29 UNIT=I 2.1 ARISTOTLE’S: POETICS Introduction Aristotle was born in 384 B.C. at a place called Stagirus in Macedonia. He was a member of Plato’s Academy and trained himself there. After Plato’s death, Aristotle was nominated by King Philip as tutor to Alexander, the great, who was just fourteen years old at that time. Aristotle taught political science and literature to Alexander. In 338 B.C. Aristotle founded his school, the Lyceum, and trained his disciples there. He made a study of politics, literature, history, natural science and biology. Aristotle married Pythias and his conjugal life had its own turmoils, for Aristotle had a mistress, Herpyllis. He held strong views on God, government, education, democracy, religion and so on. Some of his views were highly controversial and for example, he considered that God is indifferent to the sufferings of man and hence his dissatisfaction with him. However, Aristotle held virtue and morals as supreme ideals in the life of an individual. Dialogues, On Monarchy, Rhetoric and Metaphysics are some of the popular works of Aristotle, in addition to Poetics, but many of his works have disappeared with the passing of time, and they are not retrieved till date. Poetics is a literary treatise, which has got twenty-six chapters and Aristotle discusses in it the art of writing poetry which includes drama also. Chapter - 1 2.1.1 Imitation, the Basic Virtue of All Arts According to Aristotle, imitation is the basic virtue of all fine arts. It is called “mimesis.” Poetry, comedy, tragedy, dance, music, painting, sculpture and such other branches of fine arts are only imitations. But imitation is not mere “mimicry” or copying of nature. Indeed, it is a real creative endeavour. Music is also imitation, but it has its originality. That is, the musician imitates the emotions and passions of the human soul. The concept of imitation differs from one branch of fine arts to another. It differs in terms of “medium” or “objects” or “manner.” “Medium” is the mode or material through which an artist imitates. Colour, form and sound are the mediums, which an artist could use. Sound is further classified into rhythm, language and harmony. The medium of the painters is colour and the medium of the poet is language and rhythm. Poetry and music have common characteristics. Both of them have rhythm and harmony. The factor that differentiates poetry from music is language. Poetry {including drama) and prose are the branches of literature, but the term, “literature,” was unknown in Aristotle's times. Therefore he calls it “an art without a name.” Aristotle further says that poetry may be written without metre, and even prose can be poetic at times. Having discussed the medium of imitation, Aristotle now turns to an analysis of “objects” of imitation in the ensuing chapter.30 Chapter - II 2.4.2 The Objects of Imitation ‘The “objects” of imitation in the fine arts (that is, in poetry and drama) are men and their actions whether good or bad. A poet may imitate men and present them doing as good, or he may portray their weaknesses and follies so as to mock at them. This is the difference between tragedy and comedy. Tragedy idealizes man and comedy exposes that men are worse than what they really are. Chapter - It 2.4.3 The Manner of Imitation Based on their “manner” of imitation, fine arts differ from one another. Manner of imitation may be classified into three modes. The first may be called the narrative mode in which the poet narrates all incidents and events. The second mode is the mode of dramatic presentation. That is, characters are shown in action. They perform everything, They meet, act in situations, make love, fight with each other etc. The third mode of imitation is a combination of the first and second modes, viz. the narrative mode and the dramatic mode being synthesized. The manner of imitation determines the nature of poetry and it may be epic or dramatic. In an epic poem, the poet narrates the story and also presents it by means of a dialogue involving characters. Homer is a good example, In a dramatic poem, the characters act in situations and develop action Chapter - IV 2.1.4 The Genesis of Poetry In this chapter Aristotle traces the origin and development of poetry. By poetry Aristotle means dramatic poetry. Poetry takes its origin from four factors: 1, Man desires to imitate things in life even as the child imitates the parents. 2, Imitation gives pleasure to man. 3. From imitation man learns and learning gives him pleasure. 4. Man derives pleasure from harmony and rhythm and poetry includes both. Poetry develops from the above four factors. In the process of its development, poetry broke up into two kinds. The first dealt with noble actions of noble personages. Hymns to gods were written in this, way. This further led to the birth of epic poetry. Homer's Mliad and Odyssey are good examples of epic poetry. The development of epic poetry caused the birth of tragedy. The second kind of poetry dealt with the actions of trivial people and this led to the birth of comedy. Homer is a writer par excellence who has excelled both in tragedy and comedy. Iliad and Odyssey are epics of tragic magnitudes whereas; Homer's The Margites is a comic work. Chapter - V Comedy, Epic Poetry and Tragedy Comedy presents characters who are worse than the average. Comic characters are of a lower type, but it does not mean that they lack in morals,34 Aristotle says that comic characters are ridiculous. The ridiculous is “a species of the ugly.” The “species of the ugly” does not cause any pain to others while producing laughter. Epic poetry and Tragedy present serious characters in a grand kind of verse. ‘The characters are better than the average. At the same time, epic poetry differs from tragedy in certain respects: 1. Epic poetry is always in the narrative form. 2. An epic poem is long and there is no fixed time limit for its action. Action spreads over many years. 3. The metre employed in epic poetry is “the heroic,” whereas in tragedy different metres are used in different parts. In his discussion of epic poetry and tragedy, Aristotle does not lay down rigid rules. He concludes the discussion contending that epic poetry is superior to tragedy. All the elements of an epic could be found in tragedy, but all the characteristics of the tragedy need not be there in an epic. Chapter - VI A Discussion of Tragedy ‘A tragedy is the imitation of an action, which is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude, It is written in a language embellished by all decorations such as melody and poetic diction. In a tragedy the story is presented not by means of narration, rather, the characters are placed in action imitating life. The incidents and events arouse pity and fear in (the minds of the readers or) the members of the audience. The emotions of pity and fear and such other emotions create in the audience a sense of pleasure leading to relief, because they (the audience) identify their own feelings with those of the tragic characters. This kind of identification of feelings will produce “Catharsis.” “Catharsis” is purgation of feelings i.e. purification of feelings. Purification of feelings gives artistic pleasure to the audience. As a result, they will have a relief, for they understand that suffering is universal, common to all. Having discussed catharsis, Aristotle now takes up an analysis of a tragedy. A tragedy has got six integral components in it. They are (1) the plot (2) the characters (3) the thoughts (ideas expressed by characters) (4) diction (5) melody and (6) the spectacle (presentation of action against a scenic backdrop). Of these six, the plot of a tragedy is the most important one, says Aristotle. He says that the plot is “the life and soul” of a tragedy. Therefore he makes a detailed discussion of the plot up to the eighteenth chapter. Chapter - VIL Construction of the Plot or Fable In a tragic plot, action should always be complete and whole. A plot should have a beginning, a middle and an end. A beginning has “something else” which follows it (the beginning), but that “something else” does not precede the beginning.32 ‘A tragic story need not commence from the very beginning of the life of the hero or the central character. It can commence even with the latter part of his life. The beginning should be convincing to the reader and there can be no doubts in him as to “why” and “how” action commences in a tragedy. The middle is consequent upon the beginning. The middle will lead action logically to the end. This is what Aristotle calls “a whole” in a tragic plot. The length of a tragedy is the next point, which Aristotle discusses. A tragic story should have enough length to accommodate all incidents. The incidents must be arranged in a proper sequence. At the same time the story should not be too long for the reader to forget the beginning before the climax is reached. A tragic story should be long enough to depict the fall of the hero from a lofty position to misery or death. Chapter - Vill The Tragic Plot and Its Unity Unity of plot in a tragedy cannot be achieved just by having one man alone as its subject. In the life of a hero, there will be many incidents and the dramatist will have to choose only the important ones so that a tragedy can have the element of absolute unity. No event, no incident can be removed from a tragedy without affecting the wholeness of the drama. This is called absolute unity. Chapter - 1x The Difference Between Poetry and History The function of a poet is not merely to describe the events of the past, but also to present what might happen. That is, he has to describe what is probable or possible. The events described in a tragedy should have a touch of reality. Poetry is an imitation of the idea of life. There is a difference between poetry and history, History deals with facts of the past only, whereas poetry presents the ideals of life. History does not focus on the cause and effect of the events of the past. But poetry analyses life and conveys the ideal to man. The poet tells why a thing has happened and how it has happened. This appeals to the emotions of man. A poet is a creator and he is called a “maker” in the Greek language. He is a maker of plots in his verses. He may even borrow the sources for his plots from history and tradition. Though borrowed, by his power of imagination, he “makes” the sources of his plots undergo a change. As a result, the plots emerge anew. It is in this sense, a poet is called a “maker” of plots. Chapter - x Nature of Plots: Simple and Complex Plots are either simple or complex; simple, when the action progresses consistently and uniformly to the denouement at the end. There is no sudden or unexpected change of action in the middle, But in a complex plot unexpected occurrence of events will take place and there will be a sudden change in the direction of progress of action. The protagonist will experience rise and fall in his fortunes and changes cannot be predicted.33 Chapter - XI The Plot and Its Three Parts: Peripety, Anagnorisis and Suffering ‘The three parts of a plot (or a tragedy) are “Peripety, Anagnorisis and Suffering.” A “peripety” is a sudden change and reversal of things in a play. The progress of a hero towards the achievement of his goals may suddenly be arrested and he may suffer a setback. "Anagnorisis” is either discovery or recognition of some fact in the drama, which will hasten action. In the drama, Oedipus Tyrannus, the protagonist, Oedipus discovers his parentage towards the close and this discovery quickens the action. “Peripety” will arouse pity or fear in the minds of the members of the audience and it will serve to bring about the happy or unhappy ending. The third part of a plot is “suffering,” It is the suffering of the protagonist. “Suffering” is the result of the protagonist's deeds or the ways of nature. Murders, tortures, wounds and the like lead to suffering. Chapter - Xi The Components of Tragedy A perfect tragedy has got three major parts such as (1) the Prologue (2) the Episode and (3) the Exode. In addition to them, the chorus is a major component in a tragedy. The chorus is a group of actors (characters) who sing songs to explain or give opinions on the action of a drama. The following are the sequential parts and components of a drama: 1. The Prologue is the first segment of a drama. 2. It is followed by the parole, which is the entrance song of the chorus. The chorus every now and then, enter and sing songs commenting on the characters and events. 3. The Episode consists of incidents presented between two choric songs. The Episode is like a pack of incidents, which takes place in every act of a modern drama. 4. The Stasimon is a choric song presented in the middle of a tragedy. 5. The Commos is a lamentation song sung by the chorus and actors together. 6. The Exode is all that follows after the last choral song. Chapter - XIII The Perfect Plot of a Tragedy and the Ideal Tragic Hero ‘The finest form of a tragic drama is its plot. The plot of a tragedy would be complex. A tragedy should arouse pity and fear, and to create such feelings, three types of plot are to be avoided. (1) A good man should not be shown to fall from happiness to misery. (2) Similarly a bad man should not be shown rising from misery to happiness. (3) An extremely bad man must not be seen falling from happiness into misery. Such a story (the third example) may arouse human feelings in us, but it will not create pity or fear. Aristotle says that a villain or a pre-eminently perfect and just man cannot be made the hero of a tragedy. A tragic hero is neither a villain nor a perfect man;34 rather he is of mediocre type. He is like any other man with his weaknesses and a little bit of bad traits. Surely for such a man, the audience will develop pity and fear, for he is like one among them. A tragic hero will suffer owing to his misfortunes and the misfortunes are wrought by his own deeds. He does not have a moral weakness, but suffers due to error of judgement or miscalculation. Aristotle calls this "hamartia" in a tragic hero. The perfect plot, according to Aristotle, must have a single and not a double issue. That is, it should concentrate on the misfortunes of the hero only. It cannot focus on the dual issues of joy for the good people and suffering for the bad people. A dual issue-plot cannot create a pleasure appropriate to tragedy. Indeed this kind of pleasure is appropriate to comedy only. Chapter - XIV Spectacle and Tragic Emotions “Spectacle” in a drama means a tragic event being shown. It is always disastrous and will arouse pity and fear in the auditors. Oedipus’ eyes are torn out and this creates, no doubt, pity and fear. However this kind of spectacle will not create "real tragic pleasure" in the audience. The audience can derive tragic pleasure even without a spectacle. Mere reading of a drama itself will create tragic pleasure. The right arrangement of incidents and the structure of the plot will arouse pity and fear in the audience. When a man kills his enemy, there is nothing to move us to pity. Surely, the pain of the victim is understood, but the intensity of feeling is not great. But when the tragic deed is done within the family, pity and fear are greater. A man kills his brother, or a son kills his father, or a mother kills her son--such are the situations a writer of tragedy should seek after. Similarly a misdeed committed in ignorance will be tragic and it will cause pity and fear. That is, a man unwillingly kills his father, and when he “discovers” that the murdered is really his father, his grief is, the greater. This will startle the audience and pity and fear in such a situation will be great, Chapter - XV Characterization As far as characters in a tragedy are concerned, there are four points to be considered. 