a Seat i eSHISTORY TIME! PIERRE DE FERMAT bre de Fermat was a French mathematician and Plivaolet. He is best known for his contributions to a a ‘analytic geometry, probability, and calcul His research 4 Fegarding the propagation of lightis especially significant. e TE a When light falls on a surtace, the light bounces back. This pl 's known as reflection of light. CW ma TOLER ice te Incident ray @ portion of \ Reflocted ray henomenon The light rays that are incident on the reflecting surface are known as incident hes Fays, and the light rays that reflect off the Surface are known as reflected rays. 0, (Point of incidence) PITSTOP! 3 OR an Ty ee Cy ce Sue met ‘eflects part of the incident light and absorbs UL eC ei oe Surface reflects part of the incident light and SO t ettsuch that AB = AB fier a point O such that the line joining © and A’ intersects BD at 0. Also, draw a normal at O. Since AAOB and AA'OB { are similar, ZAOB = LAB Also, ZA'OB = length of whemiror Minimum length __ Height of the object of the plane mirror ~ 2Learn Laws of Reaction TTB Gio t0 CB8e sence Ge ail he oC tine : When a parallel beam of light strikes a smooth or polished surface Such as a plane mirror, all the rays of light get reflected by the } same angle. Thus, the rays of light in the reflected beam are also Parallel to each other. This type of reflection is known as regular reflection What hap, surface, such S to light when it strikes an irregular or @ rough wall? When a parallel! beam of light is incident on a rough surface such as a wall, the angle of incidence is different for each ray due to the irregularities of the surface of the wall. Thus, they travel in different directions after reflection. This type of reflection is known as irregular reflection or diffused reflection. Thus, in the case of a plane mirror, regular reflection can be observed owing to the mirror’s smooth surface. All the light rays travel along a fixed direction after undergoing reflection and thus, form a clear image. A wall on the other hand, scatters light in multiple directions because of its rough surface. Hence, no image can be seen on the wall Se eed Seem ea‘can be seen in the given figure. be seen that the left part of the object (XY) appears: right part of the image (X'Y) and vice-versa. This ty of the image formed in a plane mirror is known as Tenet oneal Inversion, the object the object Own _ a om - Reig cashier craters falita {as the right part of the object and vice-versa Thus, when we look at our image in a plane mirror, our image also appears to be laterally inverted. This is why when we raise our left hand, it appears as if the image has raised its ight hand and vice-versa * A light ray always travels along the 1. A light ray is incident on a plane mirror at an ang quickest path, of 60° with the surface of the mirror, as shown’ the figure. Calculate the angle of incidence. angle of reflection of the light ray. N + Laws of reflection are valid for all types of surfaces. + Applane mirror always forms a virtual image. ; + Reflections are of two types—regular reflections and diffused reflections. teeta a Photonics is the science and technology of light, covering its technical applications overon eiBue ey UEND “Lb veemeg 7 fas weap oun pue oad i.% ie) 4 —) — <= J | =o @. 9 c= ae = — i= =z ia ie) _— So Ge oe Bad el <= = i ee = Poa AOn the other hand if the reflecting surtace of 3 spherical mirror is the inner surtece of a sphere, it is known 28 a concave tthe reflecting surface is the cuter surface of a sphere, itis known as a convex mirror. The radius of the sphere of which the mirror is a part, is the radius of curvature (R) and the centre of this sphere is the centre of curvature (C). The centre of the exposed surface of the spherical mirror is known as the pole (P). The line joining C and P is known as the principal axis, ee oe ee es te ae i = Angle of incidence fl A spherical mirror can be assumed to be formed of Te Anglefrefiection Normal many plane mirrors, each of which forms. tangent to the sphere at that point. As we know that the radius of @ sphere is perpendicular to the tangent, we can consider the extended radius to be the normal at 2 point. Since the radius passes through the centre of the sphere, the normal wil aie pee centre of curvature of the mirror. aeConcave mirror Convex mirror ‘The Sun is extremely far away from the Earth. So the 29S of light coming from the Sun can be assumed to be parallel to the principal axis. When these parallel Tays strike the surface of a concave mirror, they get feflected and converge at 2 point. All the heat and light eneray get focused at this point, causing the t Paper to burn. i 12 Focus However, in a convex mirror, the light rays g diverged after reflection. Since the energy ca by the light rays does not get focused at a poit the paper does not burn. This is why you cannot use @ convex burn paper. Principal axis —* Focat length ror, light rays do In the case of a convex mitLearn Spherical Mirrors 1 Naas |) eer ec er twice its focal length, ie., R= 2! Me ue A Class 10 CBSE Science &D ermine the PES a (a) We have learnt that a light ray parallel to the rincipal axis converges at the focus. So, a light ray that passes through the focus gets reflected parallel to the principal axis. You can verify this by determining the angle of incidence and hence the angle of reflection Since the focus and centre of curvature lie behind the reflecting surface for a convex mirror, you needt SSI-’ (b) We have already learnt that @ light ray incident perpendicular to a surface, ie, along the normal, retraces its path. Since the radius of curvature is the normal in this case, a lightray passing through the centre of curvature retraces its path after getting reflected, extend the radius of curvature to obtain the path of the reflected ray. ()In this case, the principal axis acts as normal. So, a light ray incident obliquely on the pole of a concave mirror gets reflected at the same angle. ath travelled by the light ray, we need to consider the angle it makes with the re) to obtain the angle of reflection. This angle determines the path the ray takes after(a) A light ray, that if extended, (b) A light ray, that if extended, ©: (c) A light ray _—_ incident Passes through the focus passes through the centre obliquely on the pole gets of the mirror, gets reflected of curvature, retraces its reflected at the same angh Parallel to the principal axis. path. PITSTOP! 2@))u rr > types—real and virtual, The basic differences between a teal image and a Areal image is formed due to the actual virtual image is formed when light rays. intersection of light rays. appear to meet a point. It cannot be captured on a screen, as itis It can be captured on a screen. » arr be ceptired’on a eoree the imaginary intersection of light rays. The image is inverted. The image is upright.iA et Atinfinity Between C and F infinity From the above ray diagrams, it can be inferred that the image formed by a concave mirror can be real or virtual depending on the position of the object in front of it. SacHo rote that forall postions of the object between the focus and the pole of the mirror, HYormed. On moving the object farther away from the focus (i.., towards the pole), the image 10 the pole. However, the size of the image keeps decreasing while remaining larger than the object comes very close to the pole, a virtual image that is of the same size as the object at the pole. Position of CRU niet Ray diagram posites Dee! Virtual, upright, and highly diminished (point sized) At F, behind the ‘mirror At infinity & me infty Between infinity and ole of the mirror From the above ray diagrams, it can be inferred that a convex mirror always forms a virtual and diminished image of an object for any position of