth of Pleasure (Knopf,
2002).

Fine and Decorative Arts

The story of Cupid and Psyche is depicted in a wide range of visual
media. Psyche is often represented with butterfly wings, and the
butterfly is her frequent attribute and a symbol of the soul, though the
literary Cupid and Psyche never says that she has or acquires wings. In
antiquity, an iconographical tradition existed independently of
Apuleius's tale and influenced later depictions.[101]

Ancient Art
:
 On this fragment from a sarcophagus used in
the early 4th century, Cupid and a butterfly-
winged Psyche frame a portrait of the
deceased, carried on an eagle with a
cornucopia and spilling basket of fruit[102]
(Indianapolis Museum of Art)

Eros and Psyche plaster medallion

(1st century A.D.)[103] excavated
in Begram, collections of National
Museum of Afghanistan;[104] on
exhibit at British Museum,
London.[105]

Some extant examples suggest that in antiquity Cupid and Psyche

could have a religious or mystical meaning. Rings bearing their likeness,
several of which come from Roman Britain, may have served an
amuletic purpose.[106] Engraved gems from Britain represent spiritual
torment with the image of Cupid torching a butterfly.[107] The two are
also depicted in high relief in mass-produced Roman domestic plaster
wares from 1st-2nd centuries AD found in excavations at Greco-
Bactrian merchant settlements on the ancient Silk Road at Begram in
:
 Afghanistan[108] (see gallery below). The allegorical pairing depicts
perfection of human love in integrated embrace of body and soul
('psyche' Greek for butterfly symbol for transcendent immortal life after
death). On sarcophagi, the couple often seem to represent an allegory
of love overcoming death.[6]

A relief of Cupid and Psyche was displayed at the mithraeum of Capua,

but it is unclear whether it expresses a Mithraic quest for salvation, or
was simply a subject that appealed to an individual for other reasons.
Psyche is invoked with "Providence" (Pronoia) at the beginning of the
so-called Mithras Liturgy.[109]

In late antiquity, the couple are often shown in a "chin-chuck"

embrace, a gesture of "erotic communion" with a long history.[110] The
rediscovery of freestanding sculptures of the couple influenced several
significant works of the modern era.

Other depictions surviving from antiquity include a 2nd-century

papyrus illustration possibly of the tale,[111] and a ceiling fresco at Trier
executed during the reign of Constantine I.[6]

Modern Era
:
 Cupid and Psyche (1867) by
Alphonse Legros, criticized for
rendering female nudity as
"commonplace"

Works of art proliferated after the rediscovery of Apuleius's text, in

conjunction with the influence of classical sculpture. In the mid-15th
century, Cupid and Psyche became a popular subject for Italian
wedding chests (cassoni),[112] particularly those of the Medici. The
choice was most likely prompted by Boccaccio's Christianized allegory.
The earliest of these cassoni, dated variously to the years 1444–
1470,[113] pictures the narrative in two parts: from Psyche's conception
to her abandonment by Cupid; and her wanderings and the happy
ending.[114] With the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, the subject was the
most common choice for specifying paintings of the Feast of the Gods,
which were popular from the Renaissance to Northern Mannerism.[115]

Cupid and Psyche is a rich source for scenarios, and several artists
have produced cycles of works based on it, including the frescoes at
the Villa Farnesina (ca. 1518) by Raphael and his workshop; frescoes at
Palazzo del Tè (1527–28) by Giulio Romano; engravings by the "Master
of the Die" (mid-16th century); and paintings by the Pre-Raphaelite
Edward Burne-Jones (in the 1870s–90s).[112] Burne-Jones also
executed a series of 47 drawings intended as illustrations for Morris's
poem.[116] Cupid and Psyche was the subject of the only cycle of prints
:
 created by the German Symbolist Max Klinger (1857–1920) to illustrate
a specific story.[117]