1. First and foremost, that the characters must be good. A character, through words and deeds, should prove that he has a good purpose in life. When he speaks, his speech should reveal a moral purpose. Even women and slaves should be projected as worthy beings. In Greece, in olden days, women were considered inferior to men and slaves were treated as worthless creatures. It is not good to introduce wicked characters in a tragedy. A playwright can introduce wicked characters when they are an absolute necessity in the plot. 2. The second point is that characters should be made appropriate in a tragedy. A character is appropriate when he conducts himself/herself suitable to his/her nature. A woman should be essentially feminine and she should not behave35 like a man, Similarly a slave is a slave and he should not behave like a noble. This is the appropriateness of character in a tragedy. 3. Characters should be true to life. They have all the traits of human character, which a man has had in real life: vices, virtues, joy, sorrow ete. Only such a character can be appreciated, because the members of the audience feel that the character is one among them. 4. The fourth point is that a tragedy-writer should make the characters consistent throughout. There should not be any change in their nature and behaviour. An angry character is angry throughout the drama. At the same time, an inconsistent character may be presented in a tragedy. An inconsistent character is a character who changes his/her nature, viz., from good to bad and again to good. But an inconsistent character should be consistent in his inconsistency. In addition to the above four factors of characterization, Aristotle says that the endeavours of a character should always be probable and natural. When a character does something, "it shall be the probable or necessary outcome of his character.” He should not contradict himself in his words and deeds. His action should be consistent with his past actions. Towards the end of the chapter, Aristotle, from a discussion of characterization, digresses to speak on denouement. The denouement is a natural outcome of the events and incidents presented in a drama. The denouement presents a resolution and it is always natural. On the other hand, when the denouement is introduced unnaturally and suddenly, drama becomes weak. Mechanical devices and supernatural elements can be used for presenting past events and foretelling future, but not for bringing about denouement suddenly. A portrait-painter reproduces the distinctive feature of a (model) man in his painting and at the same time, without losing the likeness, he tries to make him (the model- man) handsomer than he is. Likewise, a poet (a dramatist) portrays characters with their infirmities, and at the same time, the characters are made good, as Agathon and Homer have represented Achilles. Chapter - XVI Anagnorisis-- Discovery or Recognition In the plot of a tragedy, three components are important: “Peripety, Anagnorisis and Suffering.” They have already been explained in the eleventh chapter of Poetics. Since Aristotle considers Anagnorisis as an indispensable factor in the plot of a tragedy, he discusses it further here. " Anagnorisis" is "Discovery" or "Recognition." It is discovery or recognition of some fact in the drama, which hastens action to the catastrophe at the end. There are six kinds of "Discovery or Recognition:" 1. The first kind of "Recognition" is the dramatist's use of signs or marks, which quicken action. The signs may be in the form of scars on the (human) body, They may be congenital or acquired after birth. Sometimes the signs may be external like an insignia or a necklace, which may bring about the discovery. The use of signs or marks is considered less artistic. If at all they are used, they are to36 be used spontaneously. A “discovery” is to be made out of chance and it cannot be a result of thought. 2. Discoveries are, made at will by the poet (dramatist). That is, to bring about denouement in a drama, the dramatist introduces a character or situation or secrecy suddenly at the end. This sudden introduction of a dramatic element is inartistic and will dissipate the interest of the audience. 3. The third type of “discovery” is made through memory. A character's consciousness (memory) is awakened by something seen or heard suddenly. The character remembers suddenly some past event, which lies buried in the subconscious mind and this "Discovery" leads to the conclusion of a drama. 4. The next kind of "Discovery" is born out of reasoning in a character. The character reasons out the incidents or events in a drama and the resolution is discovered. One event is linked up with another in thought process and in this way, the truth is discovered at the end of a drama 5. The fifth type of "Discovery" is based on bad or false reasoning. Aristotle says that at times "false clues" deliberately made in a drama will lead to recognition of truth. A "false" charge levelled against a character will make the character come out with the truth that he has not committed the crime, rather, he will say that he has committed a crime of lesser magnitude. For example, when a thief is “falsely” accused of murder, he will make a confession that he has indulged only in house breaking, but he has not committed any murder and it is the truth. This is one kind of “Discovery” made in a drama to bring about the action to an end. 6. The best of all "Discoveries" in a drama is that which arises only from the incidents and action. This kind of “Discovery” is spontaneous, natural and has got a touch of credibility. The denouement in Oedipus written by Sophocles is a good example of the sixth species of “Discovery.” Chapter - XVII The Three Rules for Construction of Plots While constructing his plots, a poet (a dramatist) should remember three factors: 1, He should visualize the actual scenes of the drama, viz., he should "see" every scene in his imagination. This will help him in removing the unwanted, impossible and the improbable elements from the plot of the drama. By this method, the poet can feel for himself the feelings, emotions and passions of his characters. This will give the drama a strong touch of reality. 