Cytop team = plaama membsane atfz Necleay membweane & dts pa ot ee ony gw ey y ytepiaam a orf aici rot Protoplay- cett wath gach & ae Se Proloplaama - plarma membaane eek & oe ¥8 we ee sicko cis muscrke frageta © with te Vis » Jains wae ay prendepodk fox Pipa ten Bie at ° a cuteskel Lon, Re a“ [memylomad) (2) © Macrophas< » WEE y ve 7TE Types of Movement Muscle 3 Skeletal System 4 Joints Disorders of Muscular earned Skeletal System Crorrer 17 Nocabon change play eat Locomotion anp Movement. eat Movements one of the, significant features of living beings, Animals and {he unicellular organisms like Amoeba is a stmple form of movernent. Movement of cilia, flagella and tentacles are shown by many organisms. Human beings can move limbs. jaws, eyelids, tongue, ete. Some_of the , movements result in a change of place or location. Such yoliintary_ movements are called locomotion. Walking, running, climbing, flying. swimming are all some forms of locomotory movements. Locomotory structures need not be different fi affecting other types of _Movement xample, ifParamnoecium, cilia hepa ste movement of food through cytopharynx and in locomotion as wel (Fiydra canuse its tentacles for capturing its prey and also usc them for locomotion. We use limbs for changes in body postures and locomotion as well. The above observations suggest that movements and locomotion cannot be studied separately. The two may be linked by stating (hat all locomotions are movements but all movements are not locomioth Methods of locomotion performed by animals vary with their habitats and the demand of the situation. However, locomotion is generally for search of food, shelter, mate, suitable breeding grounds, favourable climatic conditions or to escape from enemles/predators. 17.1 Tyres or MoveMENT Cells of the human body exhibit tht amoeboid, ciliary and muscular. main types of movements, namely,on pehece eect . oo Tere Ee V7, i oni age erat eackes A ATAADany Paw wr rt es Neang unt . aybes AY rere uf eye Some specialised cells in our body Ul nl leuiecicytes yy Gy in blood exhibit amocbold movement, IIs ellected by pseutlopadia formed by the streaming of protoplasm las tn Amoeba). Cytoskeletal elements like microfilaments are also involved In amocholel movement Ciltary movement ge) 4» 40 most of our internal tubular organs which are lined by ciliated epliheiliim. The cbéStindted movements of cilla in the trachea help us In-remoying dust pariieles and some of the forcign fo bleed nacropl substances inhaled alonisvith the almosphericalr, Passage of ova through the female reproductive tract ts also facilitated by the ciliary movement MoQanet Lof our limbs. jaws, tongue, ec, require muscular movement. The contratifle property of muscles are effectively used for locomotion and other movements by human beings and majority of multicellular organisms, Locomotion requires a perfeet coordinated activity of scular, skeletal and neural systems. Inthis-chapter; youwill learn about the types-oF muscles, their structure-mechanisnrof-theircontraction-and ial system. important aspects of the sI 17.2 Muscie You have studied in Chapter 8 that the cilia and flagella are the outgrowths of the cell membranc. Flagellar movement helps in the swimming of ponges_ sed spermatozoa, maintenance of water current in the canal system of spot and in locomotion of Protozoans like Euglena. Muscle is a special: tissue of mesodermal origin, About 40-50 per cent of the body weight of a human adult is contributed by muscles. They have special properties like excitability, contractility, extensibility and elasticity. Muscles have been classified using different criteria, hamely location, appearance and nature of regulation of their activities. Based on their location, three types of muscles are identified : (i) Skeletal (ii) Visceral and (iii) Cardiac, Skeletal muscles are closely associated with the skeletal components of the body. They have a striped appearance under the microscope and hence are called striated muscles. As their activities are under the voluntary