1) 2) Unit IV — Maintenance & Repair methods of masonry > Causes of wall cracks-: 1. Due to bulging of walls 2. Due to shrinkage 3. Due to bonding 4. Due to shear 5. Due to tension Cracks due to bulging of walls-: Bulging of walls is very slow process it may be unnoticed over a long period of time. It occurs due to thermal or moisture expansion of the outer surface of wall or due to contraction of inner surface. This expansion is not completely reversible. Inside the building, separation cracks will occur on the inside face of the wall at floors, walls and ceiling. Due to bulging, mortar may have lost its bonding strength. Cracks due to shrinkage:- Due to rise in temperature structural material expand and when temperature lowered they shrink. Because of this movement shrinkage cracks occurs in wall It also occurs due to change in moisture of mortar. Mortar expand when they absorb the moisture and shrink when they dry, thi the main cause of shrinkage cracks. It occurs due to poor concrete mix design and rapid curing. It develops internal stresses. These stresses may cause the wall or floor to crack,Cracks due to shrinkage 3) Cracks due to bonding:- Bond cracks developed in structure from the loss of bond between steel reinforcement and concrete. It occurs due to loss of bond. Corrosion results in 50% bond cracks. The main reason of bond cracks are creep and shrinkage in concrete. When steel bar comes in contact with the corrosion, bond cracks are formed which results in spalling. Cracks due to bonding 4) Cracks due to SHEAR Cracks in concrete beams due to increase in shear stress appears near the support such as wall or column, These cracks are called as shear cracks. Shear cracks are generally inclined at 45° with the horizontal.© These cracks can be avoided by providing additional shear reinforcement near the support where the shear stress is maximum. © Shear stress is maximum at a distance of d/2 from the support where d is effective depth of beam. Cracks due to shear 5) Cracks due to tension:- These are structural cracks developed due to tensile stress in wall. * These are caused due to load which tends to stretch a wall member to produce tensile stress. © The tensile capacity of brickwork is usually relatively low. Mortar has also a lower tensile capacity than the brickwork. In cases of brickwork with very strong mortar the cracking may pass through the bricks. » CRACKS DUE TO DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATION:- * Settlement of mosonary wall occurs due to downward pressure from the loads on wall * All buildings settle when they are constructed The primary cause of the settlement is the reduction in the air void ratio of soil. ¢ Settlement in foundation refers to the disruption of the foundation mainly due to the following: © Unequal compression in foundation © Application of varied and undue load to the structure © The occurrence of considerable shrinkage ¢ Differential settlement can cause cracks in structure’s foundation and interior walls as well as uneven settling of doors and windows© Differential settlement occurs if there is difference in soils, loads, or structural systems between parts of a building. in this case, different parts of the building structure could settle by substantially different amounts. © Uneven foundation settlement may force buildings to shift out of plumb which lead to crack initiation in foundation, structure, or finish. » Cracks due to thermal movement:- © Thermal movement is basically caused by the expansion and contraction of the fabric of the building due to hot and cold weather. © It is caused due to external heat or due to variation in temperature or due to internally generated heat, for example heat of hydration in mass concrete during construction. © When it’s hot the masonry expands causing compressive forces which the masonry can cope with due to its high compression strength but once it’s cold the material shrinks with tensile forces causing cracking. > Cracks due to vegetation: ‘© The existence of any form of vegetation can be a reason of cracks in the wallls of a building. © This is mainly due to the expansive action of roots growing in the brick masonry or under the foundation. Simply put, the roots of trees set in the vicinity of a wall can create cracks in walls due to the growth of roots under foundation. © Old trees near the structure are cut off to clear the surroundings. Soil under foundation is dehydrated because the tees absorbs moisture, which results in upward thrust on the foundation © This causes cracks are wide at the base and get narrow as they travel upwards. » Difference between structural cracks & non-structural cracks Sr. structural cracks Non-structural No. cracks. L ‘Occurs due to incorrect Occurs due to incorrect design, faulty design, faulty construction or construction or overloading of any overloading of any component. component.2. It may be dangerous for safety of structure It may not be dangerous to the safety of structure. 