the object in front of it With the help of these illustrations, we can now determine the nature of the image formed On either side of the spoon. When you see your reflection on the concave side of the spoon, your image appears inverted because a real age is formed. When you move closer to the 8poon, a virtual and upright image is formed. and Pole of the mirror. is because you are between the foc However, in case of its convex side, the image is always upright. Th mltror always forms a virtual and upright image of an object for any position of the object in front of it. Ue nee cans ot eee eee oncave and convex mirrors, you Reale heeidlebtk a us ir keen ar eeOM! Magnification is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. Mathematically, Magnification(m) = Height of the image (h) Height of the object (h) __ Image distance (v) \ Object distance (u) S| - meeBP GAULLE Re Ya 8 like these, we need to define positive and negative distances for objects and images. Thi. ‘Cartesian Sign Convention does. It generalises the mirror formula for all types of mirrors, ‘of the object. to the New Cartesian Sign Convention |The object is always placed on the left side of the mirror. Therefore, light rays from the object strike mirror from the left-hand side All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror. Distances measured along the principal axis in the direction of incident rays are taken as positive, while those measured in the direction opposite to the incident rays are taken as negative. Perpendicular distances measured above the principal axis are taken as positive, while those measured, below the principal axis are taken as negative. Positive Negative <—— Mirror ——> Positive Direction of v incident ray Negative jal Positive . Negative Bee) Direction of incident ray —» Positive Principal Ads Negative Concave mirror Convex mirror a eae me eT Ce eR eee ) een mal PENN a corre Real Virtual Cnbite . eo The mirror formule and the magnification formula are valid for all ty of the object, provided the New Cartesian Sign Convention is used Ree ‘A. concave mirror converges light rays, whereas a convex mirror diverges them. ncave mirror can form either a real or virtual image, while a convex mirror always forms @ virtual image of an object. ‘The mirror formula describes the relationship between object distance, image distance, and focal length The magnification produced by a mirror is the ratio of image height to object height. ‘All measurements (distanoes and height of object and image) are made based on the New, Cartesian Sign Convention.“Pavianu! s1 eBew! a4) 1eY) SereOIpU! UBIS anneBou SUL WO g 2g JIM aBeU ay jo IYBiey oY) ‘ev0ja104 1 woe- = 4 gl ane (uy) r90Igo a4 J0145104 ) eBewrayjowybiey ~ ‘osiy Si- _ (1) aouersipyoalgo 0e- ~ (A) souersipebew) ~ = (w) voneoyiubey 77 mirror can form a real image EXAM CORNER image of the object? Also, calculate ‘screen be placed to obtain a sharp the height of the G73 image mirror of focal length 10 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a distance of 15 cm in front of a concave of an object. 2 An object of height 4 om is placed at a LA 24) WOH WO O€ Jo BOUEYSIP e Ye JOLIIW ay) JO OH UI pode|d oq Pinoys use10s ay) 99Iq0 ay) Jo aBeUs! dieys e UIEIGO o4 ‘sy. ‘ejnui0} sos ap BuIsy Wo O1- = (4) yaBu9} 12905 ‘wo \yBray yoaIGo ‘ven yoalqo ‘wo p+ = (+ Light travels at different speeds in different media. + The speed at which light travels in a medium depends ‘on the refractive index of that medium. + Alight ray entering obliquely into a medium deviates from its path, Refraction of light is governed by Snell's law. | REVISE THESE CONCEPTS FIRST Light + Transverse Waves The rays of light coming from the tip of the pencil (A) bend at the interface of water and air. When these rays are extended backwards, they appear to intersect at a position (A’) higher than their actual origin. This causes the tip of the pencil to appear at a Position higher than its actual position. Thus, the pencil appears to bend in water,Learn Snell's Law 20 Class 10 CBSE Science C1] REFRACTION OF LIGHT ‘The phenomenon of bending of light while travelling from one transparent medium to another is known retraction of light. Normal ‘The ray of ight originating from the tip of the pencils called the incident ray. This ray of light that bends at the interface of air and water, is called the refracted ray, The angle made by the incident ray with the normal at the interface is known as the angle of incidence, while the | Real angle formed between the normal and the refracted ray is | depth known as the angle of refraction E nee WHOS, The depth from the surface of the water at which the tip of the pencil appears to be is known as the apparent! depth, while the depth at which the tip of the pencil is actually located is known as the real depth. marching at the same pace surface approach a muddy patch The soldiers in a particular row are holding hands such that these rows are rigid. When they reach the mud, it is clear that all of them donot enter the mud at the same time. ‘Thus, the first soldier who reaches the mud cannot move ‘quickly as the rest of the soldiers in his row who are still maret on conerete surface. ‘Since the row is rigid and the soldiers who are still on the surface are moving faster than the soldiers in the mud, the changes its direction Once all the soldiers in a row have entered the mud, the row: moving at the same speed in a straight line through the mud. Therefore, when alight ray raves from one medium to other, both ts speed and direction of propagation.Lights, Direction of Propagation The rows of soldiers in the previous example represent the vertical lines. Similar to the soldiers, a light ray also bends towards the normal when ‘moving from a rarer medium to a denser medium. While crossing the interface of two Do Ree Rad Pa es od See @ a TAAL RUMOUR ECU em SSS Ey A light ray incident obliquely on a rectangular Glass slab undergoes refraction twice—when it first enters the glass slab (at the air-glass interface) and when it leaves the glass slab (at the glass-air interface). When the light ray moves from the airto the glass, it bends towards the normal and when it moves from the glass to the air, it bends away from the normal The ray that emerges from the glass slab is known as the emergent ray. The surface through which the light ray enters the glass slab is parallel to the surface through which it leaves. In this case, the angle of incidence (i)is equal to the angle of emergence (©), and the incident ray i parallel tothe emergent ray. However they are not lo ray is laterally displaced from the path of the incident ray. a lines that are perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light. Erno When light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, the portion of it hitting the interface speeds up, while the remaining portion continues to move in the first medium with the same speed. This change in speed results in a change in the direction of the light ray. Thus, the light ray moves away from the normal when moving from a denser medium to a rarer medium. Incident ray: ‘Angle of incidence. Angle of refraction +UG at at tH ‘What will be the direction of deviation if a ray of light is incident normal to the surface separating the A f to the example of the marching soldiers. If all the soldiers approach the interface or surface separating the two media ina direction that is perpendicular to it, then each soldier reaches the interface at the exact same time. Thus, all the soldiers in a particular row slow down together. Therefore, they remain in a straight line parallel to the interface. Similarly, a light ray incident normal to the interface passes undeviated. ‘The speed of light changes but its direction remains