The special interest in the wedding as a subject in Northern Mannerism

seems to spring from a large engraving of 1587 by Hendrik Goltzius in
Haarlem of a drawing by Bartholomeus Spranger (now Rijksmuseum)
that Karel van Mander had brought back from Prague, where Spranger
was court painter to Rudolf II. The Feast of the Gods at the Marriage of
Cupid and Psyche was so large, at 16 7/8 x 33 5/8 in. (43 x 85.4 cm),
that it was printed from three different plates. Over 80 figures are
shown, placed up in the clouds over a world landscape that can be
glimpsed below. The composition borrows from both Raphael and
Giulio Romano's versions.[118]

The most popular subjects for single paintings or sculpture are the
couple alone, or explorations of the figure of Psyche, who is sometimes
depicted in compositions that recall the sleeping Ariadne as she was
found by Dionysus.[119] The use of nudity or sexuality in portraying
Cupid and Psyche sometimes has offended contemporary sensibilities.
In the 1840s, the National Academy of Art banned William Page's Cupid
and Psyche, called perhaps "the most erotic painting in nineteenth-
century America".[120] Classical subject matter might be presented in
terms of realistic nudity: in 1867, the female figure in the Cupid and
Psyche of Alphonse Legros was criticized as a "commonplace naked
young woman".[121] But during the same period, Cupid and Psyche
were also portrayed chastely, as in the pastoral sculptures Psyche
(1845) by Townsend and Cupid and Psyche (1846) by Thomas Uwins,
which were purchased by Queen Victoria and her consort Albert,
otherwise keen collectors of nudes in the 1840s and 50s.[122]

Portrayals of Psyche alone are often not confined to illustrating a scene

:
 from Apuleius, but may draw on the broader Platonic tradition in which
Love was a force that shaped the self. The Psyche Abandoned of
Jacques-Louis David, probably based on La Fontaine's version of the
tale, depicts the moment when Psyche, having violated the taboo of
looking upon her lover, is abandoned alone on a rock, her nakedness
expressing dispossession and the color palette a psychological
"divestment". The work has been seen as an "emotional proxy" for the
artist's own isolation and desperation during his imprisonment, which
resulted from his participation in the French Revolution and association
with Robespierre.[123]

Sculpture
:
 Cupid and Psyche (from an original
of 2nd century BC)
:
 Cupid and Psyche (ca. 150 AD)
:
 Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss
(1793) by Antonio Canova, Louvre
:
 Cupid and Psyche by Clodion (d.
1814)
:
 Psyche by Bertel Thorvaldsen (d.
1844)
[124]

Paintings
:
 Amor and Psyche (1589) by Jacopo
Zucchi
:
 Cupid and Psyche (1639–40) by
Anthony van Dyck: Cupid finds the
sleeping Psyche.
:
 Landscape with Psyche Outside the
Palace of Cupid (The Enchanted
Castle) (1664) by Claude Lorrain
:
 Amor and Psyche (1767) by Louis-
Jean-François Lagrenée
:
 Cupid and Psyche in the nuptial
bower (1792-93) by Hugh Douglas
Hamilton
:
 Allegory of Love, Cupid and Psyche
(between 1798 and 1805) by Goya
:
 Psyche Lifted Up by Zephyrs
(Romantic, c. 1800) by Pierre-Paul
Prud'hon
:
 Cupid and Psyche (1808) by
Benjamin West PRA
:
 Psyche Abandoned (c. 1817) by
François-Édouard Picot
:
 Cupid and Psyche (1843) by Jean-
Pierre Saint-Ours
:
 Cupid and Psyche (1843) by William
Page
:
 Cupid and Psyche (1850–55) by
Károly Brocky
:
 Cupid Flying Away from Psyche
(between 1872 and 1881) by Edward
Burne-Jones
:
 Psyche Receiving the Casket Back
(between 1872 and 1881) by Edward
Burne-Jones
:
 Psyche (1890) by John Reinhard
Weguelin
:
 Cupid and Psyche (1891) by Annie
Swynnerton
:
 Psyche Opening the Golden Box
(1903) by John William Waterhouse
:
 Cupid and Psyche (1907) by Edvard
Munch

