See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/250162289

Application of dry covers for the closure of tailings facilities

Article in Land Contamination & Reclamation · April 2007

DOI: 10.2462/09670513.849

CITATIONS READS

9 1,318

4 authors, including:

Evangelia Mylona Anthimos Xenidis

National Technical University of Athens National Technical University of Athens
33 PUBLICATIONS 343 CITATIONS 129 PUBLICATIONS 2,308 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Anthimos Xenidis on 17 March 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Land Contamination & Reclamation, 15 (2), 2007 © 2007 EPP Publications Ltd

DOI 10.2462/09670513.849

Application of dry covers for the closure of tailings

facilities
E. Mylona, A. Xenidis, M. Csövári and G. Németh

Abstract
The design and construction of a cover system represents a major issue in tailings facilities closure.
A dry cover system mainly aims to minimize water infiltration and/or inhibition of oxygen diffusion to
the underlying waste in order to control acid rock drainage production and metals leaching. Further-
more, dry covers should be resistant to water and wind erosion and provide support for vegetation.
They can be simple or complex, ranging from a single layer of earthen material to several layers of
different material types, including native soils, geosynthetic materials, inactive tailings and/or waste
rock, and organic materials. Different types of dry covers implemented at tailings facilities are
reviewed in this paper. Factors affecting the cover design and dictating the long-term performance
are discussed. Alternative covers aiming at acid rock drainage control by the incorporation of reac-
tive layers containing alkaline and/or cementitious materials are also described. Finally, a case
study, involving the design and application of a multilayered cover in the reclamation of uranium tail-
ings ponds in Pécs, Hungary, is presented.

Key words: closure, dry covers, Pécs, tailings facilities, uranium tailings

INTRODUCTION years it has been increasingly recognized that for a min-

ing project to contribute positively to an area’s develop-
Mining operations are finite economic activities, which
ment in any lasting way, closure objectives and impacts
are usually relatively short term. The tailings that
must be considered from project inception. The tailings
remain after the mining of an ore deposit has been com-
facility needs to be engineered for closure, so that sta-
pleted are often the most visible remaining signs of the
bility and environmental performance criteria can be
mining activity. The tailings or mine waste disposal
achieved.
facility has proven to be the most contentious compo-
In recent years, there have been a number of studies
nent of mining activities, and has represented the source
to consider the standards to be achieved on closure in
of significant environmental and economic impacts
the USA, Canada, Australia and, most recently, in
due, in the majority of cases, to poor management. The
Europe. The fundamental mine closure design criteria,
primary aim in the past has been to provide a well-engi-
as described in the study by MIRO (1999), involve sev-
neered structure into which the tailings can be depos-
eral issues, such as physical, chemical and biological
ited without a great deal of attention being given to
stability, hydrology and hydrogeology, geographical
closure requirements or issues related to long-term
and climatic influences, local sensitivities, land-use,
management of the storage facility. In the past 20 to 30
financial assurance and socio-economic considerations.
A requirement to draw up closure plans for mine
Received November 2006; accepted February 2007 waste management facilities in order to ensure that clo-
sure operations form an integral part of the operator’s
Authors
E. Mylona,1 A. Xenidis,1* M. Csövári2 and G. Németh2 overall exploitation plan is contained in the recent
1. Laboratory of Metallurgy, National Technical University of European Directive 2006/21/EC on the ‘Management
Athens, Greece
2. MECSEK ÖKO Rt., Pécs, Hungary of waste from extractive industries and amending
* Corresponding author. Email axen@central.ntua.gr Directive 2004/35/EC’. In Article 12, the tasks that

163
 Land Contamination & Reclamation / Volume 15 / Number 2 / 2007
have to be carried out by the operator, and the role of
the competent authority in supervising closure and
aftercare procedures, are laid out. The operator shall
control the physical and chemical stability of the facil-
ity and minimize any negative environmental effects,
in particular with respect to surface and groundwater.
The reclamation of tailings impoundments com-
monly involves the placement of dry or water covers
over the tailings. Cover design is site-specific, depend-
ing on the climatic conditions, material availability and
the sensitivity of the receiving environment.
A water cover is often the method of choice for
reclaiming tailings, which are potentially acid generat-
ing. The tailings voids remain permanently water-filled
and thus unavailable to oxygen, while a water depth of
two to three metres sufficiently reduces dissolved oxy-
gen at the submerged tailings surface. However, a
water cover is not suitable if: (i) it would result in too
much contaminated seepage; (ii) the embankments
would not be stable and/or could not be economically
stabilized; and (iii) the water balance for the cover
pond would be such that the water cover could not be
sustained (Wels et al. 2000). Under any of the above
circumstances, a dry cover represents the method of
choice for reclamation of the tailings. The design of a
dry cover can vary widely, ranging from a single soil
layer to promote revegetation, to a complex (multi-
layer) cover to control radiological, oxidation, and/or
leaching effects.
In the present paper, the different types of dry covers
applied to the closure of tailings management facilities
are reviewed. Critical characteristics of the covers, and
the parameters affecting their long-term performance,
are described. Finally, the cover systems applied in the
reclamation of two uranium tailing disposal areas at
Pécs, Hungary, are presented.
DRY COVER SYSTEMS
The objectives of a cover system may vary from site to
site, but generally include:
• dust and erosion control;
• chemical stabilization of potentially acid-generating
tailings (through control of oxygen ingress and/or
water infiltration);
• control of contaminant release (through control of
164
infiltration);
• minimize radon emission from uranium tailings;
and
• provision of a growth medium for the establishment
of vegetation.
On the basis of design objectives, the various types
of tailings covers can be classified in three categories
(Elander et al. 1998; DeVos et al. 1999; Ritchie 1999):
• low water flux covers that aim to inhibit infiltration
to the waste. Covers of this type include the low-
permeability cover (water-shedding cover), the cap-
illary barrier and the store and release or eva-
potranspiration cover;
• oxygen barrier covers that limit the transport of
oxygen into the tailings either by acting as a barrier
against oxygen diffusion or by consumption of oxy-
gen, which penetrates into the cover, thereby con-
trolling the rate of sulphide oxidation;
• after-use cover that aims to improve the appearance
of the tailings surface; to prevent surface erosion; to
limit contact between the tailings and the surface
run-off; and to provide a growth medium for the
establishment of sustainable vegetation.
Common components (layers) of a dry cover system
are summarized in Table 1 (Rumer and Mitchell 1996).
Undoubtedly, not all layers are needed for all types
of covers. The design criteria are based on a number of
site-specific factors, including:
• climatic conditions of the site;
• geomechanical/geochemical properties and envi-
ronmental risks of the disposal area;
• borrow-material type and availability;
• closure strategy;
• cost.
Types and characteristics of dry covers
A low water flux cover, containing a low-permeability
layer, has been commonly applied for covering the
waste disposal areas, in compliance with regulations on
the landfill of waste. This type of cover, as well as alter-
native types aiming to inhibit water infiltration to the
waste, such as capillary barrier, store-and-release cov-
ers and geochemical barriers, are described in the fol-
lowing sections. Organic covers aiming principally to
 Application of dry covers for the closure of tailings facilities

Table 1. Layers of the final cover at the waste disposal sites (Rumer and Mitchell 1996)
a/a Layer Primary functions Potential materials Factors affecting
performance
• Separation of underlying layers from the ground – Topsoil vegetated
surface – Geosynthetic layer over Erosion, evapo-
1 Surface layer • Resistance to wind and water erosion topsoil transpiration,
• Protection of underlying layers from temperature – Cobbles vegetation
and moisture extremes – Paving material
• Storage of infiltrated water until its removal by
– Soil
evapo-transpiration Erosion, slope failure
– Cobbles
Protection • Separation of waste from humans, burrowing due to pore pressure
2 – Recycled or reused waste
layer animals and plant roots buildup, animal
(e.g. fly ash, bottom ash
• Protection of underlying layers from wet–dry and burrows
and paper mill sludge)
freeze–thaw cycles, which may cause cracking
• Reduction of water head on the barrier layer
• Reduction of pore water pressures in the overlying
– Sand or gravel Clogging, insufficient
Drainage layers, thus increasing slope stability
3 – Geonet or geocomposite capacity and drainage
layer • Reduction of the time during which the overlying
– Recycled or reused waste outlets
layers are saturated following rainfall events,
thereby decreasing erosion
– Compacted clay Cracking due to
Hydraulic – Geomembrane desiccation, de-
and/or • Inhibition of water percolation and/or – Geosynthetic clay liner formation from
4
oxygen* • Prevent oxygen diffusion – Recycled waste settlement or seismic
barrier layer – Asphalt action, root
– Capillary barrier penetration, stability
– Sand or gravel
Foundation
5 • Foundation for the cover – Soil Adequate strength
layer
– Waste