control of the nervous system, they are known as voluntary ‘muscles too, They are primarily involved in locomotory actions and changes of body postures. Visceral muscles are located in the Inner walls of hollow visceral organs of the body like the alimentary canal, reproductive tract, etc. They do not exhibit any striation and are smooth in appearance. Hence, they are called muscles (nonstriated muscle). Their activities are not under the stem and are therefore known as smooth voluntary control of the nervous s nvoluntary muscles. They asstst, for example, in (he transportation of food hrough the digestive tract and gametes through the genttal tract.SKELETAL -Alkached to bone =volunkaw ~Strvabect = ehips Centar) ~ Funcdton— Locomals on ard y Segre Muscle SMOOTH /Visce RAL sin Viac cant ovytn %y Digestive Soptiin 2 Reprocdtc kite oe = Involtun You Non - erred AR! _mt -3h ~ nyprosared eran geo dere Peel Nisd Aw Nita at rere GeO N (gb 0 oun aire) [5p Ops Dswre\dorres . pulusa| ghaes te SSAyu fruetiires. pearallet (ey Myosin Hoth the proteins are arranged we rod tke Hal nf the myatitirite Actin each other and alse te the Lory laments are thinner as enmpa commonly called Urine and thick fila each ‘TV band isan eladtic fibre called “7 Maments are finily attached tothe -Z line, The thick Marnents in the ‘A’ band are also helel toet her tn the middle of this band by a thin Hbenus membrane called “M line, The ‘A and 'f bands are arranged alternately throughout the lengusaf the yobs The: portinn_of the-rnyonhe between two su ht eens red as the functional unit of SeRRRTEN igure 17.2) Inaresting state. the eciges of thin filaments on either side of the thick laments partially overlap the free ends of the thick filaments leaving the central part of the thick laments. This central part of thick Mament, not overlapped by thin ali flamienta hence are ta then screspetively In the centre of line which biseets fe, The tire Hf (a) anatomy of A Muscle Abre showing Figure 17.2. Disgrammatic representatic a sarcomere (L) a sarconiereMDLTINUCLEATED Cocnocelie suncbion UT nucew divids ure a cat ar pleaser EET cppokincia membrane ant © i ad yore cb otzhyC MYOSIN © Ini = cleukband © Antsctropic hand Aelinsrel ax ah, ea SAS ATE Binelo SeSSe Gag SS tomy a Merompocin + tm sLag nM toes tas ancl Shot un, ACTIN= thin =Lightband = Isotropic band TroponinLacomonon ais Movestia ™ 17.2.1 Structure of Contractile Proteins ee (int Mament is made af nwo F (Hlamentous) actine Helically wound 1 cach other, Bach I actin tsa polymer of monome . (Globular) actins. Two Mlaments af another p tropamyasint also nin close to the F actins throughout ts tength A complex protein p Troponin ts distributed at regular intervals on the trapomyesin In the resting state a subunit of troponin masks the active binding sites for Myosin on the actin Maments (Figure 17.3a). ~ Each myosin (thick) filament is also a palymerised protein. Many Monomeric proteins called Meromyosins (Figure 17.3b) constitute one ® thick flament, Each meromyosin has two tmportant parts, a globular head with a short arm and a tail, the farmer being called the heavy meromyosin (HMM) and the latter, the light meromyosin (LMM). The HMM component, i.c.: the head and short arm projects outwards at regular Troponin ATP binding sites Cross arm (b) “Figure 17.3 (a) An actin (thin) filament (b) Myosin monomer (Meromyosin} 17.2.2 Mechanism of Muscle Contraction Mechanism of muscle contraction is best explained by the slicing filament theory which: states that on ofa muscle fibre takes place by ure ver the thick Mlaments, —Muscle contraction Is initiated by a signal sent by the central nervous system (CNS) vii aor neuron. A motor neuron alongwith the muscle Abres connected to il constitute a motor unit. The Junction between a motor neuron and the sarcolemma of the muscle fibre 1s called the neuromus ular junction or motor-end plate. ral si ing: _ thisjunctionreleascs a neurotransmitter (Ace choline) which generates: an action potential in the sarcolemma. This spreads through the