unchanged. oeiD The relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction was given by 2 famous Dutch scientist named Willebrord Snellus. The laws governing the refraction of light are: + The incident ray, refracted ray, and the normal al lie in the same plane. Fora given pair of optical media, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (i) to the sine Of the angle of refraction (r)is equal to the ratio of the velocities through which light travels in the given media. Mathematically, : Willebrord Snellius was anearly 17"-century mathematician, Although the laws of re light remained his most important contr to science, they were published almost. after his death. aSnell's law is valid only when ee oad pee on ears ter which means that light will travel faster through water than glass. The speed ough a medium is determined by its refractive index. with which lig When @ ray of light travelling with a speed v, in medium 1 enters medium 2, its speed becomes v,. So, the refractive index o! medium with respect to the first medium is equal to the ratio of the speed of light in medium 1 (v peed of light in medium 2 (v,) and is represented by n, Mathematica a speed of light in medium 1 vy 21 speedoflightinmedium2 — v, | dex of the first medium with respect to the second medium is the ratio of the speed im (v,) to the speed of light in the first medium (v,) and is represented by n, doflightin medium? _ v, | | speed of light in medium? v, | ae sc UT ORUCECCO UCR CECE When both the media in which light travels have th glass with respect to air is more than the MULCieut aUCUeE Rat ets refractive index of water with respect to air Prune ea RUC eee Rn rea mtcts| because light travels faster through water MM aME MMe Cute ue than glass. aoe)‘The refractive index of medium 2 with respect to the medium 1 can be expressed in terms of their absolute refractive indices as, oe yy me A, Scilly where n, and n, are the absolute refractive indices of medium 1 and medium 2 respectively sini _ According to Snel's law, | <=> = + Bu, = 7 So, Snell's law can also be expressed as, sini _ 1, sinr on Br A coin dipped in water appears to be raised due to the of light. 2. The absolute refractive indices of two media A and B are 2 and 1.5 respectively. if the speed of light in medium B is 2 x 10* m/s, calculate the speed of light in (@) Vacuum (b) Medium A amr tae Fj a speed of lightin vacuum orair * speed of light in a tranparent medium =v Ua sige |) cee, Peer Ta 0 of light is the pl bending of a ray of light at the of the two different media when from one transparent medium to transparent medium. A light ray that is incident normal interface of the two different optical ‘revels in the same direction, but different speed. A light ray passing from a rarer to medium bends towards the no @ light ray passing from a denser medium bends away from theBeer hE Si Vin} Deus Uj 3671 Jo peeds op, 'oouaH s/w Lx gt =“A ‘A wOrxe (A) v winpou ul 481130 peeds _ u (0) wnnoea ur 1461 jo poads ie “$/W «OL x € S! WNN9eA U! 1461) jo paeds exp ‘eouEH{ s/W.OlLxe=9o (') g wnipaw us 461 jo. peeds =% () (9) wnnoea ur ay6y jo pads s/w ,01 x 2 = (°A) g wnipaw ut 161) jo peads gi ="upuez="u'uanip -z uonoeyas “4(© AT AGLANCE + Critical angle is the angle of incidence beyond rays of light are no longer refracted but totally Total internal reflection is the phenomenon of com reflection of light rays into the same medium, + Reflection + Refractive Indexand Snell's Law Refraction ‘The answer to this question lies in how light behaves it travels from an optically dens fi pticall ser Medium to i Medium, Let us look at this in detail, aeConsider a light ray travelling from @ rarer medium toa denser medium. We know that this light ray will bend towards the normal. As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction also increases. However, from Snell's law, we infer that the angle of refraction will always be smaller than the angle of incidence a —~ Refracted ray Rarer medium Denser medium Now, consider a light ray travelling from an optically denser medium to a rarer medium. We know that it will bend away from the normal. As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction also increases. Also from Snell's law, we infer that the angle of refraction will always remain greater than the angle of incidence. 0 GIN! So, even when the incident ray is parallel to the interface of the two media (angle of incidence is 90°, it undergoes refraction and enters the denser medium. Thus, for any angle of incidence, the ray travelling from a rarer medium to a denser medium will always undergo refraction while entering the denser medium. Rarer medium At a particular angle of incidence, the travels along the interface of the two undergoing refraction, For this angle of the angle of refraction becomes 90° incidence for which the angle of known as the critical angle. For a light ray travelling from a denser medium to a rarer medium, the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90° is known as the critical angle for the given pair of media. For all angles of incidence beyond the critical angle, the light ray gets completely reflected back into the same medium (denser medium) by obeying the laws of reflection. This means that no refraction takes place. Thus, a light ray travelling from a denser medium to a rarer medium does not always undergo refraction. Etnanenon of complete reflection of light into Medium, when it travels from a denser 108 rarer medium and at an angle of incidence ‘than the critical angle is known as total internal ‘feflection (TIR) Total internal reflection of light at water-air interface Total internal reflection is the reason why a diamond, while a piece of glass does not. The refractive index diamond is very high (approx 2.42) and the critical angle the diamond-air pair is around 24.4", which is very low, Critical angie ‘The surfaces of a diamond are cut in such a way that the entering it strikes its internal faces at an angle greater the critical angle. Due to this, the light rays undergo total internal reflections at the various faces of the diay When these rays strike @ face of the diamond at an smaller than the critical angle, they undergo ref } Total instead of otal internal reflection and reach our eyes. Itied internal to these multiple reflections of light rays inside the diat reflection that it appears to sparkle, The same thing does not ha Glass-air pair of media is rel undergoing any total internal pen in a piece of glass, cut atively higher. Thus, light reflection, " the same shape because the critical angle off rays directly undergo refraction and emergeLearn Total internal Reflection =i Consider a light ray travelling from glass (denser medium) to air (rarer medium) such that the angle of retraction is 90" and the angle of incidence (i) is equal to the critical angle (c) for the glase-air interface Let n, be the absolute refractive index of glass and n, be the absolute refractive index of air 7 e F POOR eae gt) Class 10 CBSE Science Also, angle of incidence, | = critical angle, © * sine A, eretore, inn, Ps (aince sin 90" = 1) FS sinc = From this equation, we can find the critical angle for the glass-air interface if their refractive indices are known Theretore, for any given pair of media, the critical angle is given by where, n, and n, are the absolute refractive indices of the rarer medium and denser medium respectively. Ta De ee aU a Scientists have discovered that monkeys are also susceptible to optical Wusons, just the humans.Learn Total internal Reflection 90 —_ Class 10 CBSE Science ee ae {8 presumed that the medium is uniform, that i, the optical denvity i the medium. However, not every medium has @ unitorm optical density. Both optical index of a medium may vary across