* Applicable to sulphidic wastes with acid generation potential

inhibit oxygen transport to the sulphidic wastes are also
presented.
Covers with low-permeability layers
A cover incorporating low-permeability layers is the
cover type recommended by Council Directive 1999/
31/EC on the landfill of waste, as shown in Figure 1.
The low-permeability barrier consists of a mineral
layer having a hydraulic conductivity of 10–9 m/sec.
For hazardous wastes, the incorporation of an artificial
sealing liner is also recommended. It is noted, however,
that tailings currently fall within the scope of Directive
2006/21/EC and are not subject to the Landfill Direc-
tive.
The barrier – a low-permeability layer – is consid-
ered the most critical engineered component of this
type of cover system. The theory and practice of barrier
layers is broadly applicable, regardless of waste type.
Conventional artificial barriers, applied as single liners
or combinations (composite barriers), include (Daniel
1993):
• a compacted clay layer;
• flexible membrane liners; and
• geosynthetic clay liners.
Historically, a compacted clay liner has been the
most commonly used barrier layer. For sites where the
available soil does not contain enough clay to be capa-
ble of being compacted to the desired low hydraulic
conductivity, commercially available clay minerals,
such as sodium bentonite, may be mixed with the soil.
A number of physical/geotechnical parameters control
the engineering properties of soil barriers, including the
grain-size distribution, Atterberg limits, water content
and energy of compaction and bonding of lifts (US
EPA/625/4-91/025).
The main problems associated with compacted clay
liners include damage due to desiccation during dry
periods and differential settlement. The in-place costs
of a single compacted clay liner typically vary from 3
to 25 €/m2, depending on thickness, availability, size
and type of facility. Under extreme conditions (e.g.