muscle fibre and causes the release of calcium fons into the sarcoplasm. locreaay sata Jeads (o the binding of calcium with a subunit of troponin ctin flaments and thereby remove the. y{ of active sites for myosin. Uullising the energy from ATP hydrolysis, the myosin head now binds to the exposed active sites on actin to form a cross bridge (Figure 17.4). Acun — weer oeRioon filament 1 AB ADP Myosin a * flarment oN SRR IPTAT ATP. ‘Myosin head (Breaking of cross bridge} mation of cross bridge) Shiding/ rotation Figure 17.4 Stages in cross bridge formation, rotation of head and breaking of cross bridge This pulls the attached actin filaments towards ihe the centre of . The ‘Z'lineattached to these actins ualledd in ereby caus _a shortening of the sarcomere, |.¢., contraction. It 1s clear from the above steps, that shot us of Uhe m cle, Le. contraction, 8 reduced, whereas the ‘A’ banels V the leny eee Ae eons DP and P, ioe ps ls relaxed state, Anew ATP binds and the cross bridge ts broken (Figure 17.4). The ATP is again hydrolysed by the myosin head and the cycle af cross bridge formationvwve Ate ah s Myosin + 7 4 Myosin at actin salah gane ste Tnorgente phosphate at eer5 a & Paso lemming % Pinkine ery enlorean Locomtonon ant Moveatent As the name suggests, Cardiac muscles are the museles of heart. Many cardiac muscle cells assemble Ina branching pattern to. form a cardiac muscle. Based on appearance, cardiac They are involuntary tn nature as the nervous system does not control thelr activilles directly. Let us examine a skeletal muscle in detail lo understand the structure and mechanism of contraction, Each organised skeletal musa Qasr, ST y 1s made of a nymber of muscle bundles or faseleles held together by a common collagenous comitetive tissue layer called fasela. Ench re 17.1). Bach, muscle bundle contains a number of muscle fibres (Figu' mmurdde cekt Saice = myo = mutch Faseicle scle bundle) Blood capillary ~~ Figure 17.1 Diagrammatic cross secilonal view of a muscle showing muscle bundles and musele fibres muscle fibre is lined by the plasma membrane called sarcolemma enclosing the sarcoplasm. Muscle fibre is a syncitium as the sarcoplasm. contains many nucle. The endoplasmic reticulum, Le., sarcoplasmic. reticulum of the muscle fibres 1s the store house.of.calchum tons. A. characteristic feature of the muscle fibre Is the presence of a large number ofparallelly arranged flaments in th or myofibrils. Each “‘myofibril has alternate dark and light bands on It. A detailed study of the myofibril has established that the sirtated appearance fs due to the distribution pattern of two important proteins ~ Actin and Myosin. The light bands contain actin and ts called band or Isotrople band, whereas the dark band called ‘A’ or Anisotropte band contains7 I band Hone > v Contracting —} Ce ~F Maximally | pe a eaees ae Contracted = att ttl ‘Two Sarcomeres Figure 17.5 Sliding-Mllament theory of muscle contraction (movement of the thin filaments and the relative size of the | band and H zones) Vv¥uvVVVUuVYWVY © and breakage is repeated causing further sliding. The process continues till the Ca fons are pumped back to the sarcoplasmic cisternae resulting, © in the masking of actin laments. This catsses Ue return of lines back bp to their original position, 1c, relaxation, The reaction time of the fibres can vary in different muscles, Repeated activation of the muscles can lead B® to the accumulation of lactic acid due to anaerabic breakdown of glycogen in them. causing fatigue. Muscle contains a red coloured oxygen storing © pigment called myoglobin, Myoglobin content Is high ing@omeor the p> Muscles which gives a reddish appearance. Such muscles are called the Red fibres. These muscles also contain plenty of mitochondria which can © ulllise the large amount of oxygen stored in them for ATP production, These muscles, therefore, can also be called aerobic muscles. On the other hand.Gome of tlie muscles possess very less quantity of myoglobin bp and therefore, appear pale or whitish. These are the