2. A poet should even act his story with the very gestures of the characters. This will enable him to use the right kind of language appropriate to the situation, 3. A poet (dramatist) should simplify and reduce the story of his drama to a universal form. He should think about the core or the nucleus of the story, and subsequently, it should be expanded into episodes. While expanding the episodes, a poet should maintain consistency in linking every segment of the drama. There should be a beginning, a middle and an end in a drama.37 Chapter - XVIII Complication, Denouement and Four Distinct Species of Tragedy Every tragedy is in part Complication and in part Denouement. Before the opening scene of a drama many incidents would have taken place in the life of the protagonist. They are presented through a report or flashback. Action commences only in the middle of the life of the protagonist. Such incidents, which are supposed to have taken place before the opening scene are called Complication. Denouement is again incidents in a drama, which are presented successively from the beginning until the catastrophe or the resolution at the end. In the Aristotelian sense, denouement has a duality of meaning. It is a series of incidents in a drama; also, it is the end of a story when everything comes out right. A dramatist will have to evolve a good complication and right Denouement. ‘There are four distinct species of Tragedy: (1) The complete tragedy in which "Peripety” and "Anagnorisis’ are rightly handled (2) The tragedy of suffering in which painful events like death, injuries, wounds are presented (3) The tragedy of character in which a tragic flaw in the protagonist is responsible for his fall and it is revealed through his speeches (4) The tragedy of "Spectacle" in which a tragic event is shown which arouses pity and fear in the auditors, A tragedy is different from an epic and a writer should not write a tragedy on an epic body of incidents. The entire story of Homer's Iliad cannot be dramatized. In an epic poem, the scope is high and therefore, the poet can treat every part at proper length. In a drama, the scope is low and as a result, the treatment of an epic subject will be disappointing. In a tragedy the chorus is an integral part and the poet should consider the chorus as one of the actors. The chorus should partake of the action in the drama and the plays of Sophocles are a good example of it. Chapter - XIX Thought in Tragedy ‘The next aspect Aristotle takes up for analysis is thought in a tragedy. A character presents its thoughts through verbal expressions and interaction. A thought is expressed to prove or disprove something. To convey feelings or emotions like pity, fear, anger etc., a thought is verbally expressed. It is also used to maximize things. Thought and action always vibrate with each other. Thought appears in the form of speeches and speeches should be appropriate both to the characters and situations in a drama, It is the speech, which makes characters respond to each other and this promotes action. The narrative or rhetoric in a drama is determined by the quality of the characters’ speeches. On the whole, the thought and speeches of characters in a drama determine the artistic impact on the audience. Chapter - XX Diction in Tragedy Diction is the choice of words used either in speech or writing. Diction includes the alphabets, the syllable, the conjunction, the article, the noun, the verb, the case and the speech.38 Chapter - XxI Diction (Continued) ‘There are two kinds of words: (a) simple words and (b) double or compound words. It is also possible to have triple, quadruple or multiple compounds. Chapter — XXII Diction (Continued) Diction may be divided into six categories: (1) words used in ordinary speech (2) foreign words borrowed from other languages (3) metaphorical words like the "bloody sun,” "copper sky" etc. (4) omamental expressions like “decked in gold” (5) new coinages and (6) words not new but slightly modified, eg., spake for spoke. Aristotle contends that compound words may be used in lyrics, strange words in heroic and metaphors in iambic poetry. Heroic (epic) poetry, indeed, may avail itself of them all, Chapter — XXIII Epic Poetry: An Assessment After discussing plot, character, language, thought, style, diction and such other aspects of a tragedy, Aristotle now turns to analyse the epic. While a tragedy presents a story through imitation of human action, an epic poem narrates a story in versified language. An epic poem does not imitate human action. However, in many respects, an epic poem and a tragedy resemble each other. As in a tragedy, in an epic poem, the poet should maintain unity of the story, and this is the prime criterion of it. It should be based on a single action, one that is a complete whole in itself. It should have a beginning, a middle and an end. An epic poem will deal with events belonging to several periods. It deals with the lives of many persons and the career of one person will not be enough for its story and action. Chapter - xxIV 2.1.5 A Comparison between Epic and Tragedy Aristotle now focusses on a comparison between an epic poem and a tragedy. ‘An epic poem is as varied as a tragedy. It may be simple or complex. The story may be based on a character or the suffering of someone else. A tragedy depends on "spectacle," an incident, but an epic poem is not so. Similarly, the chorus is indispensable in a tragedy, but in an epic poem, the chorus is absent. Barring "spectacle" and the chorus, all other characteristics are alike. An epic poem is longer than a tragedy. Incidents and events may be presented in an epic as occurring at different places simultaneously, but this is not possible in a tragedy while being enacted on the stage. This method of simultaneous presentation of action enriches the reader's poetic experience and gives a variety in taste and interest. An epic poet can introduce miracles, marvels and wonders in his poem, but the same cannot be shown on the stage. The essential difference between an epic poem and a tragedy lies in the use of metre. Metre enriches the readers’ experience, but a tragedy is devoid of it. The heroic is most suitable for an epic poem. The39 iambic and trochaic are metres of movement. The first one represents the movement of life and action and the other stands for the movement of dance. Nature itself has given the heroic as the most appropriate metre to epic poetry. Aristotle projects Homer as an ideal epic poet. As an epic poet, Homer has perfectly performed his role in his two epic poems. An epic poet should not interfere in the course of the narrative of his poem. He should say anything in "propria persona," and if at all he wants to say, he should say it in other forms of poetry. The marvellous (the improbable) is more required in a tragedy than in an epic poem, Homer uses the improbable, but he makes it look probable and meaningful and as a result, the reader is convinced of it. "A likely impossibility is always preferable to an unconvincing possibility.” ‘The success of an epic poem depends on the illusion presented convincingly. There may be a fallacy, but it should be presented logically. Acceptance of illusion as a reality is the basis for the success of an epic poem. The use of the improbable and the irrational has to be avoided in an epic poem, and if there is a need for it, it should be minimized. An epic poet will have to use elaborate and ornate diction with dexterity. Indeed an ornate diction will obscure thought or character in an epic. Chapter - XxV Aristotle's Response to Critic’s Questions In this chapter, Aristotle answers the questions (objections) raised by critics in regard to the creation and nature of a work of art. Critics say that there are five kinds of faults in a work of