165
 Land Contamination & Reclamation / Volume 15 / Number 2 / 2007
Topsoil
>1m
Drainage layer
>0.5 m
Low
permeability
barrier
Wastes
Figure 1. Surface barrier for waste disposal areas in
compliance with the European legislation on the
landfill of waste (1999/31/EC)
lack of clay locally), the cost could be much higher
(Daniel 1993).
Polymeric geomembranes or flexible membrane lin-
ers (FMLs) are usually made of continuous polymeric
sheets that are flexible. Polyethylene (PE) is probably
the most common synthetic lining material, either as
high-density polyethylene (HDPE) or less commonly
low-density polyethylene (LDPE), whereas polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) may also be used. They typically range
in thickness from 0.06 to 0.24 cm, and come in sheets
and rolls of various sizes. Critical parameters in the
design of a geomembrane in a landfill cover include
liner compatibility, vapour transmission, biaxal
stresses via subsidence, and planar stresses mobilized
by friction (US EPA/625/4-91/025).
Durability and ageing of geomembranes have to be
taken into account when the long-term performance of
the cover in the post-closure period is assessed. Degra-
dation processes such as ultraviolet radiation are pre-
vented by burying the geomembrane in soil soon after
installation. However, long-term oxidation of
geomembranes is a degradation mechanism that can
only be retarded, via anti-oxidants, but not eliminated
(US EPA/625/4-91/025). Based on recent studies,
166
depletion of antioxidants from HDPE geomembranes
may take from 45 to 115 years, and the geomembrane
service life may be about 250 to 900 years, depending
on the specific product, and in-place conditions.
The range of installed costs for the geomembranes
typically used in cover systems is relatively narrow in
comparison to the other liner materials. For geomem-
branes with good out-of-plane deformation properties
and a thickness of approximately 1 mm, the installed
cost amounts to 5–9 €/m2 (Daniel 1993; Adam and
Mylona 2001).
Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) have also gained
acceptance as a barrier system in solid waste landfill
applications. These are factory-manufactured hydrau-
lic barriers consisting of a thin layer of bentonite (∼ 5.0
kg/m2) sandwiched between two geotextiles or bonded
to a geomembrane (US EPA 530-F-97-002). The struc-
tural integrity of GCLs is maintained by stitching or
needle-punching, and/or binding the geotextile or
geomembrane to the bentonite by adding an adhesive to
the bentonite. GCL technology can provide barrier sys-
tems with very low hydraulic conductivity, in the range
of 10–11 to 10–12 m/sec, performing at or above stand-
ard European and international performance levels.
Some of the GCL brands currently available include
Bentofix®, Bentomat®, Claymax ®, Gudseal® and
NaBento®. The primary differences between GCLs
include the mineralogy and form of bentonite (e.g.
woven vs. non-woven geotextiles); the addition of a
geomembrane; and the bonding methods. The ben-
tonite thickness of GCLs varies between 7 and 10 mm.
Based on the review and evaluation of alternative
covers by Rumer and Mitchell (1996), a final cover
incorporating a GCL barrier layer can outperform one
with a compacted clay layer. While a clay layer will
frequently crack due to differential settlement, wet-
ting–drying and freezing–thawing cycles, a GCL has
the ability to self-repair any rips or holes caused when
subjected to these stresses due to the swelling proper-
ties of bentonite. One of the primary concerns with
using GCLs in covers is the low shear strength at mid-
plane. Furthermore, this technology requires additional
field and laboratory testing to further assess its effec-
tiveness as a landfill barrier system in terms of key per-
formance standards including hydraulic conductivity,
bearing capacity, slope stability, long-term reliability
and resistance under freeze–thaw cycles. The cost of an
 Application of dry covers for the closure of tailings facilities
installed GCL can amount to up to 11.5 € /m2 (GSI
2000).
Composite covers include the geomembrane/com-
pacted clay liner, which is recommended by the US
Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA/625/4-91/
025) for the covering of hazardous waste disposal facil-
ities, the geomembrane/GCL liner; and very conserva-
tive options like the geomembrane/compacted clay/
geomembrane and the geomembrane/GCL/geomem-
brane liners. Based on the study of Kim and Benson
(1999), multilayer caps containing a composite
geomembrane/GCL or compacted clay barrier can also
be very effective at limiting oxygen transport into sul-
phidic mine wastes, inhibiting acid generation. The
geomembrane was considered a key component in
impeding oxygen diffusion.
The cost of composite covers is estimated to be the
sum of costs accounted for each component of the
cover system. Thus, the cost of a composite cover con-
sisting of a geombrane in intimate contact with a com-
pacted clay liner will average 17 € /m2.
Covers with capillary barriers
An alternative, appealing technique for the sealing of
waste disposal facilities relies on the use of natural
soils to generate a capillary barrier system where a
fine-grained soil layer overlies a coarse-grained soil
(Figure 2). At most water contents, except near satura-
tion, fine-grained soils have higher matric suctions than
coarse-grained soils, due to their different soil-water
characteristic curves. As a result, the apparent hydrau-
lic gradient in a capillary barrier near the fine-grained/
coarse-grained interface is normally upward, except
when the upper layer becomes nearly saturated. In
addition, infiltrated water is stored in the fine-grained
layer until the matric suction becomes low enough to
permit water entry into the coarse-grained layer.
Because coarse-grained soils have very low unsatu-
rated hydraulic conductivities at low water content, the
coarse-grained layer impedes flow. These factors con-
stitute the ‘capillary barrier effect’ which inhibits water
infiltration (Khire et al. 1996). Water stored in the fine-
grained layer due to the capillary barrier effect may be
diverted in a horizontal direction away from the under-
lying waste layers (applicable at humid sites), or
removed via evapotranspiration (semi-arid and arid
sites). A similar effect can be created when a coarse
167
Topsoil
Drainage layer
Coarse grained layer
Fine grained layer
Coarse grained layer
Wastes
Figure 2. Cross-section of a capillary barrier system
material is placed over a fine material, shown in Figure
2. Such configuration prevents water rising by capillary
force, from the fine to the coarse material. In this typi-
cal layered cover system, the upper and lower coarse-
grained layers inhibit the flow of water from the fine
material layer and help to maintain a high degree of sat-
uration. Given that oxygen diffusion is low in water
saturated soils, capillary barriers could also perform as
a barrier against oxygen transport from the atmosphere
into the sulphidic wastes, preventing their oxidation
and subsequent acid generation (Nicholson et al.
1989). A wet fine-grained layer can be also effective in
limiting outward diffusion of radon from uranium tail-
ings (Benson 2000).
For the design of a capillary barrier cover, detailed
characterization of the construction materials – includ-
ing grain-size distribution, hydraulic conductivity, soil-
water characteristic curve and careful consideration of
the site water balance and the geometry of the deposit –
is required.
Store and release covers
A store and release cover, also referred to as an eva-
potranspiration cover, consists of one or several layers,
which are designed to maximize root penetration and
soil moisture storage (Figure 3). Such a cover stores
 Land Contamination & Reclamation / Volume 15 / Number 2 / 2007
infiltrating water in the root zone long enough to allow
evapotranspiration to remove it, thereby reducing infil-
tration to the underlying wastes (Swanson et al. 1997).
This type of cover is applicable in arid and semi-arid
climates, and relies on the moisture retention and stor-
age characteristics of the cover material. It is noted that
the root zone is not limited to the cover layer but may
extend into the upper layers of the mine waste. In this
case, the cover material would primarily serve as a
medium for initiating plant growth and to avoid wind
and water erosion of the underlying waste material
(Wels and O’Kane 2003).
Store and
release material
Wastes
Figure 3. Cross-section of a store-and-release cover
Vegetation plays an important role in the perform-
ance of store and release covers. Actual evaporation
from a bare or non-vegetated soil cover will generally
only be about 10% of the potential rate of evaporation
available. High evapotranspiration can only be
obtained with a fully developed plant canopy (Wilson
et al. 2003).
The performance of such covers has been tested at
field scale within the Alternative Landfill Cover Dem-
onstration, ALCD (www.sandia.gov) and the Alterna-
tive Cap Assessment Project, ACAP (www.dri.edu/
Projects/EPA/boston-brochure2.html). The purpose of
168
these studies is to compare the performance of store/
release systems with cover systems incorporating bar-
rier layers. The water balance of 21 landfill final cover
test sections has been evaluated as part of the United
States Environmental Protection Agency’s Alternative
Cover Assessment Program. Based on data from the
test sections, the alternative covers in arid and semi-
arid climates generally are transmitting significantly
less percolation than that in humid climates (Roesler et
al. 2002). Percolation rates for the alternative covers in
arid and semi-arid climates typically are less than 1
mm/yr. For the humid sites, percolation typically is
between 37 and 144 mm/yr; however, it should
decrease over time as the vegetation matures, and is
capable of removing more soil water. Data from the test
sections simulating a composite cover (i.e. a geosyn-
thetic clay liner or compacted clay barrier overlain by a
geomembrane) indicate that these covers are very
effective when constructed properly. Percolation rates
for the composite covers are generally less than 1 mm/
yr in semi-arid and arid regions, and 5 mm/yr in humid
regions. Data from the test sections simulating com-
pacted clay covers show that clay barriers are highly
susceptible to desiccation cracking and can transmit
percolation at large rates (several hundred mm/yr). Pro-
tection of geomembranes is also a key factor. Methods
or materials that damage the geomembrane during con-
struction will lead to higher than anticipated percola-
tion rates.
An indicative cost of a two-layer store-and-release
cover is $50,000 per hectare, as compared to $400,000
per hectare for composite covers incorporating a GCL
and drainage layers (Wilson et al. 2003). The cost asso-
ciated with large-scale mining applications is consid-
ered the limiting factor for the extensive use of the
various materials proposed as mining covers. Although
both natural and synthetic covers may be cost-effective
when applied in relatively small disposal areas, they
may not be feasible for the large tailings disposal facili-
ties typical in the mining industry. Thus, further
research studies were performed into the potential use
of other readily available, inexpensive and potentially
non-phytotoxic, non-polluting waste products, includ-
ing depyritized tailings, granulated slags, paper-mill
sludge and fly ash. For potentially acid-generating sul-
phidic wastes, organic oxygen-consuming materials
like peat, lime-stabilized sewage sludge and municipal
 Application of dry covers for the closure of tailings facilities
solid-waste compost have also been used (Elander et
al. 1998). Use of waste products is not only considered
economical, but it also eliminates the need for the envi-
ronmentally safe storage of such materials. However,
these wastes often contain potentially toxic substances,
which may inhibit plant growth or eventually leach into
the surrounding environment.
Covers with geochemical barriers
This type of cover involves the formation of a geo-
chemically stable layer at the tailings surface, by the
application of selected reactive materials such as alka-
line and cementitious materials. The geochemical bar-
rier may inhibit infiltration of rainfall to the tailings, act
as an oxygen diffusion barrier and provide mechanical
stability to the tailings.
The natural formation of such layers (hardpan) in
inactive sulphidic mine tailings impoundments has
been reported in a number of studies (Blowes et al.
1991; Tasse et al. 1997; Johnson et al. 2000; Moncur et
al. 2005). Hardpans may act as an oxygen diffusion and
water transport barrier, thus resulting in a considerable
reduction in acid generation and metal dissolution. Fur-
thermore, adsorption of dissolved metals like Zn, Cd,
As, Mn, Ni, Co to the precipitated compounds in the
hardpan layer limits their downward migration and
subsequent groundwater contamination.
Given the significant environmental and economic
implications of hardpan layers, laboratory studies aim-
ing at elucidating the mechanisms that lead to the for-
mation of natural hardpans, as well as methods of
creating such barriers, have been reported in the litera-
ture. Alkaline additives, such as limestone and lime,
have been proposed to create a barrier to oxidized sul-
phidic wastes (Chermak and Runnells 1997; Mylona et
al. 2003). Fly ash, i.e. the material trapped by electro-
static precipitators in coal- and lignite-burning power-
generating plants, may be also beneficially used to cre-
ate a barrier to sulphidic wastes. Class C fly ash, due to
its increased Ca content, mainly as CaO, Ca(OH)2,
CaCO3, has a significant neutralization capacity, and
can be employed to counteract the acid potential of the
mine wastes. Class C fly ash also has pozzolanic and
cementitious properties, resulting in the reduction of
the permeability of the wastes, thus hindering oxidation
of the contained reactive minerals (Mohamed et al.
2001; Xenidis et al. 2002).
169
The addition of cement to tailings, often practised in
underground mine backfill applications, also has
potential benefits for use as a cover material during the
decommissioning of tailings dams. The addition of
ordinary Portland cement (OPC), however, is consid-
ered to be too costly for a large-volume tailings cover.
However, other low-cost alternatives, including blast
furnace slag (BFS), pulverized fly ash (PFA) and lime,
can be locally available and can be easily substituted in
the cement mixtures.
The use of phosphate rock and related materials
exhibiting increased neutralization potential can also
be considered for the formation of a geochemical bar-
rier at the sulphidic tailings surface (Watkin and Watkin
1983). Neutralization reactions will produce secondary
minerals such as gypsum and ferrous phosphate, and
these compounds may block pore spaces and reduce
tailings permeability with time.
Other studies have shown the potential for inducing
precipitation processes in order to reduce permeability
and immobilize contaminants through the injection of
supersaturated solutions. These solutions promote pre-
cipitation of gypsum, barium sulphate, calcium
hydroxide, calcium carbonate and aluminium or iron
hydroxides, which reduce permeability through crys-
tallization in pore spaces, provided that precipitation
can be delayed through pH adjustment and/or addition
of degradable polymers (IAEA 2004).
Depending on the composition of the tailings mate-
rial and leachates, different types of geochemical barri-
ers can be formed. These layers, however, are
chemically and subsequently physically active, thus the
prediction and engineering of such a technology may
well be very difficult.
Oxygen-consuming cover
Municipal solid waste (MSW) and other organic-based
materials could be used as an oxygen barrier cover for
tailings. The compost layer would function as both a
physical barrier and as an oxygen-consuming layer that
would permanently prevent sulphide oxidation and the
resultant acid drainage. The organic layer on sulphide
tailings can be beneficial in five ways:
1. physical oxygen barrier – the compost would be
saturated with water over at least part of its depth,
so that the limiting factor in oxygen diffusion
 Land Contamination & Reclamation / Volume 15 / Number 2 / 2007
would be the diffusivity of oxygen in water;
2. oxygen-consuming barrier – the continued decom-
position of compost creates a large biological oxy-
gen demand that acts as a sink for diffusion of
atmospheric oxygen or dissolved oxygen;
3. chemical inhibition – compounds and decomposi-
tion products in the MSW compost that leach into
the tailings inhibit the growth and metabolism of
sulphate-producing bacteria;
4. chemical amelioration – organic constituents in
the MSW compost can cause the reductive dissolu-
tion of ferric oxides and prevent indirect ferric sul-
phide oxidation and acid generation; and
5. reduced water infiltration – reduced hydraulic
conductivity of compacted compost may prevent
infiltration of precipitation, thus decreasing tail-
ings groundwater flow.
Long-term efficiency seems to depend on the degree
of water saturation at the bottom of the pile, probably
because of the build-up of a microbial mass in such an
anaerobic environment. The addition of nutrients
would promote composting and create a more func-
tional and longer-lasting barrier (Tasse 2000). At mine
sites in the USA, coarse woody debris is now being
incorporated into tailings, with the addition of up to
seven tons per acre to provide a substrate for essential
microorganisms.
Aspects of cover design and application
The design criteria for covers are related to the remedi-
ation objectives, and address geotechnical, radiologi-
cal, hydrological, geochemical, ecological and
aesthetic requirements. The selection of a cover system
design is site-specific. Key variables that need to be
evaluated during the initial selection process include
climate, tailings characteristics, size and geometry of
the tailings management facility, and available cover
materials.
The predicted performance of cover systems should
be assessed by utilizing a design philosophy that inte-
grates the waste material within its environmental con-
text. The cover system must be designed as an
unsaturated system exposed to the atmosphere, the per-
formance of which will be significantly influenced by
daily, seasonal, annual, and long-term site climate con-
ditions (O’Kane Consultants Inc. 2002).
170
For the design of a cover system, the geotechnical
and geochemical characteristics of the tailings should
be considered. Detailed investigation of the potential
cover materials should be also carried out in order to
determine critical physical–geotechnical (e.g. grain
size, compaction, hydraulic conductivity, moisture
retention curve, etc.) and geochemical parameters (e.g.
pH, acid generation potential, metals leachability, etc.),
and assess their suitability.
Numerical modelling can be used to evaluate the
relative performance of alternative options. It is good
practice to also perform field trials, in which the per-
formance of selected cover options can be monitored
under actual field conditions.
The design and construction of soil covers on tail-
ings often presents a formidable challenge, due to the
low shear strength, poor trafficability, and high settle-
ment of underconsolidated tailings at the time of recla-
mation.
A review of dry cover placement on extremely
weak, compressible tailings was presented by Wels et
al. (2000). It was concluded that the optimal technique
(or combination of techniques) for placing a dry cover
will vary from site to site and is influenced by the envi-
ronmental and geotechnical circumstances, as well as
cost and availability of materials and equipment used
for cover placement. The geotechnical issues to be con-
sidered include:
• consolidation of near-surface tailings to achieve
strength gains, improve trafficability, and allow the
safe placement of the initial cover layer;
• stability of tailings slopes during dewatering of tail-
ings ponds and/or cover placement; and
• long-term settlement of tailings and its impact on
cover integrity and final surface shaping.
The environmental issues to be considered include:
• management of contaminated (free) pond water;
• management of contaminated pore water expelled
during tailings consolidation; and
• management of (uncontaminated) surface water on
top of the cover.
Natural processes of consolidation may take tens of
years before pore pressures dissipate and settlement
ceases. Thus reclamation profiles must either allow for
 Application of dry covers for the closure of tailings facilities
such long-term consolidation or the process must be
accelerated. Numerous techniques have been devel-
oped to allow access on to the surface of weak uncon-
solidated tailings. The most widely used approach is to
allow drying to form a ‘crust’ of desiccation-strength-
ened tailings, reinforce this with a synthetic geogrid,
and then advance thin layers of cover fill using light
equipment. High-permeability drainage elements, most
commonly in the form of band drains, may be also
placed into the upper layers of the slimes. The band
drains reduce the effective drainage path length (from
the total tailings depth to half the horizontal spacing of
the drains), significantly accelerating the consolidation
process and allowing earlier access and faster advance
rates during actual cover placement.
Long-term performance of dry covers − monitoring
Based on a study by the International Network for Acid
Prevention (INAP) on the long-term performance of
dry cover systems for mine waste, the processes affect-
ing the long-term performance of a dry cover system
can be grouped into physical, chemical, and biological
processes (O’Kane Consultants Inc. 2003). The effects
of these processes are related to the change in three key
properties of the cover materials, including the satu-
rated hydraulic conductivity, the soil-water characteris-
tic curve (SWCC) and the physical integrity of the
cover system.
A summary of the physical processes identified, and
possible effects on the performance of dry covers, is
given in Table 2.
Chemical processes including osmotic consolida-
tion, dispersion/erosion, dissolution/precipitation,
acidic hydrolysis, mineralogical consolidation, sorp-
tion, oxidation and salinization have the potential to
change the fabric of a cover material, affecting the
long-term performance of a cover system. Osmotic
consolidation and dispersion/erosion may affect the
properties of a clay layer incorporated in the cover sys-
tem. Chemical processes such as dissolution/precipita-
tion are important in geochemical barriers.
Biological processes include root penetration, bur-
rowing animals, bioturbation, human intervention, bac-
terial clogging and vegetation establishment. Roots
may penetrate low-permeability layers, and also create
seepage channels, which would increase infiltration
through covers. Extensive root development in moist,
171
permeable drains or drainage layers may also result in
clogging of the drains. Burrowing intrusion by animals
also has the potential in the long term to significantly
alter the hydraulic conductivity of low-permeability
capping layers.
Direct measurement of field performance is the
state-of-the-art method for measuring the performance
of a dry cover system. Field performance monitoring
can be implemented during the design stage with test
cover plots, or following construction of the full-scale
cover (O’Kane Consultants Inc. 2003). The main
objectives of field performance monitoring include:
• estimation of a water balance for the site;
• collection of an accurate set of field data to calibrate
a numerical model;
• development of stakeholders’ confidence with
respect to cover system performance; and
• development of an understanding of key character-
istics and processes that control performance.
The desired field performance monitoring system
should include monitoring of the various components
that influence the performance of a dry cover system,
including meteorological parameters, moisture storage
changes, net percolation, surface run-off, and erosion.
Vegetation monitoring is also necessary to determine
whether the revegetation programme is successful and
is progressing towards a desirable, sustainable vegeta-
tive cover.
CASE STUDY − URANIUM TAILINGS PONDS IN
PÉCS, HUNGARY
Site description
One uranium ore deposit exists in Hungary, located at
the foot of the Mecsek Mountains in Pécs, south of the
country. Before 1989, production was 500−550 tonnes
of uranium per year from ores at grades of 0.1%, all of
which was shipped to the Soviet Union. Production
stopped in 1997.
Ore processing in Mecsek included radiometric
upgrading, crushing, milling, and leaching with sul-
phuric acid. Uranium was removed by the anion
exchange process. Yellow cake was precipitated with
lime milk, and the calcium diuranate obtained was the
commercial end-product. Wastes from processing were
 Land Contamination & Reclamation / Volume 15 / Number 2 / 2007