White bres. Number of mitochondria are also few In them, but the amount of sarcoplasmic © reticulum ts high. They depend on anaerobic process for energy,224 Parietal ‘bone Occipital bone Occipital condyle 17.3) Sxeveta, System Skelctal system consists of a framework of bones and a few cartilages. This system has a significant role in movement shown by the body. Imagine chewing food without Jaw bones and walking around without the limb bones. Bone and cartilage are Gpectalised connective issues. ‘The former has avery hard matrix duc to calclam salts in It and the latter has slightly piiabid matrix due to chondroitin salts. In human beings. this system Is made up of 206 bones and a few cartilages. It ts grouped Into two principal divisions — the axial and the appendicular skeleton. ‘Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones distributed along the main axis of the body, The skull, vertebral column, sternum and ribs constitute axial skeleton, The skull (Figure 17.6) is composed of two scts of bones = Frontal bone Sphenold bone Ethmoid bone Lacrimal bone oe Nasal bone ~~Zygomatic bone Maxilla Mandible Hyoid bone Figure 17.6 Diagrammatic, view of human skull cranial and facial, that totals to 22 bones. Cranial bones are 8 in number, They form the hard protective outer covering, cranium for the brain, The facial region is made up of 14 Skeletal elements which form the front part of the skull. A single U-shaped bone called hyoid is present al the base of the buccal cavity and It is also Included in the skull. Each middle ear Contains three tiny bones ~ Malleys, locus and Stapes, collectively called Ear Ossicles. The skull region articulates with th€ Superior yegion of theRabe (cocsbar) ‘'— Wee] vert [Veriebyo-steam FalrefVedehtacharetaal Koabinn ar Posie) (Aayo pee ) Gun if pak, Newtrat ebeunim TH pay = Borsa ~ “ exe) —“TRoyacie TRovacie TWryacc Neebyan Velebran Mexhebyax Bicephabes/ ieealys h abaclell) / at hea Porta wit. Vertelo yan hexorn jan (attactud) with clavicle) pla exporolect process spine (eb octalniay) Gleroid_¢ sea puta e2—jhhub + tan aut \vi angulas bore, on 2 crs‘Lociatonon axa Movie Vertebral cohimn with th he help of two occipital Sondytes (dicondylie skal, > Our vertebral column (Figure 17.7) 1s formed by 26 serially arranged units called vertebrae and ts dorsally placed. It extends from 7 the base of the skulland constttutes the main framework of the trunk. Each vertebra has a Central hollow portion (neural canal) through which the spinal cord passes, First vertebra 1s the atlas and it articulates with the oceipital condyles. The vertebral column ts differentiated. into cervical (7), thoracte (12), lumbar (5). sacral p U-fused) and caccygeal (I-fused) regions Starting from the skull. The number of cervical P vertebrae are seven in(aimos)) all mammals including human beings, The vertebral column Protects the spinal cord, supports the head and pp Serves as the point of attachment fer the ribs and musculature of the back. Sternum js a flat bone on the ventral midline of thorax. There are 12 pairs of ribs. Each rib is a thin flat bone connected dorsally to the p Vertebral column and ventrally to the stemum. Ithas two articulation surfaces on its dorsal > end and Is hence called bicephalic. First seven pairs of ribs are called true ribs. Dorsally. they are attached to the thoracic p Vertebrae and ventrally connected to the sternum with the help of hyaline cartilage. D The 8", 9" and 10” pairs of ribs do not articulate directly with the sternum but join the seventh rib with the help of hyaline cartilage. These are called vertebrochondral (false) ribs. Last 2 pairs (11 "and 12") of ribs ? are not connected ventrally and are therefore, called floating ribs. Thoracie vertebrae, ribs and sternum together form the rib cage ) (Figure 17.8) ‘The bones of the limbs alongwith thelr girdles constitute the appendicular skeleton. Each limb 1s made of 30 bones The bones of the hand (fore limb) are > 225 \ Cervical vertebra Thoracie vertebra Lumbar vertebra Intervertebral absent