See also

Visual
arts
portal

Beauty and the Beast – French fairy

:
 tale
Graciosa and Percinet – French
literary fairy tale written by Madame
d'Aulnoy
East of the Sun and West of the
Moon – Norwegian fairy tale
Tulisa, the Wood-Cutter's Daughter
(Indian tale)
Snow-White and Rose-Red –
German fairy tale
Pride and Prejudice

References

1. Dorothy Johnson, David to

Delacroix: The Rise of Romantic
:
 Delacroix: The Rise of Romantic
Mythology (University of North
Carolina Press, 2011), pp. 81–87.
2. Lewis, C. S. (1956). Till We Have
Faces: A Myth Retold (https://arc
hive.org/details/tillwehavefacesm
00lewi_0) . Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich. p. 311 (https://archiv
e.org/details/tillwehavefacesm00
lewi_0/page/311) .
ISBN 0156904365.
3. Stephen Harrison, entry on
"Cupid," The Oxford
Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece
and Rome (Oxford University
Press, 2010), p. 338.
4. Wagenvoort, H. (1980). "Cupid
:
 4. Wagenvoort, H. (1980). "Cupid
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doi:10.1163/9789004296688_0
07 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9
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5. Harrison, "Cupid and Psyche," in
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6. Harrison, "Cupid and Psyche,"
Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient
Greece and Rome, p. 338.
7. Entry on "Apuleius", in The
Classical Tradition (Harvard
University Press, 2010), pp. 56–
57.
:
 8. E.J. Kenney, Apuleius: Cupid and
Psyche (Cambridge University
Press, 1990), pp. 22–23
9. Papaioannou, Sophia (1 January
1998). "Charite's Rape, Psyche
on the Rock and the Parallel
Function of Marriage in Apuleius'
Metamorphoses". Mnemosyne.
51 (3): 302–324.
doi:10.1163/156852598261150
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:
 99144271) .
10. Jane Kingsley-Smith, Cupid in
Early Modern Literature and
Culture (Cambridge University
Press, 2010), p. 164.
11. The following summary is
condensed from the translation
of Kenney (Cambridge University
Press, 1990), and the revised
translation of W. Adlington by S.
Gaseless for the Loeb Classical
Library (Harvard University
Press, 1915), with reference to
the accompanying Latin text.
12. Papaioannou, "Charite's Rape,
Psyche on the Rock," p. 319.
:
 Psyche on the Rock," p. 319.
13. Max Nelson, "Narcissus: Myth
and Magic," Classical Journal
95.4 (2000), p. 364, citing S.
Lancel, "Curiositas et
préoccupations spirituelles chez
Apulée," Revue de l'histoire des
religions 160 (1961), pp. 41–45.
14. By the 6th-century
mythographer Fulgentius; Joel C.
Relihan, Apuleius: The Tale of
Cupid and Psyche (Hackett,
2009), p. 65.
15. Cakes were often offerings to the
gods, particularly in Eleusinian
religion; cakes of barley meal
moistened with honey, called
:
 moistened with honey, called
prokonia (προκώνια), were
offered to Demeter and Kore at
the time of first harvest. See
Allaire Brumfield, “Cakes in the
liknon: Votives from the
Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore
on Acrocorinth,” Hesperia 66
(1997) 147–172.
16. Apuleius describes it as served in
a cup, though ambrosia is usually
regarded as a food and nectar as
a drink.
17. Philip Hardie, Rumour and
Renown: Representations of
Fama in Western Literature
(Cambridge University Press,
:
 (Cambridge University Press,
2012), p. 116; Papaioannou,
"Charite's Rape, Psyche on the
Rock," p. 321.
18. Relihan, The Tale of Cupid and
Psyche, p. 79.
19. Stephen Harrison, "Divine
Authority in 'Cupid and Psyche':
Apuleius Metamorphoses 6,23–
24," in Ancient Narrative:
Authors, Authority, and
Interpreters in the Ancient Novel.
Essays in Honor of Gareth L.
Schmeling (Barkhuis, 2006), p.
182.
20. Harrison, "Divine Authority in
:
 20. Harrison, "Divine Authority in
'Cupid and Psyche'," p. 179.
21. Harrison, "Divine Authority in