Table 2. Physical processes affecting long-term performance of dry covers

Physical processes
Erosion
Slope instability
Wet/dry cycles
Freeze/thaw cycles
Consolidation/settlement
Extreme climate events
Brush fires
Effects
Reduction in cover thickness, affecting its integrity
Reduction in the ability of topsoil to sustain vegetation
Process significant in climates experiencing short-duration high-intensity rainfall events
Slope instability is attributed to gravitational, seepage and seismic forces and affects the physical
integrity of the cover system.
Shrinkage cracks in fine-textured materials, affecting the integrity and hydrological performance
of the cover system
Changes in hydraulic conductivity and moisture retention characteristics of soil covers
Reduction of thickness of cover layers, affecting the physical integrity, geometry and drainage
patterns of the cover system
Erosion, changes in hydraulic conductivity and moisture retention characteristics of the cover
system
Reduction of vegetation, increasing run-off and erosion

treated with limestone and lime milk to pH ~7.
The neutralized tailings were disposed of in tailings
ponds 1 (TPI) and 2 (TPII) constructed at a distance of
2–4 km from the mill and covering a total area of 154
ha (Figure 4). TPI is a ring dyke and had been operating
since 1962. TPII, put into operation in 1979, belongs to
the valley type. Approximately 14.2 and 4.6 Mt of tail-
ings were disposed of in TPI and TPII, respectively.
The tailings in TPI were very weak and some were
even underwater in 1998. For the design and applica-
tion of remediation actions, detailed investigation of
the tailings was required. The studies included determi-
nation of the physical characteristics of tailings, chemi-
cal–mineralogical analysis, radiological characteriz-
ation, geotechnical investigation, etc. The results of the
studies performed, and the remediation measures
applied subsequently, are described in the following
paragraphs.
Tailings characteristics
Grain-size distribution
A percentage of 40% of tailings had grain size >0.1 mm
and 60% <0.1 mm. Deposition of tailings following the
separation of the coarse sand fraction for dam construc-
tion by hydrocyclones resulted, however, in the signifi-
cant segregation of tailings. As a result, in practice,
tailings ponds consist of three zones:
• fine slime zone;
• intermediate zone;
• sandy zone (dam).
A percentage of 90% of fine tailings, mainly found
in the slime core (central part) of tailings ponds, had a
grain size finer than 0.05 mm.
Chemical–mineralogical composition
The chemical composition of three samples collected
from the different tailings zones is given in Table 3.
Due to the segregation of the tailings, the three
zones present different chemical–mineralogical com-
positions. Dam material consists mainly of quartz,
whereas the slimes contain silt, gypsum (formed during
the leaching), etc. The mineralogical composition of
the fine tailings is given in Table 4.
It is seen that the fine tailings contain a significant
amount of gypsum. The clay minerals are mainly
present in the finest tailings. The clayey part of the tail-
ings was investigated separately for montmorillonite
content, in order to obtain information regarding the
possible thixotropy (liquefaction behaviour) of the tail-
ings. Montmorillonite occurred only in the form of a
mixed-layer illite–montmorillonite, and its average
content in fine tailings was estimated to be 6–8%, indi-
cating that it cannot lead to the liquefaction of the tail-
ings.
The heavy-metal content of the tailings is low. Prac-
tically only the manganese (which was used as an oxi-
dizing agent) and the vanadium content present
elevated values. Furthermore, the pyrite content of the
tailings is low (in the processed ore it is <0.2%) and
thus they do not exhibit net acid-generation potential.