its length In fact, atmospheric air sometimes acte medium which results in an interesting optical jliusion known as a mirage @ MIRAGE FORMA ie @n optical phenomenon generally observed during hot summers. it involves the: ON of retraction of light through layers of atmosphenc av at ditterent temp Sunny days, the ground is so hot that it heats Bh increase in height from the ground, the temperature of ae Genser than warm air, and thus has @ higher refractive a bvehie ‘Optical density of air with increasing height (or as w from lower to upper layers of air) as depicted ig ‘the figure ear the ground. With 8s gradually Cold air is ase in the Reflected sunlight Coo! air Allight ry trom a distant object, say a tree, travelling Sess Ola Infact, the ight ray travels trom denser layers to rarer layers of aic At the eters Havers of air, it gets retracted away from the normal, As it moves further, the retracted imcxmeal Bef Bemtte ners oni angi of nacence eps ncwesma grasa ie fengle of incidence becomes equal to the critical angle ofthe light ray fortwo adjacent ayers ae in the downward direction passes throughLearn Total Internal Reflection 1 Class 10 CBSE Science When the angle of incidence is more than the critical angle, the ray undergoes total internal reflection and gets reflected back into the same medium, that is, in the upward direction, These rays will undergo multiple fractions until it reaches the eyes of the observer. Now, to an observer standing far away, these distorted light rays do not seem to be coming from the tree. ad, the observer thinks that the light must have come from something on the ground which can possitly juce a reflection of the tree, say a pool of water Sere ed e index of the ent layers of air in it degrees. Hence, a nis is the reason why stars s point sources of light. The + Foralight ray travelling from a denser toa rarer medium, the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90° is known as the critical angle. + Total internal reflection occurs when a light ray travels from a denser medium to @ rarer medium and the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle for the given pair of denser-rarer mediaa WeerA convex lens can form a real or 8 virtual image of an object. whereas 2 concave lens always forms @ virtusl image Ray diagrams are used to represent the position, size. and nature of the image formed by a lens. The measure of the deviation of the incident light rays produced by a lens is expressed in terms of its power REVISE THESE CONCEPTS FIRST Petra + Image Formation Denes tts surtaces it is called a 8s is a lens having both its urved outwards, but how do curves in 1! ¢ of a lens enable it to burn paper? Let's jook at the physics behind this phenomenon A ens having both its surfaces curved inwards such thet it is thicker at the edges than its centre \s called @ concave lens. Concave lens Whereas, @ lens having both its surtaces curved outwards such that itis thicker at the centre than Convexiens its edges is called 2 convex lens.because light is travelling from a denser medium rarer medium (air). The glass slabs labelled 2, 4, the rays of light in a similar manner. The ray ine acts as a parallel-sided glass slab with the ray to its surface. All these small glass slabs bend the incoming rays of that they merge at a common point known as the focus. When light rays strike the surface of a convex|ens, they refraction and converge at a point. All the heat and light gets focused at this point, causing the paper to burn. However, if these small slabs are arranged in such a manner that ‘the outer surfaces of the lens so formed are curved inwards, the incoming light appears to diverge from the principal focus as shown in the figure. Principal Since a glass slab does not converge the light rays incident on it, it is. ot capable of burning paper. Ae Se Om any Ce ey Sue ent eee] oaks CateLearn Spherical Lens 35 Class 10 CBSE Science ; eT Hess sree ft sphercal lens can ; to be a part of a sphere whose radius ‘as the radius of curvature (R), and whose is known as the centre of curvature (c) a lens has two refracting surfaces, it will ‘have two centres of curvature (C, and.) two radii cof curvature (R, and R,), and two principal foi (F, and F,)- ‘The geometric centre of the lens is known as the "optical centre (0) and the line joining it to the Heh Principal centre of curvature is known as the principal axis. fata The distance of the principal focus from the optic centre of the lens is known as the focal length (f). This length is approximately equal to half the radius of curvature of the lens. w Concave lens Tema ;we have learnt that light rays parallel to the principal Taxis Ost fooused at a point after striking the surface of a Magnifying glass. In what direction will a light ray travel De TT RRC Ur eC MUR oe aCe cases?refracting ray is parallel to the incident ray. lateral displacement can be neglected in the case lenses. Thus, it can be concluded that the ray of light Similarly, alight ray incident on a concave lens gets refracted in the following manner: {he know that the image of a point object is formed by the intersection of at least two rays of light {rom the point. In the case of a lens, these two rays (the one passing through the focus and the one through the optic centre) are very useful for drawing the ray diagrams to obtain the position of the different positions of the object 6 CE ees Se Depending upon the distance of the object from a spherical lens, the ature and position of the image formed by convex and concave lenses can be obtained,s a s 2gBetween F, and optical centre, on the same side of the object Between | infinityand ‘optical centre | ofthelens | {tis interesting to note that in the case of a concave lens, for any Position of the object, the image formed is always virtual, upright, and diminished, Pee nee ae a) DAOC Ra aR oer Mec) De Rea aet fe ket oq) For a particular value of the distance between the object and the lens, a clear image is formed at a particular distance from the lens. Photographers sometimes need to physically adjust the distance between the lens and the photographic film to capture the perfect image.Learn Spherical Lens 39 Class 10 CBSE Science relationship between the distance of the object from the optical centre distance, u), distance of the image from the optical centre (image distance, v), and the “focal length of 2 lens can be expressed by an equation known as the lens equation or lens formed in the following cases using the lens formula. Furthermore, Lee ee ee tr ee a a ea aed Ee CU ete ee a Dee eerie ute cee Ca aaa For bot we get mand the focal length f is 20 cm. Thus, if we use the lens formula, as 120m. However, on d he ray diagram, we observe that the image distance in the first case is more than that in the second case. In the first case, the image is formed at a distance of more than twice the focal length of the lens, that is, mc an 40 cm. Also, the image is formed behind the lens, whereas in the second case, the image is formed at a distance less than the focal length of the lens, that is, less than 20 cm from the lens, and On the same side as the object.To avoid any such ambiguities in the use of lens formula, sign convention. oe STi egret e Vea 8s The sign convention that should be adopted while using the lens formula is called the New Cartesian Sign Convention. This sign convention generalises the lens formula for all ‘types of lenses and for all positions of the object. According to this sign convention The object is always placed on the left side of the lens. Therefore, light rays from the object are: ‘on the lens on its left-hand side. All distances are measured from the optic centre of the lens. The distances measured along the principal axis in the direction of incident rays are taken as po while those measured opposite to the direction of incident rays are considered negative. The perpendicular distances measured above the Principal axis are taken as positive, while those the principal axis are taken as negative. Positive Negative <— Lens —> Positive Direction of Direction of incident ray Negative incident ray f F Negative Convex lens Type of lensfenstormuta, J= 1.1 uowalogat't feet A: 20 v -30 v=60cm ee a lens a the lens formula, > =) - 35 v=-12em Here, the negative sign indicates that the image is on the same side of the lens as the object. "These results are in coherence with the observations "inthe ray diagram. Thus, the lens formula is valid only ‘when sign convention is followed. SMU Mathematically, Alistance (4) = ~30 om, focal length (f) = 20 om (convex ens). Magnification is the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. I; Given, object distance (u) = -30 cm, focal length (f) = -20 cm (concave lens). PITSTOP! 