'Cupid and Psyche'," p. 182.
22. Ariane van Suchtelen and Anne
T. Woollett, Rubens and
Brueghel: A Working Friendship
(Getty Publications, 2006), p.
60; Susan Maxwell, The Court
Art of Friedrich Sustris:
Patronage in Late Renaissance
Bavaria (Ashgate, 2011), pp. 172,
174.
23. Van Suchtelen and Woollett,
Rubens and Brueghel, p. 60;
Maxwell, The Court Art of
Friedrich Sustris, p. 172.
:
 Friedrich Sustris, p. 172.
24. Martha Hollander, An Entrance
for the Eyes: Space and Meaning
in Seventeenth-Century Dutch
Art (University of California
Press, 2002), pp. 11–12.
25. Michelle Facos, An Introduction
to 19th Century Art (Routledge,
2011), p. 20.
26. Manuscript Vat. Lat. 2194,
Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.
27. Danuta Shanzer, A Philosophical
and Literary Commentary on
Martianus Capella's De Nuptiis
Philologiae et Mercurii Book 1
(University of California Press,
:
 1986), p. 69.
28. Relihan, The Tale of Cupid and
Psyche, p. 59.
29. Martianus Capella, De Nuptiis 7;
Chance, Medieval Mythography,
p. 271.
30. Mattei, Marina. "Literary and
Figurative Themes. Cupid and
Psyche in Apuleius' fabula,
crucible of all the fairy-tales in
the world". In: The Tale of Cupid
and Psyche: Myth in Art from
Antiquity to Canova. Edited by
Maria Grazia Bernardini. L'Erma
de Bretschneider, 2012. p. 42.
ISBN 978-88-8265-722-2.
:
 ISBN 978-88-8265-722-2.
31. Patricia Cox Miller, "'The Little
Blue Flower Is Red': Relics and
the Poeticizing of the Body,"
Journal of Early Christian Studies
8.2 (2000), p. 229.
32. Entry on "Apuleius," Classical
Tradition, p. 56.
33. Relihan, The Tale of Cupid and
Psyche, p. 64.
34. Robert H.F. Carver, "The
Rediscovery of the Latin Novels,"
in Latin Fiction: The Latin Novel
in Context (Routledge, 1999), p.
257; Regine May, "The Prologue
to Apuleius' Metamorphoses and
Coluccio Salutati: MS Harley
:
 Coluccio Salutati: MS Harley
4838," in Ancient Narrative.
Lectiones Scrupulosae: Essays
on the Text and Interpretation of
Apuleius' Metamorphoses in
Honour of Maaike Zimmerman
(Barkhuis, 2006), p. 282.
35. Carver, "The Rediscovery of the
Latin Novels," p. 259.
36. May, "The Prologue to Apuleius'
Metamorphoses," pp. 282–284.
37. Jane Kingsley-Smith, Cupid in
Early Modern Literature and
Culture (Cambridge University
Press, 2010), pp. 11, 165.
38. Kingsley-Smith, Cupid in Early
:
 38. Kingsley-Smith, Cupid in Early
Modern Literature and Culture, p.
168.
39. Kingsley-Smith, Cupid in Early
Modern Literature and Culture,
pp. 163, 168. The fresco cycle,
commissioned by Sir Thomas
Smith, was based on engravings
by the Master of the Die and
Agostino Veneziano (1536),
which had been taken from the
work of Michiel Coxie that was
modeled on the Loggia di Psiche.
40. Kingsley-Smith, Cupid in Early
Modern Literature and Culture, p.
173.
41. Kingsley-Smith, Cupid in Early
:
 41. Kingsley-Smith, Cupid in Early
Modern Literature and Culture, p.
176.
42. Ewa Lajer-Burchart, Necklines:
The Art of Jacques-Louis David
After the Terror (Yale University
Press, 1999), pp. 278–279.
43. Kathleen Raine, Blake and
Tradition (Routledge, 1969,
2002), vol. 1, p. 183.
44. Entry on "Apuleius," Classical
Tradition, p. 57.
45. Raine, Blake and Tradition, vol. 1,
pp. 182–203, quoting Blake's
notes on A Vision of the Last
Judgment, and especially pp.
:
 183, 191 and 201.
46. As described by a contemporary
reviewer of the new work, quoted
by Philippe Bordes, Jacques-
Louis David: Empire to Exile (Yale
University Press, 2005), p. 234.
47. Bordes, Jacques-Louis David, p.
232.
48. Keats, John (15 August 2021).
"Ode To Psyche" (https://www.p
oetryfoundation.org/poems/444
80/ode-to-psyche) . Poetry
Foundation.
49. J. Lawrence Mitchell, "Ray
Garnett as Illustrator". Powys
Review 10 (spring 1982), pp. 9–
:
 Review 10 (spring 1982), pp. 9–
28.
50. Entry on "Apuleius," Classical
Tradition, p. 57.