172
 Application of dry covers for the closure of tailings facilities

Table 3. Elemental analysis of tailings

ZT I 14/1 6-17 (R4176) I. Z. D TP II Dam

Number Element Concentration StdErr Concentration StdErr Concentration StdErr
% % %
Sum Be..F Be-F 0,073 0 0,08 0 0,086
11 Na 0,48 0,02 0,51 0,03 0,98 0,04
12 Mg 1,14 0,04 2,46 0,06 0,51 0,02
13 Al 6,09 0,08 4,5 0,07 6,21 0,08
14 Si 19,3 0,1 13,8 0,1 29,3 0,1
15 P 0,058 0,004 0,052 0,004 0,03 0,002
16 S 0 0,56 0 0,71 0 0,26
16 So 5,71 0,07 7,21 0,08 2,62 0,05
17 Cl 0,19 0,01 0,47 0,03 0,003 0,002
18 Ar 0 0,001 0 0,001 0 0,002
19 K 3,68 0,08 2,71 0,07 4,73 0,09
20 Ca 6,6 0,1 9,9 0,1 3,89 0,08
21 Sc 0 0,0008 0 0,0008 0 0,001
22 Ti 0,26 0,02 0,2 0,01 0,27 0,02
23 V 0,056 0,004 0,067 0,005 0,56 0,004
24 Cr 0,011 0,001 0,0095 0,0008 0,015 0,001
25 Mn 0,94 0,04 1,5 0,05 0,28 0,02
26 Fe 2,89 0,07 2,79 0,07 1,48 0,05
27 Co 0,0055 0,0007 0,0029 0,0007 0,001 0,0007
28 Ni 0 0,0009 0 0,0009 0 0,0009
29 Cu 0,0066 0,0007 0,002 0,0006 0,0046 0,0008
30 Zn 0,0109 0,001 0,03 0,003 0,0105 0,0009
31 Ga 0,001 0,0004 0,0011 0,0004 0,0007 0,0004
32 Ge 0,0006 0,0005 0 0,0003 0,0003 0,0003
33 As 0,012 0,001 0,009 0,001 0,01 0,001
34 Se 0,0031 0 0,003 0,0004 0,0019 0,0004
35 Br 0 4 0 0,0003 0 0,0003
37 Rb 0,014 0,0003 0,0101 0,0009 0,019 0,002
38 Sr 0,029 0,001 0,031 0,003 0,024 0,0004
39 Y 0,0039 0,002 0,003 0,0004 0,0017 0,001
40 Zr 0,015 0,0005 0,0105 0,0009 0,021 0,001
41 Nb 0,0003 0,001 0 0,0003 0,0003 0,001
42 Mo 0 0,0003 0 0,001 0 0,0009
44 Ru 0 0,001 0 0,001 0 0,0008
45 Rh 0 0,001 0 0,001 0,001 0,0009
46 Pd 0 0,001 0 0,001 0 0,001
47 Ag 0 0,001 0 0,0008 0 0,001
48 Cd 0,0008 0,001 0 0,0008 0,0014 0,002
49 In 0 0,0008 0 0,0007 0 0,003
50 Sn 0 0,0008 0 0,0009 0,0008 0,006
51 Sb 0 0,0009 0 0,0009 0 0,029
52 Te 0 0,0009 0 0,001 0 0,001
53 I 0 0,001 0 0,001 0 0,001
55 Cs 0 0,001 0 0,002 0 0,001
56 Ba 0,042 0,001 0,041 0,003 0,069 0,001
Sum La..Lu La-Lu 0,009 0,002 0,014 0,027 0,012 0,001
72 Hf 0,002 0,004 0,001 0,001 0 0,001
73 Ta 0 0,026 0 0,001 0,002 0,001
74 W 0 0,001 0 0,001 0 0,001
75 Re 0,002 0,001 0 0,001 0,003 0,001
76 Os 0,001 0,001 0 0,001 0 0,001
77 Ir 0,001 0,001 0 0,001 0 0,001
78 Pt 0 0,0008 0 0,0009 0 0,001
79 Au 0,0004 0,0008 0 0,0009 0 0,001
80 Hg 0,0009 0,0008 0 0,0009 0,0008 0,001
81 Tl 0 0,001 0 0,001 0 0,001
82 Pb 0,022 0,002 0,032 0,003 0,0018 0,002
83 Bi 0 0,0007 0 0,0009 0,001 0,001
90 Th 0,001 0,001 0 0,001 0 0,002
92 U 0,008 0,001 0,024 0,002 0,014 0,001
Note:
I. Z. D. TP I, south part
TP I 14/1 6-17 m TP I, intermediate zone S Sulphur as sulphide
TP II Dam TP II, from the dam So Sulphur as sulphate

173
 Land Contamination & Reclamation / Volume 15 / Number 2 / 2007

TP

Pipeline TPI

Mill TPII

Figure 4. Location of the mill, and the tailings ponds TPI and TPII, in Pécs, Hungary

Geotechnical characteristics
The results of in situ measurements of the shear
strength on TPI are shown in Figure 5. Shear strength
was measured up to 9 m below water level. The fine
tailings have a very low shear strength under water, i.e.
<5 kN/m2, which increases at greater depth. In the tran-
sition zone, shear strength values are a little higher (5–
15 kN/m2), whereas the values of the shear strength in
the sandy zone were high (>40 kN/m2). Based on the
results, stabilization of an area of approximately 13 ha
in the fine slime zone was required prior to the start of
the covering works.
ings, because the mill process recovered only uranium
(app. 90%), and tailings contain practically all the other
decay products of uranium. Therefore, the total activity
for the ore with 0.1% of original uranium (Hungarian
ore grade) is 170 Bq/g. Due to the radium content (12
Bq/g), the tailings show a radon exhalation value which
depends on the physical characteristics of the tailings
(water content, porosity, grain-size). Actually, the
radon exhalation rate of the dam is between 3 and 8 Bq/
m2s, two orders of magnitude higher than the back-
ground level.

Composition of tailings water

Radiological characteristics
In Hungary, relatively low-grade ore was processed,
therefore the radio-element content of the tailings is
low. Nevertheless, the major part of the radioactive
nuclides contained in the ore is also present in the tail-
Tailings water was highly contaminated with non-radi-
oactive components originating from the leaching
process. The composition of the process water dis-
charged at the tailings ponds together with the solid

Table 4. Mineralogical composition of fine tailings

Mineral Formula Amount of minerals (%)
I.Z.K. I.Z.D. II.Z.D.
Bassanite CaSO4.0.5H 2O 16 17 37
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O 40 31 4
Feldspar NaAlSi3O8 13 8 7
Quartz SiO2 19 20 18
Muscovite KAl2(Si3Al)O 10(OH)2 3 3 3
Clayey minerals (illite,
Na0.3(Al,Mg)2Si4O10 8 18 28
montmorillonite)

I.Z.K. (TPI, fine tailings zone, east part)

I.Z.D. (TPI, fine tailings zone, south part)
II.Z.D. (TPII, the finest tailings zone, south part)

174
 Application of dry covers for the closure of tailings facilities

TPI
Date: 11.2001 I I_1
II_ 2
II_3
II_ 4
II_5
III_1
II I_2
III_ 3
II_6 III_4
I /1
I/2 II/1
III_5

IV_1
100
z=-0.5 m
X V III/1 IV _2
I/3 II/2 II I/1 IV /1
XV III/2
I/4 II/3 III/2 IV/2
X VII/1
XV II/2 IV /3
XV
XVII/3
III/3
XV
II/4II/4 X VII/5 XV II/6 XV II/7 IV /4
V /1

52
XV I/1 X VI/2 V/2
V /3
X V /1 X V/2 PP
/1/2 V/4
PP/4
/3
P/5 V/5 0+10
0+9
0+80+7
PP/7
/6 0+6
0+5
0.+3
0.+4
0.+1
0.+2 0.1
XIII /1XIII/2 P /8 I+10I+9I+7 0.2
0.30.4
0.5
0.60.7
X III/3 X IV /1 P/9
P/10 VI/3 I+8 I+I+5
6I.+
I.+4
I.+3 I.+
1 I.2
2
X IV /2 PP/11
/12 V I/4 II+10
VI/2
II+9
II+7
II+.II+6
8II+5
II.+4 I.1
V I.3 I.4
I/1I.5I.6
I.7I.8
I.10
XIV /3 X IV /4 II.+3 II.II.1
II.+1 +2
II.2
II.II.4
3 II.6 I.9I.11I.12
I.13I.14
XIV /5 X IV/6 VI I/7 III+10
III+9
III+8
III+7
IIIII+5
I+6
III.+
III.+4 II.5 II.8
II.7 II.10 I.15 I.16
XIII/5 XIII/6 V III/6 VII/6 I3
III.+1
II.+2
III.1
III.2
IIIIII.4
III.5
.3III.6
II.9
II.11
II.12
II.13
II.14
II.15II.16
XII/1 X
XIII/1
II/2 XIII/2 XIII/3 X III/4 III.7
IX/5 V II /5
XII/4 V III/5 V II/4
X I/3 X /4 VII/3
X II/3 IX/4 V III/4 V II/2