3. It does not include cracks due to moisture, weathering action, It includes cracks due to moisture, weathering action, corrosion of corrosion of reinforcement reinforcement, 4. Cracks due to tension, Vertical cracks in wall shear are the examples of structural cracks. due to shrinkage or thermal movement is the example of non-structural cracks. ¢ Cracks in junction of main wall and cross wall -: - It causes due to improper bonding between the cross wall and main wall - To avoid this crack there should be proper and quality bonding between the two walls. These are properly done by toothing. ¢ Cracks in junction of RCC column and wall -: - Vertical cracks at junction of RCC column and wall masonary occurs a few months after construction. - It occur due to elastic deformation, shrinkage, creep in RCC column and differential strain between RCC and masonary. - As a preventive measure butterfly ties may be provided at the junction. + Cracks in junction of slab and wall -: - These cracks are horizontal. - The slab undergoes expansion and contraction due to change in ambient temperature. - It occurs due to inadequate cover against heat on the roof - Provision of large span of slab in the room inside, causing excessive deflection and having not much vertical load above the support to resist uplift of the slab at the support and movement of the slab is restrained on one side.+ Cracks in masonary joints-: ~ It occurs due to low shear resistance. - It caused due to improper construction method and carelessness in initial construction. - It appears in the masonary at certain period of time. - Itcan be avoided by i)Checking sulphate content of bricks used in construction ii)Damping of brick wall should be avoided. > Stages of repair -: 1,Material removal 2.Surface preparation 3. Fixing suitable formwork 4. Bonding or passivating coat 5.Repair application 1) Material removal -: - The deteriorated or damaged material should be removed. - It can be carried out by using tools and equipments depending on the damage - It can be carried out by hand tools or light or medium weight air hammer - For cracks or other narrow defects a saw-toothed bit should be used. 2) Surface preparation -: - Itinvolves following steps i.Complete removal of unsound material. ii.Undercutting along with the formation of smooth edges. iii. Removal of cracks from the surface. iv.Formation of well defined cavity geometry with rounded inside corner . v.Providing rough but uniform surface for repair. - The cleaning of all loose particles and oil and dirt out of cavity should be carried out shortly before repair = Itcan be achieved by blowing with compressed air, acid etching, wire brushing or scarifying - Brooms or brushes can also be used to remove loose materials.3) Fixing suitable formwork-: - A suitable formwork is fixed which can be supported above a floor - Formwork can be made of steel, wood, aluminium or it may be available in the prefabricated forms. - When repair material is set, formwork is removed. - Beam sides, walls and columns required 2-3 days for removal of formwork - The top of formwork is normally left open. 4) Bonding or passivating coat -: - After preparation of surface and fixing formwork a bonding coat should be applied to the entire clean exposed surface. - It should be done with minimum delay. - The bonding coat may consists of bonding agents such as cement slurry, cement sand mortar, epoxy, epoxy mortar, resin materials, etc. - Adequate preparation of surface and good workmanship are the ingredients of efficient and economical repairs. 5) Repair application -: - Repair material can be applied by ordinary or conventional method or by special procedure using the latest techniques and new materials such as polymers, epoxy resins, ete. » Repair techniques — L.Grouting 2.Patch spalling replacement/delaminating 3,Epoxy bonded mortar 1) Grouting -: - Grout is a dense fluid which is used to fill gaps or used as reinforcement in existing structures. - Itis mixture of water, cement and sand. - Itis applied as thick emulsion and harden over time - Itis used as pressure grouting, embedding rebar in masonary walls, connecting sections of precast concrete, filling voids, sealing joints such as joints between tiles.2) Patch spalling replacement/delaminating-: - Spalling of concrete means concrete that has become pitted, flaked or broken up. - This can be repaired by removing damaged section so that it can be filled with cement. - After detecting spalling problem immediately concrete is poured. - The concrete should kept dry because if the water content is high it may weaken the material - Sealant can be used to protect and gives the decorative finish to the concrete - If spalling is less than 1/3 of its thickness, it can be repaired if it is deeper it may require a full restoration - If rebar is exposed or corroded it should be clean by using wire brush - On horizontal surface the cement overlay can be applied - After that water proofing membrane can be applied - After removing and cleaning debris the surface is dried. Old surface should be rough. - Then patch material (epoxy and Portland cement) is mixed and applied - It should be done at temperature more than 40°C 3) Epoxy bonded mortar-: - Epoxy mortars and concrete are a blend of epoxy and sand or epoxy and sand plus coarse aggregate - It provides barrier which protects the reinforcing steel against corrosion. - It can repair cavities from 3 to 38mm sections, greater than 38mm deep can also be repaired with an epoxy concrete - The epoxy injection is applied to repair the cracks. >REPAIRING METHODS OF MINOR AND MEDIUM CRACKS 1)Epoxy injection 2)Grooving 3)Sealing 4)Shotcrete 5)Stitching 6)Grouting 7)Guniting1) Epoxy injection -: - Itis economical method of repairing non-moving cracks in concrete walls, slabs, columns and piers. - This method is capable of restoring the concrete to its pre-cracked strength. - It is applied under pressure to bond the cracks having greater than or equal to 0.05mm opening - It is not applicable if the crack is active, the cracks are large in number or when the water leakage can not be controlled. - It is suitable for repair of building, bridges, dams and other concrete structures. 