51. Raine, Blake and Tradition, vol. 1,
p. 182.
52. Walsh, Patrick G. The Roman
novel: The 'Satyricon' of
Petronius and the
'Metamorphoses' of Apuleius (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id
=9xA8AAAAIAAJ&dq=%22tulisa
%22+cupid+and+psyche&pg=P
A194) . Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1970. pp. 193-
195.
:
 53. Cupane, Carolina (2018).
"Intercultural Encounters in the
Late Byzantine Vernacular
Romance". Reading the Late
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doi:10.1017/9781108163767.003
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108163767.003) .
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manticscholar.org/CorpusID:192
357521) .
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October 2010). "The Invention of
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:
 doi:10.5406/jamerfolk.123.490.0
398 (https://doi.org/10.5406%2
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55. Friedländer, Ludwig. Roman life
and manners under the early
Empire. Vol. IV. London:
Routledge. 1913. p. 102.
56. Thompson, Stith (1977). The
Folktale. University of California
Press. pp. 281–282. ISBN 0-
520-03537-2. "The tale [of
Cupid and Psyche] has most of
the elements of the present-day
folk story (...) we have here what
certainly appears to be a real tale
of the Italian countryside during
:
 the reign of Marcus Aurelius"
57. Huet, Gedeon Busken (1923).
Contes populaires (https://archiv
e.org/details/ContesPopulaires/p
age/n42/mode/1up?q=psyche)
(in French). Paris: E. Flammarion.
p. 43. "Nous possêdons encore,
dans l'histoire de Psyche, inserée
par Apulee dans son roman des
Metamorphoses, un vrai conte
populaire de l'antiquité ..."
58. Megas, G. 1967. Das Märchen
von Amor und Psyche in der
griechischen Volksüberlieferung
(AaTh 425, 428 & 432). Athens
59. Herrmann, Léon (1955). "Review
:
 59. Herrmann, Léon (1955). "Review
of The Tale of Cupid and Psyche,
Aarne-Thompson 425 and 428".
Latomus. 14 (3): 494.
JSTOR 41518077 (https://www.j
stor.org/stable/41518077) .
60. Plantade, Emmanuel and
Nedjima. "Libyca Psyche:
Apuleius and the Berber
Folktales (https://www.academia.
edu/3623771/Libyca_Psyche_Ap
uleius_and_the_Berber_Folktales
) ". In: Apuleius and Africa.
Editors: Benjamin Todd Lee, Luca
Graverini, Ellen Finkelpearl.
Routledge, 2014. pp. 174-202.
61. Reitzenstein, Richard. Das
:
 61. Reitzenstein, Richard. Das
märchen von Amor und Psyche
bei Apuleius (https://archive.org/
details/dasmrchenvonam00reitu
oft/page/21/mode/1up?q=deutun
g) . Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. 1912.
62. Wagenvoort, H. Pietas: Selected
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of Apuleius and The Golden Ass:
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:
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7730&partId=1&searchText=185
2,1211.63&page=1) ; Bull, 342–
343
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BCE from Pella,..." (https://muse
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ella)
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92444-56-1.
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tradición simbólica y un estudio
sobre el problema fundamental de
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doi:10.5406/illiclasstud.38.0229 (ht
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pp. 337–351.
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 doi:10.1002/9781119072034.ch23 (
https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781119
072034.ch23) .
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Latin Classics. Cambridge University
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Morwood, James (2010). "Cupid
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"CUPID AND PSYCHE vs. BEAUTY
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External links