48
XII/2 X I/2 V III/3 VII/1
X /3 IX/3
X II/1
XI/1 X I/1 VIII/2
X/2 IX /2
VIII/1
X /1 IX/1
X/2
X /1

44
I I_1
II_ 2
II_3
40
III_1
II_ 4
II I_2
II_5 III_ 3
II_6 III_4

z=-1.0 m
III_5

36
I /1
I/2 II/1 IV_1
X V III/1 IV _2
I/3 II/2 II I/1 IV /1
XV III/2
I/4 II/3 III/2 IV/2
X VII/1
XV II/2 IV /3
XV
XV III/3
II/3 XV II/7
XV
II/4II/4 X VII/5 XV II/6 IV /4
V /1
V/2
XV I/1 X VI/2

32
V /3
X V /1 X V/2 P /1 V/4
PP /2/3
P/4
P/5 V/5 0+10
PP/7
/6 0+9
0+80+7
0+60+5
0.+3
0.+4
0.+1
P /8 0.+2 0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
XIII /1XIII/2 P/9 I+10I+9
I+8I+7
I+I+5 6I.+
I.+4 0.7
X III/3 X IV /1 P/10
PP/11 V I/4 VI/3 II+10
VI/2
II+9
II+7 I.+3 I.+1 VI.2
2
I.1I.3 I.4
I/1 I.6
X IV /2 XIV /3 /12 II+.II+6
8II+5II.+4
II.+3 II.II.1
II.+1 +2II.2 I.5 I.7II.9
.8
I.10
I.11
X IV /4 XIV /5 X IV/6 VI I/7 III+10
III+9
III+8
III+7
IIIII+5
I+6 II.II.4
3II.5
II.6II.8
II.7 II.9
II.10
I.12I.13 I.14I.15I.16
V III/6 III.+
III.+4
III.+1
I II.+2
3III.1
III.2
IIIIII.4
.3 II.11
II.12
II.13II.14
II.15
XIII/2 XIII/3 X III/4 XIII/5 XIII/6 VII/6 III.5
III.6
III.7 II.16
XII/1 X
XIII/1
II/2 IX/5 V II /5
XII/4 V III/5 V II/4
X I/3 X /4
X II/3 VII/3
IX/4 V III/4 V II/2
XII/2 X I/2 VII/1
X /3 V III/3

28
X II/1 IX/3
XI/1 X I/1 VIII/2
X/2 IX /2
VIII/1
X /1 IX/1
X/2
X /1

I I_1
24
II_ 2
II_3
III_1
II_ 4 II I_2
II_5

20
III_ 3

z=-2.0 m
II_6 III_4
I /1 III_5

I/2 II/1 IV_1

X V III/1 IV _2
I/3 II/2 II I/1 IV /1
XV III/2
I/4 II/3 IV/2
III/2
X VII/1 IV /3
XV II/2 XV III/3
XV II/3
XV
II/4II/4 X VII/5 XV II/6 XV II/7 IV /4

16
V /1
XV I/1 X VI/2 V/2
V /3
X V /1 X V/2 PP
/1/2 V/4
PP/4
/3 V/5
P/5 0+10
0+9
0+80+7
PP/7
/6 0+6
0+50.+3
0.+4
0.+1
0.+2 0.1
0.2
0.3
XIII /1XIII/2 P /8
P/9 I+10I+9
I+8I+7 0.40.5
0.60.7
X III/3 X IV /1 P/10 V I/4 VI/3 I+I+56I.+4
I.+3
I.+I.+ 1 I2
I.1 .2 I.4
X IV /2 PP/11
/12 VI/2
II+9
II+10II+
II+7
8II+5
.II+6 II.+4 V I.3
I/1I.5I.6
I.7I.8
I.9
I.10
XIV /3 X IV /4 III+10
III+9 II.+3 II.II.1
II.+1 +2II.2
II.II.4
3
II.5
II.6II.8 I.11
I.12I.13I.14I.15
XIV /5 X IV/6 VI I/7 III+8
III+7
IIIII+5
I+6
III.+
III.+4
III.+1
I II.+2
3III.1 II.7 II.10
II.9
II.11
II.12
II.13 I.16
X III/4 XIII/5 XIII/6 V III/6 VII/6 III.2
IIIIII.4
.3
III.5
III.6
III.7 II.14
II.15II.16
XII/1 X
XIII/1
II/2 XIII/2 XIII/3
IX/5 V II /5
XII/4 V III/5 V II/4
X I/3

12
X /4 VII/3
X II/3 IX/4 V III/4 V II/2
XII/2 X I/2 VII/1
X /3 IX/3 V III/3
X II/1
XI/1 X I/1 VIII/2
X/2 IX /2
VIII/1
X /1 IX/1
X/2
X /1

8
4
0
[kN/m2]
[kN/m] 2
Figure 5. In situ shear strength measurements on TPI

tailings changed, depending on the technology used. • water management;

Taking into account the volume of process water and • stabilization of fine tailings;
the quantity of reagents used, the average concentration • recontouring the dam and relocation of some part of
of total dissolved solids (TDS) in the tailings water was tailings;
estimated to 20–22 g/L. The high TDS in the process • covering;
water was attributed to the magnesium sulphate which • revegetation;
remained in the neutralized solution, given the rela- • groundwater restoration.
tively low pH (~7–8) at the stage of the barren pulp
neutralization. A major issue in the remediation of the tailings
ponds involved the design and construction of the dry
The tailings ponds were constructed with no, or very
cover system described in the following sections.
poor, sealing. Therefore, process water from the tail-
ings ponds could have partly seeped into the soil Application of dry cover systems
beneath the ponds. According to the estimates, approx- Stabilization of the tailings surface
imately 20 Mm3 of process water (from the total of 32 The first step in the long-term stabilization of tailings
Mm3) seeped into the soil beneath the ponds over the ponds was the stabilization of the very weak fine tail-
period of operation of the mill. Based on these calcula- ings in TPI. TPII had been out of operation for some
tions, the quantity of chemical compounds which years, and all the three zones were stable enough for the
seeped from the tailings into the surroundings was esti- construction of the cover system.
mated to be 400 kt or even more. Groundwater contam- For the stabilization of fine tailings in TPI, dewater-
ination was detected as early as 1977, but systematic ing by earth loading and removal of compression water
site investigations and monitoring only started in 1989. by drainage was recommended. To prepare the fine
slime zone for stabilization, first the free water from the
Remediation works tailings pond was discharged. As a result, the surface of
For the remediation and closure of the tailings ponds, a the fine slimes became sufficiently stable after some
series of actions were taken, including: months. Following dewatering, geotextiles and geog-

175
 Land Contamination & Reclamation / Volume 15 / Number 2 / 2007
rids were used for further stabilization, as shown in
Figure 6.
A 0.5-m-thick sand layer from dam recontouring (c.
0.8 Mm3) was placed on the geogrid, overlain by a
layer of material loaded from different parts of the dam.
To enhance the stabilization, a vertical drain was also
used.
Cover design
The objectives of the uranium tailings cover included:
• reduction of radon exhalation and gamma-dose rate;
• minimization of the rate of seepage through the tail-
ings to prevent further water contamination;
• prevention of any unauthorized removal of hazard-
ous material;
• long-term stabilization of the tailings ponds.
Based on ‘The Environmental License for Remedia-
tion’, specific criteria of cover design also included:
• reduction of the radon flux (max. 0.74 Bq/m2s);
• decrease in the gamma-dose rates (max. 300 nGy/
h);
• minimization of the seepage rate;
• design life of 200 years.
176
Taking into account the above, the application of a
multi-layered cover was considered. The cover should
consist of a low-permeability barrier layer, a water-
storage layer for further inhibition of water infiltration,
and vegetation to increase the evapotranspiration rate
and protect against erosion. The placement of a drain-
age layer between the water storage layer and the bar-
rier layer would be also desirable in order to protect the
barrier from root and animal intrusion, etc.
To select the appropriate cover configuration, exten-
sive modelling work was undertaken by Mecsek ÖKO
Zrt in cooperation with Golder Hungary Ltd and Wis-
mut GmbH. Estimation of the seepage rate was carried
out using the HELP model (Allisson et al. 1990).
Sensitivity analysis was carried out for, among oth-
ers:
• the water-storage layer (effective depth of root pen-
etration: 50, 60, 80, 100 cm, hydraulic conductivity
(k): 1 × 10–6, 8 × 10–9 m/s);
• the barrier layer (k: 1 × 10–8 to 5 × 10 –10 m/s, thick-
ness: 30, 40, 50 cm);
• slope of the surface (5–20%);
• length of run-off on the surface (20, 30, 250 m).
Following the evaluation of different options, the
Figure 6. Placement
Figure of the geogrid,
6: Placement of
vertical drains and loading the
geogrid, vertical
enforced surface drains and
loading the enforced surface
 Application of dry covers for the closure of tailings facilities