2. Cee ee aR Ca ee er Cee By knowing the distance between the Moon and Earth, an astronomer can easily find the size of the celestial body using his telescope ‘and mathematical tools such as the similarity of triangles. Using the similarity of triangles in the ray diagrams for convex and concave lenses, we can find outthe value by which the image height has increased or reduced with respect to the object height. This relationship of the height of the image and the object with the image and object distance is known as the magnification formula. Magnification (m) = Height of the image (h') _ oes distance (4 Height of the object (h) tiLearn Spherical Lens 42 Class 10 CBSE Science ea eens em Malis eC Melolele) Rotunda ese Dern elt Belo oe OMe ae a sac e a Optical engineering is the field of science that focuses on the various applications of optics (a branch Physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light). It deals with the design of optical instt Such as lenses, microscopes, telescopes, and other equipments that utilise the properties of light physics and chemistry | Te a A convex lens converges parallel light rays, 1. The power of cance aa while a concave lens diverges them. A convex lens can form a real or a virtual image of an object, buta concave lens always forms a virtual and diminished image. The power of a lens is equal to the reciprocal of its focal length. The magnification produced by a lens is ‘equal to the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. (positive/negative). An object of height 5 em is Perpendicular to the principal concave lens of focal length 10 ¢ distance of the object from the centre of the lens is 20 em, Position, nature, and size of formed using the lens formula.“peysiunuip pue yenyiA s} aBew! ay} ‘20UsH ‘ woot =4 wo f= y i s° bE Pe E aot : (y)roego aun joiubieH (yebewr ou jowieH ~ Y S°US & feu 1 (oz-) xe =u Pe € su] 84 0 a1nu99 Jeondo | wouy wo 55 30 eouersip ere pauuo4 S| eBew! ayy go 2 te . oe m" ee 2 + oo a vat “ejnwWAoy su} Burs-) WO O} ~ = ()) yrBue] jed0} pue ‘wo 02- = (n) eouersip 19910 ‘wo g = (4) 1yBIeY welgo‘ueNID Z eaneGou “1Eye defects can be corrected by using appropriate power. are produced due to a pe total internal reflection, and sunlight. Particles larger than the wavelength of the scatter it in all directions REVISE THESE CONCEPTS FIRST Refraction Spherical Lenses Let's first understand the structure and functioning of the eye to answer this question oq The human eye is the most sensitive organ in the human body. It enables us to see objects and the colourful world around us, The human eye consists of a transparent thin membrane known 8 the cornea that, bulges out from the surface of the eye. The cornea acts as the outermost lens of the eye. Itfunctions like @ window that ‘controls and focuses light into the eye,ind the comea, exists @ pupil and an fie of the pupil determines the amount iris, of sontrls the size of the pupil and thereby, light entering into the the amount of igh ving as 1d pupil Dilated pupil i Ke a eS The light reflected from an object enters our eyes through the pupil after which it passes: Convex crystalline lens. The lens focuses the light on a screen known as the retina where a real image is formed. The retina is made up of millions of light-sensitive cells that generate light falls on them. These signals are then transmitted to the brain through optic nerve fib atthe rear of our eyes. The brain interprets these signals and processes them in such a the objects as they actually are. The eyeball is approximately spherical in shape and has a diameter of about 2.3 om. Of the image from the lens is about 2.3 cm which remains unchanged for any position to keep the image distance unchanged for any position of the object, the focal length of th be changed accordingly. __8yusing the lens formula, we can say that a lens can form an image of an objec tated Positions of the object only if the focal length of the lens varies. Since aan i 0 Fadii of curvature, variable focal length can be achieved only ifthe lens is able to chan 1seo aU The eye lens is attached to ciliary muscles that can expand or contract to change the radii of curvature ofthe Jens. Due to the change in radii of curvature, the focal length of the lens changes. Thin lens When you look at a distant object, the ciliary muscles relax and the lens becomes thin This increases the focal length of the lens in order to form a clear image on the retina ; Thicklens — However, when you look at an object closer to your eye, the ciliary muscles contract and thelens becomes thicker. This decreases the — focal length of the lens in order to form a clear image on the retina 4, (very small) RM = 2:3 om 9 | The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length is known as the power of accommodation of the eye. The eye lens cannot decrease its focal length below a certain limit, otherwise, the ciliary muscles will get strained. | jexcessively. Therefore, a minimum distance exists at which the eye can see the object clearly. This distances | known as the least distance of distinct vision or near point. For a normal human eye, itis approximately 25 em. However, the maximum distance at which a normal human eye can see an object clearly is infinity, It is known ‘as the far point.mes people cannot see objects tpelens in their eyes. Thus, their vision | Myopia | (near-sightedness) Hypermetropia (farsightedness) Presbyopia In this defect of vision, a person can see nearby ! objects clearly but cannot see distant objects distinctly In this defect of vision, a person distant jects clearly but cannot see arby objects, For some people, the near point of the eye gradually recedes away from normal near point. Thus, the person is not able | | to see nearby | objects clearly and distinctly. Sometimes, a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia. clearly due tothe loss of power of becomes blurred, can be many reasons for this loss of clear vision, oman eye can be Summarised as Given in the table, | muscles with age and hence | reduces their ability to adjust | the focal length of the eye ae Explore! ‘Three most common defects of the Image formation of distant objects is in front of the retina Excessive curvature of the eye lens (shorter focal length of the eye lens). Elongation of the eyeball. A concave lens with a Suitable power can be used to rectify this defect. This concave lens diverges the light rays alittle so that the image is formed on the retina, | Aconvex lens with a | suitable power can be used to rectify this defect. This Image formation of distant objects is behind the retina. + Increase in the focal lens slightly converges the length of the eye lens. | light rays so that the image Reduced size of the is formed on the retina. eyeball. ' This eye