oetlise ‘Sacrum Covey Figure 17.7 Vertebral column (right lateral view) ‘True Figure 17.8 Ribs and rib cage}) Scaputa Humerus, Radius Ulna J Carpals | Metacarpats | Phalanges We Figure 17.9 Right pectoral girdle and upper arm. (frontal view) Coxal bone Publis ‘Sacrut Ischium: — Femur Patella Tibla Je pirdle and lower limb view) igure 17.20 Fught pel bones (fror hurneris, rel wig in nuniber), metacarpals (palm bones In namber) and phalanges (digits - 14 tn (Figure 17.9), Fernur (thigh bone ~ number) the longest bone}. tibia and fibula, tarsals (ankle bones - 7 in number), metatarsals (5 in 4 in number) number) and phakanyges (digits ~ 1 are the bones of the legs (hind limb) (Figure 17.10). A cup shaped bone called patella cover the knee ventrally (rice cap) Pectoral and Pelvic girdle bones help in thearticulation of the upper and the lower limbs respectively with the axial skeleton. Each firdle 1s formed of two halves. Bach hall of pectoral girdle consists of a.clavicle and a scapula (Figure 17.9). Seapula ts a large iriangular flat bone situated in the dorsal part of the thorax between the second and the seventh ribs. The dorsal. flat, triangular body of scapula has a slightly elevated ridge called the spinowhich: protect ia Mat, expanded oespfdcess called the acromion. The clavicle articulates with this. Below the acromion is a depression called the glenoid cavity which articulates with the licad of the humerus to form the shoulder joint. Each clavicle is a long slender bone with two curvatures. This bone Jscommonly called the collar bone. Pelvic girdle consists uf two coxal bones (Figure 17.10). Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of three bones - Mum, ischium and pubis. Al the point of fusion of the above bones. fs a cavity called acetabulum to which the thigh bone articulates. The two halves of the pelvic girdle meet ventrally to form the pubic symphysis containing fibrous cartilage. 17.4 Joints daints are essential for all types of movements Involving the bony parts of the body. Locomotory movements are no exception tothis, Joints are points of contact betweer bon ‘or between bones and. cartil ages. Force generated by the muscle; bs used to carry out movement ) through joints, where the Joint acts as q fader. The movnbility at these Joints vary depending on diflerent factors, Joints have been classified into Uhree major structural forms. namely, Nbrous. cartilaginous and synovial. Fibrous Joints do not allow any movement, This type of jotnt Is shown > by the flat skull bones which fuse end: to end with the help of dense fibrous > connective lssues In the form of Lo form the cranium In cartilaginous joints, » the banes: invalved are joined together with DP the help of cartilages. The Joint between the adjacent vertebrae in the vertebral column {s of this pattern and it permits limited movements. ‘Synovial joints are characterised by the preserice of a fluid filled synovial cavity between, the articulating surfaces of the two bones, Such an arragement allows considerable movement. These joints help in locomotion and many other movements. Ball and socket faint (between humerus and pectoral » Sirdle), hinge joint {knee joint), pivot joint (between atlas and axis), gliding © joint (between the carpals) and saddle joint (between carpal and metacarpal ) ofthumb)are some examples. > w > Muscular dystrophy: nae Sdege neration of skeletal muscle sae due to genetic disorder oy ca. \ion D Tetany: Rapid spasms (wild contractions) in muscle due to low Ca" in body fluid. =~ ‘ Arthritis: Inflammation of joints. ? Osteoporosis: Age-related disorder characterised by decreased bone mass p and increased chances of fractures. Decreased levels of estrogen is a common cause. Inflammation of joints duc (o accumulation of uric actd crystals, SuMMARY Movement Is an essential feature of all living be movements, movements of fins, limbs, Wings, ete, animals. A voluntary movement which causes the ngs. Protoplasmie streaming, clllary are some forms exhibited by animal to change tts place, ts