two types of cover shown in Figure 7 were selected.
A sand-drainage layer was not included in the cover
design of TPI, because the settlement of tailings is still
in progress and thus unequal consolidation rates on the
area after covering (deformation of layers) may result
in the formation of a ‘water sack’ in some parts of the
fine tailings area. The formed ‘sacks’ can lead to a
more intensive seepage rate. It is also possible that the
drainage layer will lose some of its hydraulic conduc-
tivity because of layer deformation.
Based on the results of the HELP model, the annual
seepage rate from the tailings pile will be around 30
mm, in compliance with the Environmental Licence.
For the calculation of the expected radon exhalation
rate, the following internationally recommended equa-
tion (IAEA 1992) was applied:
1⁄2
F c = F t exp ⎛⎝ – ( λ D c ) × X c⎞⎠ (1)
where Fc is the radon flux from covered tailings pile, Ft
is the radon flux from uncovered tailings, λ is the radon
decay constant, Dc is the diffusion coefficient, and Xc
the thickness of the covering layer.
The radon diffusion coefficient strongly depends on
the porosity and the saturation of the covering soil, and
is calculated from equation (2).

Cover design for TPI (loess cover with clay as barrier layer)
Layer type Material
Vegetation Grass and bushes

0.4 (0.45) m Storage layer Loess

(Degree of compaction
≤90%)
0.4 (0.45) m Storage layer Loess
(Degree of compaction
90 to 93%)
0.4 m Protection layer Compacted loess 2
(compaction c. 95%)
0.4 (0.3)m Sealing layer Compacted clay
(compaction 95 to 97%)
Tailings

Cover design for TPII (loess with sand drainage and clay as sealing
layer)
Layer type Material
vegetation grass and bushes

0.6 m storage layer loess

0.3 m drainage layer sand
0.3 m protection layer compacted loess
0.3 m sealing layer clay
tailings
(Data in brackets indicate the thickness of cover on slopes)
Figure 7. Covering scheme for TPI and TPII

177
 Land Contamination & Reclamation / Volume 15 / Number 2 / 2007
Radon exhalation rate (1.5 m cover) as function of the cover saturation
1.2
1
Exhalation rate in Bq/ms
Exhalation rate in Bq/m2s2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.1
Figure 8. Radon exhalation as a function of soil and tailings saturation (thickness:1.5 m)
D = 0.07exp[–4(m – mn2 + m5)]
where m is the moisture saturation, and n the porosity.
Using the recommended evaluation procedure, it
can be determined that the radon flux from tailings cov-
ered with soil (thickness 1.5 m) will be well below the
limit (0.74 Bq/m2s). This is demonstrated in Figure 8,
where the radon exhalation rate is presented for differ-
ent cover and tailings saturation for a cover thickness
of 1.5 m. It can be seen that the radon flux remains
below the limit, even if the moisture content is far from
the saturated state.
The attenuation of radon concentration for the layer
sequence in the cover proposed for TPII is presented in
Figure 9. It is deduced that the radon concentration
drops very sharply in the radon barrier constructed
from clay and compacted loess, whereas the overlying
layers have only a small effect on it
Cover construction
Prior to the start of covering works, the characteristics
of candidate materials, including chemical–mineralog-
ical composition and soil mechanical characteristics,
Tailings saturation 0.5
Tailings saturation 0.6
Tailings saturation 0.8
0.74 Bq/m2s
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Cover saturation
(2) were determined for the selection of cover materials.
Cover construction involved the monitoring of criti-
cal parameters of cover layers, including moisture,
degree of compaction, thickness, and hydraulic con-
ductivity. Compaction and the thickness of the sealing
layer were measured by a PANDA-penetrometer,
which determines the cone resistance (MPa) depending
on the type of material, its density and thickness. The
‘handy CPT’ proved to be a valuable device for the
determination of the homogeneity of the earth layer.
Therefore, it was used for measuring both the thickness
of cover and the degree of compaction. For controlling
the moisture of the sealing layer, a Mobile Moisture
Meter was used (TRIME® FM), which is recom-
mended for measurement of volumetric moisture in
porous material. The operating principle is based on
measurement of the dielectric constant of materials. It
proved to be a reliable instrument for rapid in situ
determination of the moisture content of the soil. In situ
measurements of hydraulic conductivity were also car-
ried out using a simple infiltrometer. These measure-
ments were performed every 500 m2. Quality control
was carried out by MECSEKERC Zrt.
178
 Application of dry covers for the closure of tailings facilities
Attenuation of radon flux in the covering
layers
4
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
-50 -60 3
Depth, cm
-100 -90 2
-120
1
-150
T -180
-200
-250
2 4 – Water storage layer, loess
Radon flux, Bq/m s
Figure 9. Attenuation of radon concentration in the cover
Revegetation is very important in reducing water
infiltration and ensuring erosion stability. Some ero-
sion gullies were formed when there was heavy rainfall
during the summer following the first covering of the
tailings. The revegetation scheme applied involved the
seeding of grass species at a rate of 200 kg of mixed
seeds per hectare, and the planting of bushes and trees.
In total, 8000 plants per hectare were planted, with the
distance between the rows being around 2.5 m. Chemi-
cal fertilizers with N (120 kg/ha), P2O5 (100 kg/ha) and
K2O (170 kg/ha) were also applied. Revegetated areas
on tailings ponds are shown in Figure 10.
Monitoring
During the initial period, an intensive monitoring pro-
gramme of remediated tailings ponds was carried out.
The performance of reclamation measures will be mon-
itored for a long time; however, the frequency of the
monitoring will be decreased. Sampling and on-site
monitoring is carried out in accordance with the annual
monitoring programme approved by the authorities.
Radiological monitoring
This work involves the measurement of radioactivity in
the vicinity of inhabited areas; regular measurement of
aerosols; and radon exhalation on the covered tailings
ponds. A monitoring station was installed in the nearby
villages for continuous monitoring of the ambient
gamma dose rate; the concentration of radon and its
daughter elements; long-lived alpha-contamination of
aerosols, and a cumulative additional dose is calculated
-150
1 – Sealing layer, clay
-210
2 – Protecting layer, compressed loess
3 – Drain, sand
T – Tailings
for every month. Data are handed over to the munici-
palities.
Consolidation process
To monitor the consolidation process of the tailings,
settlement is measured monthly. 166 settlement-gauges
have been installed. The data collected are subse-
quently processed and evaluated, as shown in Figure
11.
Based on the results, it can be seen that the largest
settlement, of approximately 1.6 m, was observed in
the central part of the TPI on the fine tailings area, as
expected.
CONCLUSIONS
The reclamation of tailings impoundments commonly
involves the placement of dry or water covers over the
tailings. In the case of ‘dry’ rehabilitation, from a geo-
technical point of view, the biggest challenge is the sta-
bilization of the very fine tailings (slimes). From an
environmental perspective, the challenge is how to pre-
vent acid generation in tailings containing pyrite or
other sulphides, and how to control the release of con-
taminants (such as As, Ra, U, Ni, etc.).
There are a number of dry cover systems that can be
considered for use in the closure of tailings facilities.
The applicability of the options depends mainly on the
conditions present at the site. Factors such as climate,
physical–geotechnical/geochemical properties and
179
 Land Contamination & Reclamation / Volume 15 / Number 2 / 2007

Figure 10. Establishment of vegetation on TPI

0.08
0.04
0
-0.08
-0.16
-0.24
-0.32
-0.4
-0.48
-0.56
-0.64
-0.72
-0.8
-1.2
-1.6
-1.9

Figure 11. Monitoring of the consolidation process (settlement) on tailings piles