art: (1) impossibility (2) irrationality or improbability (3) immorality (4) contradiction and (5) technical correctness. Aristotle answers them one by one. Impossibility: no doubt, a poet should avoid it as much as possible. But at times the impossibility will have to be allowed to some extent in a work. Aristotle cites the example of Hector being pursued by Achilles in Homer's poem. This is the "impossible" and the "marvellous and it can be allowed in poetry. But when it is shown on the stage in a drama, it will look ridiculous. A poet uses some impossibilities spontaneously and not deliberately. Such things may be allowed. For example, a poet can introduce a satyr (an animal which is half-goat and half-man) spontaneously to add beauty to his poem and it will not have a touch of impossibility. Impossibilities can be allowed for character revelation in a poem. Sophocles has exploited impossibilities for character portrayal Irrationality: this cannot be accepted in poetry. However it is a question of appreciating poetic beauty. What is irrational in one age becomes rational in another age and therefore irrationality in poetry can be allowed to some extent. Homer describes in Iliad that the Greek soldiers hold their spears "upright butt-end upon the ground.” This practice seemed to be irrational in the later ages, but in Homer's times this was considered right. What is irrational to posterity need not be considered seriously.40 Immorality: an act of immorality will have to be considered with reference to the situation in which it is committed. When a person commits a misdeed to attain a greater good or to avoid a greater evil, immorality can be allowed. Killing is a sin. but when a soldier kills an enemy in the battlefield, it is not immorality. Contradiction: this cannot, no doubt, be allowed in a work of art. If a passage with a contradiction appears, critics should look at various interpretations of the passage and choose the best explanation, which will be close to the probable in the passage. Instead of finding fault, a critic can look at the poetic beauty in a work. ‘Technical Correctness: a writer will have to maintain this as much as possible. A metaphor or a strange word is sometimes used out of the necessities of poetic art. Ambiguous poetic syntaxes may be resolved by checking the punctuation. Poetic licence, at times, may be allowed. Chapter - XXVI The Superiority of Tragedy over Epic A tragedy, in every sense, is superior to an epic poem. It has had all the elements one could find in an epic poem. Besides, there is music; also, there is a spectacle, In terms of length, a tragedy is shorter than an epic poem and therefore, there is better scope for concentration on every artistic aspect. The emotional and artistic effects a tragedy makes on the audience are always strong. Since a tragedy is shorter in length, it has greater unity. Pity and fear can best be aroused in human persons only by a tragedy. Therefore a tragedy is always superior to an epic poem, For a better understanding of Aristotle, and to help the students from the examination point of view, a few topics representing the core ideas of Poetics are discussed hereunder. Topic -1 2.1.6 Aristotle's Concept of Tragedy Introduction Aristotle's Poetics is a landmark in the realm of literary criticism. He was one of the earliest critics to discuss the principles of tragedy. Tragedy was developed in the Greek language even before Aristotle. The Greek concept of tragedy was different from the concept of tragedy of modern times. The term tragedy originally meant "a goat song." In Greece, in those days, contests of drama were held, and on such occasions, the writers of best dramas were awarded goats. Hence tragedies were called "goat songs.” In the modern times, a tragedy is a story with a sad ending, but the Greek tragedies were serious in tone, and at the same time, a few of them had happy endings also. ‘The Greek language was much developed even before Homer, and poets wrote poetry glorifying the greatness of Greek gods and goddesses. In due course of time from this (poetry) was born Heroic or Epic poetry. Homer was the first to write epic poems in the Greek language. Owing to transit of time and change in the attitude ofa4 writers, Tragedy was born from Epic poetry. Epic poetry was meant for recital, whereas Tragedy was intended for enactment on the stage. Aristotle's Definition of Tragedy Aristotle defines Tragedy as follows: “Tragedy is the imitation of action, serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude, in a language beautified in different parts with different kinds of embellishment, through action and not narration, and through scenes of pity and fear bringing about the catharsis of those (or such like) emotions.” The definition identifies three factors. First, a tragedy is the imitation of serious action and therefore it cannot be a story with a happy ending. Secondly, it is different from epic poetry, because imitation of human life is made through action and not narration. Thirdly, it has to evoke pity and fear in the audience and bring about catharsis. Catharsis is purgation of feelings, purification of feelings. It is an aristic impact made on the audience by a tragedy when it is performed on the stage. The Plot The most important factor in a tragedy is its plot. In a tragic plot, action should always be complete and whole. A plot should have a beginning, a middle and an end. A beginning has "something else” which follows it, but that "something else” does not precede the beginning. A tragic story need not commence from the very beginning of the life of the hero or the central character. It can commence even in the later part of his life. The beginning should be convincing to the reader and there can be no doubts in him as to "why" and "how" action commences in a tragedy. The middle is consequent upon the beginning. The middle will lead action logically to the end. This is what Aristotle calls "a whole" in a tragic plot. A tragic story (the plot) should have enough length to accommodate all incidents. The incidents must be arranged in a proper sequence. At the same time, the plot cannot be too long to make the reader forget the beginning before the climax is reached. A tragic plot should not be long enough to present the fall of the hero from a lofty position to misery or death (for a further discussion of this, refer to the essay entitled "The Plot of Tragedy’). Characterization Aristotle says that a villain or a pre-eminently perfect and just man cannot be made the hero of a tragedy. A tragic hero is neither a bad villain, nor a perfect man, rather he is of mediocre type. He is like any other man with his weaknesses and a little bit of bad traits. Surely for such a man the members of the audience will develop pity and fear within, for they feel that he is one among them. A tragic hero will suffer owing to his misfortunes and the misfortunes are wrought by his own deeds. A tragic hero does not have a moral weakness. On the other hand, he suffers due to an error of judgement or miscalculation. Aristotle calls it "hamartia’ in a tragic hero. A tragic hero hails from the elite class in a society and the fall of such a man will arouse a great amount of pity and fear which normally cannot be aroused42 by the fall of an ordinary man belonging to the lower segment of the society (for a further discussion of this, refer to the essay entitled Characterization’). Cathar: Catharsis means purgation