defect arises due to gradual weakening of ciliary lens.DR eM CL eee Oe SU CUE Rte es une Se ae RL ‘makes an object | aCe ‘What we perceive as white light is actually made uy Fainbow, in which suniight splits into its seven com ip of a combination of several colours. The ponent colours, is evidence of the same, Sunlight Consider an example of white light falling on a green-coloured When the white light falls on the book, the light rays of all the except green are absorbed by the book and green colour ig ‘t. When this reflected green light reaches our eyes, the book Green-coloured. Similarly, for any coloured object, when white lig on the object, the object absorbs the light rays of all colours exeap colour of the object. Hence, the colour of an object depende oq) Colour of the light reflected by it | Reflected light To demonstrate that white ti ight is made of several colours, let understand the phenomenon of dispersion of light. When white light is incident ‘Surface of a prism, it gets split colours. This phenomenon light into its constituent dispersion of light. it on the refracting it into its constituent Of splitting of white colours is known as Each constituent colour of white li Furthermore, the refracti wavelength of the light, through a prism, each ight has a unique live index of a medium dependsLearn vrspersion of Light 49 = Class 10 CBSE Science Is the least, while Of Violet light is the most. Hence, red light obtained at the top of the spectrum and violet light at the bottom. re ame Lid ahaa eee eee ate Bre eee aed A glass slab has two parallel refracting surfaces. When white light is Ray of white light incident on one of its refracting surfaces, it refracts and even disperses. However, when these different coloured light rays refract from the other surface of a glass slab, they emerge as a parallel spectrum of light. Ifthe width of the glass slab is not large enough, this dispersion is difficult to observe with the naked eye and the spectrum appears to be white light. Similar to the rectangular glass slab, dispersion also occurs in the case of a Dispersed colours spherical lens. However, due to the smaller width of the lens, the dispersion parallel to each other isnot observable with the naked eye, and the emergent light appears to be white. Dispersion of white light takes place whenever it undergoes refraction. This is due to the fact that refractive Index of the medium depends upon the wavelength of the light rays. There are several examples in our day-to- day fe where the dispersion takes place. Dispersion is one of the reasons behind rainbow formation. ® LET CUT A tainbow is a natural spectrum formed in the sky uring or after a rainfall in the presence of sunshine. The tiny raindrops present in the atmosphere act a8 _ $1288 prisms and split the sunlight into its constituent Sdlours. When sunlight falls on the Taindrops, it is refracted and split into Constituent colours. These colours rum) undergo total _ internal '0n and finally refract out of the fom of They reach our eyes in the 8N arc of seven colours knownOGiinwt, {ihe seattering of light depends on the size of the particle and the wavelength of the light, The shorter the wavelength of the light, the more it gets scattered. Since a huge number of particles of different sizes Sxist in a medium, the extent of scattering of light through the medium depends on the wavelength of the constituent colours. ‘White light is scattered in all directions fs Poe ihe / penetrates the cloud base The phenomenon by which a beam of light is redirected in different directions on interacting with Particles present in the medium is known as scattering of light. The particles in a cloud are larger taal the wavelength of incident light ofall hell constituent colours. So, light coming from ' the Sun is scattered by these particlesinalll directions to the same extent making the | clouds appear white cre yy oe. eet CU ee cee ke Ca ees Mee none fLearn Dispersion of Light St Class 10 CBSE Science unvise and sunset when the ud ye horizon, ight has to travel a sini tanceintheatmosphere. Thus, en shorter wavelengths such as ght blue get scattered more, while woetarg a longer wavelength such me soattred less and reaches our ed eee the reason that the Sun This is aes = reddish during sunrise and RMta RITA Be Blue ight Blue ight Bo —_sateedovey_, WS) Ges owever, during noon, the Sun is just Ted ightreschan us Ted ih aaa pve our head, $0 light has to cover a a ‘Sur gponer dstance. THUS, light does not Mensur neni scattered much and all the colours | Grectly reach our eye making the Sun appear white. The particles in the atmosphere are responsible for the scattering of sunlight. In the absence of these particles, sunlight would travel undeviated. There would not be. any light rays reaching our eyes from space, except those directly from the Sun. Due to this, space would appear black if there was no atmosphere around us. The sky appears black to astronauts due to the same reason, that is, absence of atmosphere. Ophthaimo! Performs si diabetes, and al pr disorders, The pupil is a hole in the centre of the iris that lets light enter our eye, The iris controls the amount of light entering our eye by changing the size of t The power of accommodation of the eye is its ability to focus near and distant retina, Fog he Phenomenon of splitting of white light into its constituent tong* Internal energy is the measure of total energy possessed by all the molecules of a substance. * Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object by unity * Objects with higher specific heat capacity are more reluctant to change in temperature, [ aan ea + KineticEnergy + Potential Energy Over time, the coffee will cool down and the lemonade will warm up. At some point they will attain the same temperature ‘t's look at why and how this happens, Odiliim™.------ All particles of matter are constantly in motion. In solids, the bonds between particles are very strong and so the particles can only vibrate about fixed positions. In liquids, the particles aren't as strongly bound together and hence move randomly throughout its constant volume. In gases, the particles are loosely bound and have a lot of space between them. They move around freely and do not occupy a definite volume,‘When an object is heated, its particles move around faster {and so the kinetic energy, and hence the internal energy, of the particles of the object increases. A hot object has more internal energy than a cold object. When a cold object comes in contact with a hot object, the cold object warms up and the hot object cools down Here, the internal energy of the hot object decreases while that of the cold object increases. Thus, there exists a flow of energy from the hot object to the cold object. The form of energy that is transferred between two substances at different internal energies is known as heat. i Here, the atmosphere is relatively hotter than the lemonade and the coffee is hotter than the atmosphere, Thus, there is a transfer of heat from the atmosphere to the lemonade, and from the coffee to the atmosphi after some time the lemonade warms up, and the coffee cools down, Both the coffee Pe TUE UC ee eae ed Cee em add Dore a eg Ce eee ection associated with it and the lemonade reach’ ature me tem HISTORY TIME! BENJAMIN THOMPSON Earlier, heat was considered to be a weightless fluid cé ealoric. According to this theory, a body becomes hat gaining caloric and cold by losing it. In the 18th century, Benjamin Thompson devised | experiment in which he boiled water using the generated from the friction of continuous boring of acan According to the calorie ‘theory, a sharper drill would: ‘out more heat fluid, but this was not observed. The. of heat produced depended on the work done by the | that turned the drill, not on the sharpness of the drill. This experiment led him to the conclusion that heat THINK & REFLECT. - uc ca) DoE raed eee 12 form of energy, and that energy could be co ‘one form to another by doing work.cal parameter that determines the direction of flow of heat is known as temperature. ‘temperature of a body is the measure of its internal ‘energy. An object having higher | energy is said to have a higher temperature, Heat flows from the body at a higher perature to the one at a lower temperature, The flow stops when the temperatures of both jes become equal. The Sl unit of temperature is Kelvin (K). 