180
 Application of dry covers for the closure of tailings facilities
environmental risks associated with the disposal area,
the availability of potential cover materials and the cost
will influence the options applicable at a given site.
A low-permeability clay layer historically applied
for covering waste disposal areas may not be efficient
in inhibiting rainfall infiltration into the wastes in the
long term, due to the formation of cracks during dry
periods. The placement of a geomembrane layer or the
conservative option of a GCL/geomembrane compos-
ite cover are considered more effective in inhibiting
downward water migration and also oxygen diffusion
into the wastes in the long term. The increased cost of
these covers is considered the limiting factor for their
application at large mining facilities. Alternative new
techniques seen as promising for the cost-effective iso-
lation of wastes, include the capillary barrier (applied
in wet and dry climates) and the evapotranspiration
cover, developed for arid and semi-arid sites.
For the design of a cover system, detailed character-
ization of the tailings and the potential cover materials
should be carried out. Numerical modelling can be
used to evaluate the relative performance of alternative
options. Field trials to monitor the performance of
selected cover options under actual field conditions are
also performed.
Long-term performance of dry covers may be
affected by a number of physical, chemical and biolog-
ical processes that reduce the integrity of the cover sys-
tem and change key properties of the cover materials,
such as hydraulic conductivity and moisture retention
characteristics.
A multi-layered soil cover was selected for the
remediation of uranium tailings ponds in Pécs, Hun-
gary. The cover consisted of a low-permeability clay
layer to reduce radon exhalation and inhibit water infil-
tration into the tailings. The barrier layer was overlain
by a water storage layer for further inhibition of water
infiltration. Vegetation was also established for
enhancement of evapotranspiration and erosion protec-
tion. Systematic monitoring of remediated tailings
ponds is ongoing to assess the cover performance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the financial support of the
European Commission within the Thematic Pro-
grammes EESD (Contract No. EVG1-CT-2002-00066)
181
and GROWTH (Contract No. G1RD-CT-2001-00480)
of the 5th Framework Programme for Research and
Technological Development.
REFERENCES
Adam, K. and Mylona, E. (2001) Design and application of
an environmentally safe closure plan for pyrite concentrate
stockpiles at Stratoni mines, Greece. International Work-
shop, New Frontiers in Reclamation: Facts and Procedures
in Extractive Industry, September 19–21, Milos, Greece
Allison, J.D., Brown, D.S. and Novo-Gradac, K.J. (1990)
MINTEQA2/PRODEFA2, a Geochemical Assessment Model
for Environmental Systems. Version 3.0 User’s Manual.
EPA/600/3-91/021. Environmental Research Laboratory,
Office of Research and Development, US EPA, Athens, GA
Benson, C. (2000) Liners and covers for waste containment.
In: Proc. Fourth Kansai International Geotechnical Forum,
Creation of a New Geo-Environment. Japanese Geotechnical
Society, Kyoto, Japan, 24–26 May, 2000, pp. 1–40
Blowes, D.W., Reardon, E.J., Jambor, J.L. and Cherry, A.
(1991) The formation and potential importance of cemented
layers in inactive sulphide mine tailings. Geochimica et Cos-
mochimica Acta, 55, 965–978
Chermak, J.A. and Runnells, D.D. (1997) Development of
chemical caps in acid rock drainage environments. Mining
Engineering, 49 (6), 93–97
Council Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the land-
fill of waste. Official Journal, L 182, 16/07/1999, 1–19
Daniel, D.E. (1993) Geotechnical Practice for Waste Dis-
posal. Chapman & Hall
DeVos, K.J., Ritchie, D.G. and Bocking, K.A. (1999) Practi-
cal considerations for covering sulphidic tailings deposits
situated above the groundwater table. In: Proc. Sudbury 99,
pp. 291–300
Elander, P., Lindvall, M. and Håkansson, K. (1998) MiMi –
Prevention and Control of Pollution from Mining Waste
Products. State-of-the-art Report. MISTRA programme
MiMi (Mitigation of the Environmental Impact from Mining
Waste). MiMi Print, Luleå
Geosynthetic Institute (GSI) (2000) Leachate Recirculation
in Municipal Solid Waste Landfills With Alternative Liners
Incorporating GCLs – Fact Sheet. www.bentofix.com/
terrafixgeo/monthly/12_2000.html
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (1992)
Measurement and calculation of radon release from uranium
mill tailings Technical reports series No 333, Vienna
 Land Contamination & Reclamation / Volume 15 / Number 2 / 2007
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (2004) The
Long Term Stabilization of Uranium Mill Tailings. Final
report of a co-ordinated research project 2000–2004. IAEA,
Vienna
Johnson, R.H., Blowes, D.W., Robertson, W.D. and Jambor,
J.L. (2000) The hydrogeochemistry of the Nickel Rim mine
tailings impoundment, Sudbury, Ontario. Journal of Con-
taminant Hydrology, 41, 49–80
Khire, M., Benson, C. and Bosscher, P. (1996) Water balance
modeling of earthen final covers at humid and semi-arid
sites. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 122 (7), 565–
576
Kim, H. and Benson, C.H. (1999) Oxygen transport through
multilayer composite caps over mine waste. In: Proc. Sud-
bury ’99 Mining and the Environment II, vol. 1, pp. 183–192
Mineral Industry Research Organisation (MIRO) (1999) A
Technical Framework for Mine Closure Planning. Technical
Review Series No. 20, Staffordshire, UK
Mohamed, A.M.O., Hossein, M. and Hassani, F.P. (2001)
Hydro-mechanical evaluation of stabilised mine tailings.
Environmental Geology, 41, 749–759
Moncur, M.C., Ptacek, C.J., Blowes, D.W. and Jambor, J.L.
(2005) Release, transport and attenuation of metals from an
old tailings impoundment. Applied Geochemistry, 20, 639–
659
Mylona, E., Papassiopi, N., Xenidis, A. and Paspaliaris, I.
(2003) Field performance of dry covers and limestone addi-
tion for acid generation control of Lavrion sulphide tailings,
Greece. In: Proc. Sixth International Conference on Acid
Rock Drainage (Farrell, T. and Taylor, G. eds), pp. 319–326.
The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Carl-
ton, Victoria
Nicholson, R.V., Gillham, R.W., Cherry, J.A. and Reardon,
E.J. (1989) Reduction of acid generation in mine tailings
through the use of moisture-retaining cover layers as oxygen
barriers. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 26, 1–8
O’Kane Consultants Inc. (2002) CANMET – CETEM Man-
ual on Cover System Design for Reactive Mine Waste, Saska-
toon, SK, Canada
O’Kane Consultants Inc. (2003) International Network for
Acid Prevention – Evaluation of the Long-term Performance
of Dry Cover Systems, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
Ritchie, D.G. (1999) A discussion of seismic design consid-
erations for soil covers on tailings. In: Proc. Sudbury 99, pp.
49–58
Roesler, A.C., Benson, C.H. and Albright, W.H. (2002) Field
hydrology and model predictions for final covers in the
182
View publication stats
Alternative Assessment Program 2002, Geo Engineering
Report No. 02-08. University of Wisconsin-Madison
Rumer, R.R and Mitchell, J.K. (1996) Assessment of barrier
containment technologies. International Containment Tech-
nology Workshop, Baltimore, Maryland 29–31 August, 1995
Swanson, D.A., Barbour, S.L. and Wilson, G.W. (1997) Dry-
site versus wet-site covers design. In: Proc. Fourth Interna-
tional Conference on Acid Rock Drainage, Vancouver, B.C.,
Canada, 31 May – 6 June 6, Vol. IV, pp. 1595–1609
Tasse, N. (2000) Efficient prevention of sulphide oxidation
by an organic cover: for how long can a reactive barrier be
reactive? In: Proc. Fifth International Conference on Acid
Rock Drainage, Denver, Colorado, 21–24 May. Littleton,
Co.: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.,
2000. Vol. 2, pp. 979–986
Tasse, N., Germain, D., Dufour, C. and Tremblay, R. (1997)
Hard-pan formation in the Canadian Malartic mine tailings:
Implication for the reclamation of the abandoned impound-
ment. In: Proc. Fourth International Conference on Acid
Rock Drainage, Vancouver, pp. 1797–1812
US EPA/625/4-91/025 Design and Construction of RCRA/
CERCLA Final Covers. Office of Research and Develop-
ment, United States Environmental Protection Agency
US EPA 530-F-97-002 Geosynthetic Clay Liners Used in
Municipal Solid Waste Landfills. Office of Solid Waste and
Emergency Response, United States Environmental Protec-
tion Agency.
Watkin, E.M and Watkin, J. (1983) Inhibiting pyrite oxida-
tion can lower reclamation costs. Canadian Mining Journal,
December, pp. 29–31
Wels, C. and O’Kane, M. (2003) Mine waste cover system
design – linking predicted performance to groundwater and
surface water impacts. In: Proc. Sixth International Confer-
ence on Acid Rock Drainage (Farrell, T. and Taylor, G. eds),
pp. 341–350. The Australasian Institute of Mining and Met-
allurgy, Carlton, Victoria.
Wels, C., Robertson, A. MacG. and Jakubick, A.T. (2000) A
review of dry cover placement on extremely weak, com-
pressible tailings. CIM Bulletin, 93 (1043), 111–118
Wilson, G., Williams, D.J. and Rykaart, E.M. (2004) The
integrity of cover systems – an update. In: Proc. Sixth Inter-
national Conference on Acid Rock Drainage (Farrell, T. and
Taylor, G. eds), pp. 445–452. The Australasian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy, Carlton Victoria
Xenidis, A., Mylona, E. and Paspaliaris, I. (2002) Potential
use of lignite fly ash for the control of acid generation from
sulphidic wastes. Waste Management, 22, 631–641