of feelings. It is purification of feelings wrought by a tragedy in the minds of the auditors. The incidents and events in a tragedy arouse pity and fear in the audience, Pity, fear and such other emotions create in the auditors a sense of pleasure leading to relief, because they (the audience) identity their own feelings with those of the tragic characters. This kind of identification of feelings will produce "catharsis." "Catharsis,” purification of feelings, will cause artistic pleasure in the audience. As a result, the members of the audience will have a relief, for they understand that suffering is universal, common to all. The Three Unities For the success of a tragedy, a dramatist will have to follow the three unities as stipulated by Aristotle. The three unities, Aristotle contend, will impart to a tragedy an air of credence. The three unities are the unities of time, place and action. Of the three, the unity of action is the most important one, according to Aristotle. A tragedy may have any number of incidents, but they must be rightly linked with each other, and they should develop the action to the resolution or denouement at the end. The plot of a tragedy should have a beginning, a middle and an end. If the development of the conflict in a tragedy is consistent, it (the tragedy) may be said to have had the unity of action. The concept of the unity of time implies that action in a tragedy should take place in one day, and it is usually from sunrise to sunset. If the time limit is exceeded, then the artistic effect of a tragedy will be spoiled, and there will not be any element of credibility in the story. Action taking place over a long period (many years) may be reported by the chorus, if necessary. The concept of the unity of place signifies that action in a tragedy should take place in one locale only, and it cannot be shifted to another place, lest it should spoil the artistic effect of a tragedy. Critics claim that Aristotle stipulates only the unity of action and the remaining two unities are appendages attributed to him by critics who appeared after the Renaissance. Conclusion Aristotle's concept of tragedy is something unique, and in fact, his contribution to literary criticism, especially to criticism of drama, is unprecedented. In the days of Aristotle, poetry and drama were not delinked as in the modern times, and therefore, while perusing Poetics readers may develop a sort of ambiguity, unable to see a difference between what Aristotle says about tragedy and what he says about poetry. There is not much of a difference between the two. In a tragedy, plot and characters are the most important elements, and in addition to them, catharsis and the three unities are the two major factors contributory to the success of a tragedy.43, Topic - Il 2.4.7 The Plot of Tragedy Introduction ‘The most important element in a tragedy is its plot. In a tragic plot, action should always be complete and whole. A plot should have a beginning, a middle and an end. A beginning has "something else” which follows it, but that "something else” does not precede the beginning. A tragic story need not commence from the very beginning of the life of the hero or the central character. It can commence even in the later part of his life. The beginning should be convincing to the reader and there can be no doubts in aim as to ‘why’ and "how" action commences in a tragedy. The middle is consequent upon the beginning. The middle will lead action logically to the end. This is what Aristotle calls "a whole” in a tragic plot. ‘The length of a tragedy is the next point, which Aristotle discusses. A tragic story should have enough length to accommodate all incidents. The incidents must be arranged in a proper sequence. At the same time the story cannot be too long so that the reader will not forget the beginning before the climax is presented at the end. A tragic story should be long enough to present the fall of the hero from a lofty position to misery or death. The Unity of a Plot Unity of plot in a tragedy cannot be achieved just by having one man alone as its subject (character). In the life a hero, there will be many incidents and the dramatist will have to choose only the important ones, so that a tragedy can have the element of absolute unity. No event, no incident can be removed from a tragedy without affecting the wholeness of the drama. This is called absolute unity. The Nature of a Plot: Simple and Complex ‘The plot of a tragedy is either simple or complex. It is simple when the action progresses consequently and uniformly to the denouement at the end. There is no sudden change of action in the middle. There is no unexpected turn of events. But in a complex plot unexpected occurrence of events will take place and there will be a sudden change in the direction of progress of action. The protagonist will experience rise and fall in his fortunes, and changes cannot be predicted. The Three Components of a Plot The three parts of the plot of a tragedy are "peripety, anagnorisis and suffering.” A "peripety” is a sudden change and reversal of things in a play. The progress of a hero towards the achievement of his goals may suddenly be arrested and he may suffer a setback. "Anagnorisis" is either discovery or recognition of some fact in the drama, which will hasten action. In the drama, Oedipus Tyrannus, the protagonist, Oedipus discovers his parentage towards the close and this discovery quickens the action. "Peripety” will arouse pity or fear in the minds of the members of the audience and it will serve to bring about the happy or unhappy ending. The third part of a plot is "suffering," It is the suffering of the protagonist.44 "Suffering’ is the result of the protagonist's deeds or the ways of nature. Murders, tortures, wounds and the like lead to suffering, The Three Parts of a Plot ‘A perfect tragedy has got three major parts such as (1) the Prologue (2) the Episode and (3) the Exode. In addition to them, the chorus is a major component in a tragedy. The chorus is a group of actors (characters) who sing songs to explain or comment on the action of a drama. The following are the sequential parts and components of a drama: ‘The Prologue is the first segment of a drama. It is followed by the Parole, which is the entrance song of the chorus. The chorus every now and then, enter and sing songs commenting on the characters and events, 1. The Episode consists of incidents presented between two choric songs. The Episode is like a series of incidents, which take place in every act of a modern drama. The Stasimon is a choric song presented in the middle of a tragedy. ‘The Commos is a lamentation song sung by the chorus and actors together. ‘The Exode is all that follows after the last choral song. Spectacle and Tragic Emotions "Spectacle" in a drama means a tragic event being shown. It is always disastrous and will arouse pity and fear in the auditors. Oedipus' eyes are torn out and this creates, no doubt, pity and fear. However this kind of spectacle will not cause "real tragic pleasure” to the audience. The audience can derive tragic pleasure even without a spectacle. Mere reading of a drama itself will create tragic pleasure. The right arrangement of incidents and the structure of the plot will arouse pity and fear in the audience. When a man kills his enemy, there is nothing to move us to pity. Surely, the pain of the victim is understood, but the intensity of feeling is not great. But when