0 Ks the temperature at which all the molecular motion ina substance pletely stops. This temperature is known as absolute zero. Other widely used units of temperature are IGelsius and Fahrenheit When an object is heated, its molecules start Wibrating vigorously. This increases the number of jntermolecular collisions. The increased number Tanporokie of collisions ultimately results in an increase in the is increased temperature of the object. Therefore, the temperature ofan object can be considered as the measure of the sverage kinetic eneray of all the molecules present in that object. Coo! matter, fewer and less energetic collisions OCD AS the kinetic energy of the particles increases on ing, the resulting intermolecular collisions tend Pe 'ncrease the distance between the particles. The Saag distance ultimately leads to an overall “ease in the volume occupied by a substance. This | Stange in volume of a substance due to the rise in its ‘einai is known as thermal expansion.Learn Heat © 56_—Class 10 CBSE Science ‘the body. Conventional thermometers use this principle to measure ‘the temperature of an object. ‘A mercury-in-glass thermometer uses the property of volumetric expansion of mercury to measure the temperature of @ body. The expansion of mercury is calibrated with the readings on the thermometer. It consists of a hard glass capillary tube of uniform ‘cross-section that is attached to a thin-walled glass bulb at its lower end. This bulb and a part of the capillary tube is filled with meroury. The rest of the tube above the mercury surface is evacuated and sealed at the top. The bulb is kept in contact with the body whose temperature is measured and the position of the mercury is observed in the capillary tube. SLL Gast (an Rey ina thermometer? Water has a tendency to stick to the glass tube. Using sucha liqlearn Heat 57 NY A) Pe intensity is proportional to their temperature. Inrared HR et eae py measuring the intensity of these radiations using ete] in situations where it is not possible to bring a thermometer in physical contact with a body such as certain parts of mechanical and electrical d oCimimD- Theamountot heat required toraise the temperature of asubstance by 1 °C (or K)isknownasits heat capacity. Itis represented by C and its relation with the amount of heat required (Q) and change in temperature (At) is given by, m0 = it 0G S Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of an object by 1 °C or 1 K. It is represented by c. Specific heat capacity of a material (c) can be obtained by dividing its heat capacity (C) with its mass (m). The S| unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin () K") Mathematically C _ Q ) {heSTunitof spectic heat capacity can be obtained by dividing = the SI unit of heat capacity with that of mass, ie. joule per kilogram MMAR Yor kelvin kg" K), The specific heat capacity of a material is an intensive property—a property of matter that does not change 88 the amount of matter changes. The amount of heat required to change the temperature of a body varies from material to material >) i Specific heat is defined for unit mass of a substance. \ Different materials have a different number of particles per unit mass and hence different values of specific heat. It is interesting to note that the molar specific heat—the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a substance by 1 °C—of most solids at room temperature and. above are nearly constant. This is because ‘one mole of every substance contains an equal number of cons t However, one should also be aware of the fact heat of a substance is a function of its mo molecular structure. reRe eee ‘the kinetic energy of the molecules. Even a small amount of heat provided can cause a ‘Yemperature of the substance ‘Todemonstrate this relation, let us consider an example. Mf we take @ wooden biock and an iron block of the same mass (m) and provide the same amount of heat (Q) to both Of them, it is observed that the increase in temperature of the iron block is 4 times the increase in temperature of the wooden block Theretore the equations of specific heat capacity are, ee m(4at) mat Reena Thus, the specific heat capacity of wood is four times that Of iron. In other words, wood is four times more reluctant tc change its temperature than iron. This is why iron is a much better conductor of heat than wood. Therefore, it ca Concluded that the substances that are good conduct heat have a low specific heat capacity and vice-versa + The form of energy that is transferred between two substances at different internal energies is known as heat A rise in temperature indicates an increase in the kinetic energy of the molecules of an object CN Ewa The amount of heat gained or lost by an object depends upon its mass, material, and change in temperature Substances that are poor conductors of heat have 4 relatively high specific heat capacity and vice- 1. As the temperature of an o increases, the kinetic energy of molecules ___( decreases). 50 g of metal at 27 °C 2400 J of heat energy in ord attain a temperature of 327° Calculate the specific heat of the metal. ‘Thermal engineering is @ specialised Sub-discipline of ng that deals with heat transfer andClass 10 CBSE Science 8 Learn Heat 2.008 x 64.01 x 0S _ f ursimunigsn; Bp siatunig ay 1 foove ie “ “einjeiaduiay ul abueyo pue leew oy Jo Ayoedes yeay 9 i ul eBueyo ey) 0) pauinbas yay | y9e/qo ey) yo ssew Aq yeay jo Nowe 0.008 = 0. 22-9.128=4-4. i 4o unowe ay Jo ones a4 Aq UAAI6 SI 241 Burpinip Aq paureago oq ueo a \evour oun jo euraesedunen on USE % : £ 00vz = (0) 1exow O43 Jo. joedeo yeay S) 49610) ay) 19e!go ue jo sseW ayy J061e| yo dn apew si ieur aunjesedwwa} 64) esees9u! 0} pesinbas ABsouUe Jee} Recah 9D. £ZE = ()) |eWew ayy jo eamexedwiey jeuly 9, 9. £2 = (3) jerew ey) Jo euNjexodwey jenIUL 5y OL « OG = 6 Og = (w) jeXowW ey Jo Sse) ney uenin$10 CBSE Science Learn Change of Phase 60 CUI + The amount of heat energy absorbed or released a phase change is known as latent heat. + The process of phase change is carried out ata temperature ' For a system consisting of two objects at different temperatures kept in contact with each other, the object at the higher temperature releases energy in the form of heat that is absorbed by the object at the lower temperature. At some point, the transler of energy stops and both the objects attain a final temperature. To find the value of this equilibrium temperature, we first need to arn about the science behind heat tran octiiD Calorimetry is the science of determining the changes in enemy of a system by measuring the heat transferred between the system and its surroundings. It deals with the measurement of heat transfer as the temperature of a substance is varied. a es 2 AND LATENT HEATinciple of calorimetry (or principle of mixtures) states that, | Bre bye cold bods equa tothe heat enerylestty the herbed Heat eneray gained by the cold body (Q,) = Heat energy lost by the hot body (q) We know that the amount of heat gained or released gubjected toa change in temperature Atis given by, Assign convention is necessary when the transfer of heat is