2) Grooving-: - It is the process of creating patterned grooves along concrete surfaces. - It can be applied for fine or larger cracks. - After grooving crack is sealed for the protection against moisture. - It is applicable only for non-structural cracks and does not require skilled labour. 3) Sealing-: - Surface cracks should be sealed to keep the epoxy leaking out before it has gelled. - It can be sealed by applying epoxy, polyester or other sealing material to the surface of crack and allowing it to harden - After job completion the surface sealer is stripped away. - Cementitious seals can be used where appearance is required. 4) Stitchin; - It is process of drilling holes on both sides of the crack and grouting in U-shaped metal units with short legs. - It involves drilling holes on both sides of cracks, cleaning the holes and anchoring the legs of the staples in the holes, with either a non-shrink grout or an epoxy resin-based bonding system. 5) Grouting-: - Manual injection gun may be used for grouting, for larger volume a pump should be used. - Water/cement ratio should kept low in grouting. 6) Shoterete -: - A method of applying concrete projected at high velocity primarily on to a vertical or overhead surface - The hardened properties of shotcrete are similar to those of conventional concrete.~ It is used for repair of damaged building, underground construction such as storage reservoir, tunnel lining, etc. - It involves use of man, machine and concrete, the quality and interaction between these three materials governs the ultimate strength and performance of sprayed concrete. 7) Guniting -: - It is a dry shotcreting process. It is the process of spraying a mix or mortar or concrete to a surface with help of spray gun. - Itis used in construction for the application of slope stabilization ~ It is also used for certain rehabilitation purpose mainly in the construction of retaining walls, swimming pool construction, tunnel construction, in fluid tank construction and some concrete repair work. ~ It is also called as dry-mix shotcrete process which convey dry material from machine to surface through a nozzle by means of compressed pressure and high velocity. >REPAIRING METHODS OF MAJOR CRACKS -: 1)Fixing mesh across cracks 2)Dowel bars 3)Installing ferrocement plates 4)RCC band 1) Fixing mesh across cracks -: - For damaged walls and roofs, additional reinforcement in the form of mesh is used on one side or both sides of members. - These mesh should sufficiently tied with existing members. - This method requires wire mesh on front face, clamps, wire mesh on back face, cement plaster, etc. 2) Dowel bars-: - A dowel bar retrofit is a method of reinforcing cracks in highway pavement by inserting steel dowel bars in slots cuts across the cracks - A bond breaker is applied on wall surfaces of the dowel bar and the dowel bar support chairs are used to firmly hold the dowels centered in slot.(Bond breaker- substance applied to concrete surface to reduce cracking due to temperature and moisture) - The foam core insert is used to allow expansion and contraction - Non-shrink concrete backfill material is placed. - Place the patch filling material and finishing is carried out.3) Installing ferrocement plates-: - The ferrocement plates are reinforced with skeletal steel bars welded with galvanized meshes. - Ferrocement is the type of reinforced concrete. It consist of hydraulic cement mortar reinforced with closely spaced layers of continuous and relatively small size wire mesh. - Itis light weight, low cost, durable, weather resistant - Itis used for rehabilitation the reinforcement elements such as beams, slabs or walls 4) RCC band-: - RCC Bands in load bearing structure (Masonry Building) are reinforced concrete runner provided in the walls to tie them together and to impart horizontal bending strength in them. - RCC bands or reinforced concrete resists forces and ties wall together - They integrate masonry wall into the stronger unit. These are also known as horizontal seismic bands. - The dimension of the band and the inside reinforcement bars depends upon the length of the wall between the perpendicular cross walls. - There are five types of band namely gable band, roof band, lintel band, sill band, and plinth band, named after their location in the building. A gable band is a horizontal member which is placed at the top of the ridge of the sloping slab to support the ends of the rafters and transferring loads to posts or gable end walls. ~ A roof band is a load bearing member of a roof at roof level. Sometimes roof band is not required because the roof slab of load bearing wall masonry also plays the role of a band. ~ A lintel band is a horizontal member which is placed at the top of the opening like door and window to support the portion of the unsupported wall above it continuously throughout the length of wall. This the most important band. - A sill band is a horizontal member which is place at the bottom of the opening to support the load of the window frame. Itis discontinued at the door opening. - A plinth band is a horizontal member which is positioned at the plinth level to tie the wall at plinth level.