the tragic deed is done within the family, pity and fear are greater. A man kills his brother, or a son kills his father, or a mother kills her son--such are the situations a writer of tragedy should seek after. Similarly a misdeed committed in ignorance will be tragic and the revelation of the misdeed will cause pity and fear. That is, a man unwittingly kills his father, and when he "discovers" that the murdered is really his father, his grief turns greater. This will startle the audience and pity and fear in such a situation will be great. Anagnorisis -- Discovery or Recognition In the plot of a tragedy, three components are important: "periphery, anagnorisis and suffering.” They have already been explained in the eleventh chapter of Poetics. Since Aristotle considers anagnorisis as an indispensable factor in the plot of a tragedy, he discusses it further here. "Anagnorisis" is “Discovery” or45 "Recognition." It is discovery or recognition of some fact in the drama, which hastens action to the catastrophe at the end. There are six kinds of "Discovery” or “Recognition:” 1. The first kind of "Recognition" is the dramatist's use of signs or marks, which quicken action. The signs may be in the form of scars on the (human) body, ‘They may be congenital or acquired after birth. Sometimes the signs may be external like an insignia or a necklace, which may bring about the discovery. The use of signs or marks is considered less artistic. If at all they are used, they are to be used spontaneously. A “discovery” is to be made out of chance and it cannot be a result of thought. 2. Discoveries are made at will by the poet (dramatist). That is, to bring about denouement in a drama, the dramatist introduces a character or a situation or secrecy suddenly at the end. This sudden introduction of a dramatic element is inartistic and will dissipate the interest of the audience. 3. The third type of "Discovery" is made through memory. A character's consciousness (memory) is awakened by something seen or heard suddenly. The character remembers suddenly some past event, which lies buried in the subconscious mind, and this "Discovery" leads to the conclusion of a drama. 4. The next kind of "Discovery" is born out of reasoning in a character. The character reasons out the incidents or events in a drama and the resolution is discovered. One event is linked up with another in thought process and in this way, the truth is discovered at the end of a drama. 5. The fifth type of "Discovery" is based on bad or false reasoning. Aristotle says that, at times, “false clues,” deliberately made in a drama, will lead to recognition of truth. A "false" charge levelled against a character will make the character come out with the truth that he has not committed the crime, rather, he will say that he has committed a crime of lesser magnitude. For example, when a thief is “falsely” accused of murder, he will make a confession that he has indulged only in house breaking, but he has not committed any murder and it is the truth, This is one kind of “Discovery” made in a drama to bring about the action to an end. 6. The best of all "Discoveries" in a drama is that which arises from the incidents and action only. Denouement can be brought about by one incident. This kind of “Discovery” is spontaneous, natural and has got a touch of credibility. The denouement in Oedipus written by Sophocles is a good example of the sixth species of "Discovery." The Three Rules for the Construction of a Plot While constructing the plot of a tragedy, a poet (a dramatist) should remember three factors: 1, He should visualize the actual scenes of the drama, viz, he should "se every scene in his imagination. This will help him in removing the unwanted,46 impossible and the improbable elements from the plot of the drama. By this method, the poet can feel for himself the feelings, emotions and passions of his characters. This will give the drama a strong touch of reality. 2. A poet should even act his story with the very gestures of the characters. This will enable him how to use the right kind of language appropriate to the situation. 3. A poet (dramatist) should simplify and reduce the story of his drama to a universal form. He should think about the core or the nucleus of the story, and subsequently, it should be expanded into episodes. While expanding the episodes, a poet should maintain consistency in linking every segment of the drama. There should be a beginning, a middle and an end in a drama. Conclusion Aristotle, in his Poetics, makes a lengthy discussion of the plot of a tragedy, and as a result, this essay, in the study material, has grown a little longer than the rest of the essays, It is all owing to Aristotle's lopsidedness in his discussion of the various elements of a tragedy. Of all the aspects of a tragedy, it is the discussion of the plot, which is dominating the rest in Poetics. Topic - III Characterization in Tragedy Introduction In a tragedy, next to plot, characterization is the most important element responsible for its success, according to Aristotle. A character should be good and he should have a motive in life. He should behave like others having no abnormality about him. His behaviour should be appropriate to his disposition of mind. His conduct should be convincing to the members of the audience and they should be able to identify themselves with him, In the development of a character in a tragedy, there cannot be any inconsistency. That is, all of a sudden, a character cannot be made great nor can he be degraded. A poet (dramatist) will have to keep in mind these aspects while creating his characters. Four Factors of Characterization As far as characters in a tragedy are concerned, there are four points to be considered: 1. First and foremost, that a character must be good. A character, through words and deeds, should prove that he/she has a good purpose in life. When he / she speaks, his/her speech should reveal a moral purpose. Even women and slaves should be projected as worthy beings. In Greece, in olden days, women were considered inferior to men and slaves were treated as worthless creatures. It is not good to introduce wicked characters in a tragedy. A playwright can introduce wicked characters when they are an absolute necessity in the plot. 2. The second point is that characters should be made appropriate in a tragedy. A character is appropriate when he/she conducts himself/herself suitable47 to his/her nature. A woman should be essentially feminine and she should not behave like a man. Similarly a slave is a slave and he should not behave like a noble. This is the appropriateness of character in a tragedy. 