involved. According to the sign convention, the heat gained by a body is taken as positive and the heat lost by a body is taken as negative. by a body of specific heat capacity ¢ and mass m, where At = ta brn Thus, as per the principle of calorimetry, Q,=-2 m, x6, X At, =-(m, 6, x At) Heat transfer between the two bodies continues until both the bodies attain the same temperature. Thus, to determine the equilibrium temperature of a system of two bodies, we must know the masses, initial temperatures, and specific heat capacities of both the bodies. In the solid phase (ice), water molecules have very little energy. The molecules are held closely together in a regular pattern. When ice is heated, the kinetic energy of the molecules increases, enabling the water molecules to ‘overcome the intermolecular forces that hold them together and move apart, forming liquid water. This is why liquid water has the te ‘ to flow—liquid water molecules have a degree of freedom than solid water When the molecules are heated further, liquid water gets converted into water vapour, which isa gas. Particles have more energy than both liquid and solid particles. Also, the average distance atoms/molecules is much larger than the size of the atoms/molecules themselves. Therefore, the: forces between the particles are very weak due to the large distances between them. fs he Solid Liquid Gasee Hest energy taken from environment Liquid Melting Vaporisation @ 4 ‘ re 3 Ces g Freezing Condensation . 3 An object absorbs heat energy when transforming to a state in which the molecules have a higher average Kinetic energy ond gives out energy when transforming to state in which the molecules have a lower venga kinetic energy. a ‘The ice in the beaker is undergoing a phase change, ie. the ice is melting into liquid water. ‘During this process, the heat energy supplied is used to break the bonds between the _ Molecules of the substance. Since this heat allows the molecules to move farther apart by a “Overcoming the intermolecular forces of attraction, and thus increasing potential energy of kinetic energy of the particles in the process, there is no change in temperature “until the phase change is complete. ;while itis true that water exists in different states at different temperatures, it can also exist in 8 at the same temperature. At 100°C, water can exist in the gaseous phase and the liquid p 62 the temperature will not change until the phase change is complete,loe + Water A substance requires a different amount of energy to transform from the solid state to the liquid state than to transform from the liquid state to the gaseous state. Thus, even forthe same material, the amount of heat consumed (or released) varies from phase to phase. wean Reece) te he temperature Gf the substance Cen In order to determine whether ice or water cools the soda better, we have to determine the which the mixtures of ice and soda, and water and soda attain thermal equilibrium. Letus start with the ice. ‘Now, let's look at the water has on the soda, Q., = Heat gained for phase change of ice to water + Heat gained for temperature change of liquid water from 0°C to final équlibrium temperature (t) Q =m L+m_, x C4 X At Q., = 0.01 kg x 334000 J/kg + 0.01 kg x 4200J/kg °C x (t,-0)°C = Thus, Q., = (3340 + 421) J Q,.. = Heat lost for temperature change of soda from 20°C to {nal equilibrium temperature (t) 9.2, = 0.25 kg x 4200 J/kg °C x (t,-20)°C Thus, 0... = (-21000 + 10601) J According to the principle of thermal equilibrium, Q=-9 hose $40 + 424 = (-21000 +. 1050t) SoWing for fs 160 rcoda, it melts from ice at 0 °C to water at 0 °C. This phase change € amount of heat from the soda, ie. the latent heat. Water does not require use it does not undergo a phase change. Thus, itis clear that the ice cools the py e than the water does. UAH cae mau) per ure a ae mere For J a completely filled vessel can exory eens | "i nelting point of ice decreases by up to -22 °C. © Citi - Melting point is the temperature of a solid at which When a substance is heated to its melting point, th of the substance any more. Instead, this heat is us Solid to liquid, This heat supplied to a solid at its me! the heat energy required to convert 1g of a solid int it changes its state from solid to liquid at a given pressure, heat added after this point doesn't raise the temperature ed to completely change the phase of the substance from iting point is known as latent heat of fusion. It is definedas to the liquid state at atmospheric pressure. Water at o°C Temperature (c) orc. Freezing point is the temperature of a liquid at which pressure. After a substance:—— '@Ss 10 CBSE Science at too" at 100" Steam rego? Water Water + Steam fo) @ liquid has reached its boiling point does not raise the temperature of the liquid, instead it is used completely to change the Phase of the substance from liquid to gas. This heat supplied to the liquid at its boiling point is known as latent heat of vaporisation. It ‘ is defined as the amount of heat oc Water Heat feduired to convert 1g of a liquid into ato" its gaseous state, we Water+Steam_ 1 f a°)] I RZ % e burg condensation, a substance undergoes transformation from the gaseous state to the fy 'auld state by releasing heat energy known as the latent heat of condensation. Similar to Seporation, tion also occurs at all temperatures between the freezing point and aling point of a liquid, Temperature Water + Steam at100°C Steam at 100°C | / Water+Steam Pe ce enn edearn Change of Phase 966 = Class. 10 CBSE Science it lI droplets. Due to the, ‘a shower, itis broken into many smal po oh is higher leading to an increase in the humidity, i.e, water, ‘of holding more moisture than cold air, having a hot shower increases After you wipe yourself with a water molecules in the air your relatively cold skin (just fikg molecules condense on the surfags cold drink). During condensation, the the gaseous state lose kinetic (heat energy) and get converted ing water droplets. However, the kj energy lost by the water molecules absorbed by your body as heat. Thus 4 can be concluded that condensationisg warming process which is why you fag warm after you have taken a shower. The same phenomenon can also be obseney ~ in your bathroom mirror. The latent heat of snow is relatively large, Similarly, to freeze 1 kg of water, you needi9 approximately 336 kJ/kg. This means that 1 kg extract 336 kJ of energy from it. The of snow requires 336 KJ of energy in order to be in the Nile weighs approximately 300 bil converted to water, This is almost equal to 1/3rd of kg. So, to freeze all the water in it, you the average energy consumed by a household in approximately 1000 trillion J of India per day. Snow requires a large amount of heat approximately the total energy pl in order to melt because of its high latent heat value, by the world’s highest hydroelectric powet So, snow does melt, just not all of it at once. station in 1 day. «88 WW required e tomett a 396 KI extracted to freezemass of ice added 4200. specific heat capaci ity of water is. Specific latent heat Of ice is 336000 J kg. Class 10 CBSE Science 2 The of 1709 lowered to 5°C oo GE and the 67 $3 FE8 all feos Gy: Bs pe Fes ea2 £25 222 e3a Q28 ie 2ss 2B bab 282 18: from one state to another. (roer 380) 1ey~ = poureb yeay ‘ANoWUO|eD F0EL'ZE- = 9, (09 ~§) x .-0, 64 F O0zb x 9.09 WOU} 0, § 4OB—4 01 J8¥EM JO B OL Aa 380] 204M nie 9. (0- §) « 1.9. 84 F 00%b x BH e-OL x IN = 0.9 01.9.0 18 sa1em Jo B WW @BueYo o1 pasinbes Wey ‘MON, rwaee = 84 (000988 x B4 «OL x W= 2.0.18 491eM jo 6 01.5, 0.18 891 Jo 6 -y @BUeYO O1 pauinbas yeoy were] oY, 54 -0L x W = 6 W = pappe 201 jo ssew 043 107 0, ¢ = euNIXIW a4} Jo eIMe:edusE) jeUY oy, 9. 05 = s01em jo eumeredwey jenuy 01 X OL! = 8041 = s01emJo s8eyy ‘wyLUEND Zz soseasouy