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related to Cupid and Psyche.
Tales Similar to Beauty and the
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w.surlalunefairytales.com/beauty
beast/other.html) (Texts of
Cupid and Psyche and similar
monster or beast as bridegroom
tales, mostly of AT-425C form,
with hyperlinked commentary).
Robert Bridges' Eros and Psyche
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0Seymour%2C%201844-1930
%22%20eros) : PDF (https://arc
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9025) or read online (https://arc
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9025#page/n81/mode/2up)
Mary Tighe, Psyche or, the
Legend of Love (1820) HTML (ht
tp://web.nmsu.edu/~hlinkin) or
PDF (http://web.nmsu.edu/~hlink
in/Psyche)
"Cupid and Psyche". A poem by
Letitia Elizabeth Landon from
The Literary Souvenir, 1827.
Walter Pater, Marius the
:
 Epicurean, chapter 5 (1885)
Gutenberg Project: Walter
Pater, Marius the Epicurean,
Vol. 1 (https://www.gutenber
g.org/ebooks/4057) (plain
text)
Blackmask: Walter Pater,
Marius the Epicurean:
chapter 5 (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/200602131059
07/http://www.blackmask.c
om/books57c/7mrs1dex.ht
m)
Victorian Prose: Walter
:
 Pater, Marius the Epicurean,
Vol. 1 (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20070928061838/h
ttp://www.victorianprose.org
/texts/Pater/Works/mar_85_
1.pdf) (PDF)
The Baldwin Project: The
Enchanted Palace (http://w
ww.mainlesson.com/display.
php?author=peabody&boo
k=greek&story=cupid) and
The Trial of Psyche (http://w
ww.mainlesson.com/display.
php?author=peabody&boo
:
 k=greek&story=psyche)
Thomas Bulfinch, The Age of
Fable (1913)
Folktexts: Cupid and Psyche
(http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/
cupid.html) by D. L.
Ashliman
Hermetic Philosophy: Cupid and
Psyche (http://www.plotinus.com
/myth_cupid_psyche_copy.htm
) (Illustrated with painting and
sculpture.)
Cupid and Psyche: A New Play
:
 in Blank Verse (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20131112010158/htt
p://www.cupidandpsyche.net/)
Turn to Flesh Productions (http://
www.turntoflesh.com)
Edwards, Lee R. (1979). "The
Labors of Psyche: Toward a
Theory of Female Heroism".
Critical Inquiry. 6 (1): 33–49.
doi:10.1086/448026 (https://doi
.org/10.1086%2F448026) .
JSTOR 1343084 (https://www.js
tor.org/stable/1343084) .
S2CID 162110603 (https://api.s
:
 emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16
2110603) .

Art

Art Renewal Center: "Cupid &

Psyche" by Sharrell E. Gibson (ht
tp://www.artrenewal.org/articles/
2001/Cupid_and_Psyche/cupid
psyche.php) (Examples and
discussion of Cupid and Psyche
in painting.)
Warburg Institute Iconographic
Database (c. 470 images of
Cupid and Psyche) (https://icono
:
 graphic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/categ
ory/vpc-taxonomy-006841)
Tale of Cupid and Psyche
engravings by Maestro del Dado
and Agostino Veneziano from the
De Verda collection (http://www.
colecciondeverda.com/search/la
bel/Fabula%20de%20Amor%20
y%20Psique)

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