3. Characters should be true to life. They have all the traits of human character, which a man has had in real life: vices, virtues. joys, sorrows etc., Only such a character can be appreciated, because the members of the audience feel that the character is one among them. 4. The fourth point is that a tragedy-writer should make the character consistent throughout. There should not be any change in their nature and behaviour. An angry character is angry throughout the drama. At the same time, an inconsistent character may be presented in a tragedy. An inconsistent character is a character who changes his nature, viz. from good to bad and again to good. But an inconsistent character should be consistent in his inconsistency. Endeavours of a Character In addition to the above four factors of characterization, Aristotle further says that the endeavours of a character should always be probable and natural. When a character does something, "it shall be the probable or necessary outcome of his character.” He should not contradict himself in his words and deeds. His action should be consistent with his past actions. A poet will have to treat his characters in such a way as to make the auditors feel natural and normal. The auditors will develop a sense of oneness with the characters, if the characters do not behave abnormally. Hamartia Aristotle says that a villain or a pre-eminently perfect and just man cannot be made the hero of a tragedy. A tragic hero is neither a villain nor a perfect man rather he is of mediocre type. He is like any other man with his weaknesses and a little bit of bad traits. Surely for such a man, the members of the audience will develop pity and fear within, for they feel that he is one among them. A tragic hero will suffer owing to his misfortunes and the misfortunes are wrought by his own deeds. A tragic hero does not have a moral weakness. On the other hand, he suffers due to an error of judgement or miscalculation. Aristotle calls this tragic hero. A tragic hero hails from the elite class in a society and the fall of such a man will arouse a great amount of pity and fear which normally cannot be aroused by the fall of an ordinary man belonging to the lower segment of the society, amartia" in a Conclusion Aristotle's discussion of characterization is convincing, for his aim of art is based on reality. A dramatist gives a picture of illusion in his plays and the success of the plays depends on the credibility of illusion. An illusion is only an illusion, the members of the audience know, but an illusion turns artistic when it is almost real- like. Hence the right and effective treatment of characters. For right treatment of, characters in a tragedy, Aristotle's stipulations are appropriate.48. Topic - IV Epic Poetry and Tragedy Introduction In the structure of Poetics, Aristotle's discussion of epic poetry is slender, and it appears only towards the close of the critical treatise. Aristotle analyses epic poetry in comparison with tragedy, because there is a reason for it. In Aristotle's days or even before him, epic poetry was meant for recital only on festive occasions, whereas, tragedy was intended for enactment on the stage. Quite naturally, a tragic play was the most sought after form of art, and therefore, tragedy gained more importance than epic poetry. In view of this, Aristotle has devoted more space to a discussion of tragedy. Also, he establishes that tragedy is superior to epic poetry. Epic Poetry: An Assessment ‘A tragedy presents a story through imitation of human action, whereas, an epic poem narrates a story in versified language. An epic poem does not imitate human action like a tragedy. However, in many respects, an epic poem and a tragedy resemble each other. As in a tragedy, in an epic poem, the poet should maintain unity of the story, and this is the prime criterion of it. It should be based on a single action, one that is a complete whole in itself. It should have a beginning, a middle and an end. An epic poem will deal with events belonging to several periods. It deals with the lives of many persons and the career of one person will not to be enough for its story and action. ‘A Comparison between Epic Poetry and Tragedy Aristotle now focuses on a comparison between an epic poem and a tragedy. ‘An epic poem is as varied as a tragedy. It may be simple or complex. The story may be based on a character or the sufferings of someone else. A tragedy depends on “spectacle,” an incident, but an epic poem is not so. Similarly, the chorus is indispensable in a tragedy, but in an epic poem, the chorus is absent. Barring "spectacle" and the chorus, all other characteristics are alike. An epic poem is longer than a tragedy. Incidents and events may be presented in an epic poem as occurring at different places simultaneously, but this is not possible in a tragedy while being enacted on the stage. This method of simultaneous presentation of action enriches the reader's poetic experience and gives a variety of taste and interest. An epic poet can introduce miracles, marvels and wonders in his poem, but the same cannot be shown on the stage. The essential difference between an epic poem and a tragedy is the use of metre. Metre enriches the reader's experience, but a tragedy is devoid of it. Metre other than the heroic will not be suitable for an epic poem, The iambic and trochaic are metres of movement. The first one represents the movement of life and action and the other stands for the movement of dance. Nature itself has given the heroic as the most appropriate metre to epic poetry. Aristotle projects Homer as an ideal epic poet. As an epic poet, Homer has perfectly performed his role in his two epic poems. An epic poet should not interfere49 in the course of the narrative of his poem. He should not say anything in "propria persona," and if at all he wants to say, he should say very little. Other poets may say anything in other forms of poetry. The marvellous (the improbable) is more required in a tragedy than in an epic poem. Homer uses the improbable, but he makes it look probable and meaningful, and as a result, the reader is convinced of it. "A likely impossibility is always preferable to an unconvincing possibility. The success of an epic poem depends on the illusion presented convincingly, There may be a fallacy, but it should be presented logically. Acceptance of illusion as a reality is the basis for the success of an epic poem. The use of the improbable and the irrational has to be avoided in an epic poem, and if there is a need for it, it should be minimized. An epic poet will have to use elaborate and ornate diction. The Superiority of Tragedy over Epic Poetry A tragedy, in every sense, is superior to an epic poem. It has had all the elements one could find in an epic poem. Besides, there is music; also, there is a spectacle. In terms of length, a tragedy is shorter than an epic poem and therefore, there is better scope for concentration on every artistic aspect. The emotional and artistic effects, a tragedy makes on the audience are always strong. Since a tragedy is shorter in length, it has greater unity. Pity and fear can best be aroused in human persons only by a tragedy. Therefore a tragedy is always superior to an epic poem. . Conclusion In the past epic poetry was written for recital on important social and religious occasions, and a tragedy was enacted on the stage for entertainment. Since a tragic play is action-oriented, in the bygone days, it gained more popularity than the epic. The length of a tragedy (it is shorter than an epic), its music, metre, treatment of a single emotion and the emotional impact it makes on the audience are the elements which make it (a tragedy) more appealing to man than an epic poem. 2.1.8 QUESTIONS Short - Answer Questions 1. Write a short note on Aristotle's concept of “Imitation.” What is the general origin of poetry? Make an analysis of epic poetry. Evaluate Aristotle's views on plot. Explain the three parts of a plot. What are the major components of a tragedy? Examine the concept of ideal tragic hero. Discuss in brief tragic emotions. . Analyse what "anagnorisis’ is, 10. How is tragedy superior to epic poetry? Essay Type Questions 1, Make an evaluation of Aristotle's Poetics. PEN anaen