> DAMPNESS :-The access and penetration of moisture content into building through walls, roofs, floors, etc. is called as dampness in a building. EFFECT OF DAMPNESS IN WALLS -: . Rotting of wood. . Corrosion of metallic fixtures. . Deterioration of electric installation. . Deterioration of carpet and furniture. . Spots on the floors and walls. . Petting off and removal of plaster. . Bleaching and blistering of paints. . Efflorescence in bricks, tiles, stones, ete SNANAYHEy > Damping repair technique -: * Inserting DPC in brick wall. ¢ Bituminous painting © Painting using waterproof solution and cement with adhesive gum. 1. Inserting DPC in brick wall -: ¢ It is a type of moisture control applied to building walls and floors to prevent moisture from passing in to the interior spaces. Damp proof course ri the passage of water with no hydrostatic pressure. DPC may be horizontal or vertical. It is a layer laid below all masonary walls. * DPC is durable, impermeable material such as slate, felt paper, metal, plastic blended in to the mortar between two courses of bricks or blocks. 2. Bituminous painting -: ¢ It is a bituminous emulsion damp proof paint which dries to provide a tough, black and flexible coating. ¢ It provides a waterproof membrane on concrete and brick foundations, retaining walls and bridge abutments. * All surfaces should be clean, dry and free from grease, rust, etc. Loose paint should be removed from the substrate. « After cleaning the surface it should be painted within four hours.3.using waterproof solution -: 4, Waterproofing solution is used for damp proofing of building structure such as basements, decks or wet areas, water craft, etc, 5. This solution is used where the water table is lower than the structure and there is good free drainage fill. 6. It provides membrane to prevent the entry of water and the ingress of water vapour with no hydro-static pressure. 4.Damp proofing with cement and adhesive gum -: * Cement with adhesive gum is used to prevent the moisture from passing through the mortar. + It provides a durable and impermeable membrane between two courses of bricks or blocks. >» FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT :- 1. Structural collapse of soil 10. Drying of soil surface layers 2. Mining of subsidence 11. Leakage from pipes, drainage 3. Underground erosion 4. Change in vicinity 5. Thermal change 6. Landslides 7. Uneven load distribution 8. Earthquake 9. Undermining of foundation while flood Remedies of foundation settlement :- Concrete underpinning Jet grouting Micro piles Using expanding geo-polymers Bunpey Use pile foundations where the soil is shrinkable, so that forces are transferred to the hard strata or rock, Foundation levels should be down to avoid foundation on shrinkable soils. Vegetation should be removed from the construction site and its roots are removed. Any cavity due to roots of vegetation should be compacted and filled with concrete. Presence of any mining areas should be inspected and avoided. Soil should be adequately compacted before construction. Foundation depth shall be increased to hard strata or rock below the filled oilTransmission of load from building to foundation should be uniform. Soil improvement techniques :- 1. Sand piles 2. Stone columns 3. Grouting cement slurry 1. A soil improvement techniques by which bearing capacity of soil is increased, Itis done through compacting process in which the sand piles are placed in low strength soils and improved by dynamic force and vibrations. p 3. The pile promote neighboring soil compacting, thus improvement of bearing capacity and decreasing foundation settlement. 4, Granular soil properties are improved by this compaction process through physical displacement of the particles. «Stone columns -: 1. Itis a ground improvement technique used to improve the load bearing capacity and to reduce the settlement of soil In this technique dense aggregate columns (stone columns) is iS) constructed by means of a crane suspended down hole vibrator. Due its higher modulus of elasticity than that of soils it absorbs more load than soil and reduces overalll settlement. 4. Applied load distributes in between soil and stone column in the ratio of their stiffness, the load carrying capacity also increases. 5. Stone aggregates are used to fill stone column, Water can easily pass into the stone columns 6. Therefore it helps to prevent excess pore water pressure. » ¢ Grouting cement slurry :- 1. Cement slurry and cement sodium silicate slurry are applied for grouting to improve the properties of soil. This process of grouting consists of filling pores or cavities in soil or rock with a liquid form material to decrease the permeability and improve the shear strength by increasing cohesion when it is set. v 3. Injection of pumpable materials into a soil is applied to change the 4aphysical characteristics of soil. 4. This process involves injection of a thick consistency soil-cement grout under pressure into soil mass. 5. The injected grout mass occupies void space created by pressure densification. sew best of luck 45