Chapter-6

THE SELECTION PROCESS

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Prof N. K. Chadha, ---1
Department ofPsychology, University of Delhi, Delhi - 110007 \
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14-41\l HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

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With the prevalence of severe unemployment, finding a job is the critical need of a large segment of pcrst)CJ~
in India. Although an effective recruitment programme can provide us numerous job applications, th1.r,,
still remains a crucial problem of selection of the most suitable human resources with a view to plau ng
them in vacant positions in the enterprise. Whatever the reasons may be for~dissatisfaction with the job
and ilTespective of where the fault may lie, it is an unfortunate and dishearten'ing situation in which both
the individual and the organization are losers. And this situation emphasizes the importance of employee
selection principles and practices. Improper matching of the person and the job, of the person's abilities
and characteristics and the job's demands and requirements, leads to dishannony and unhappiness in th0
work situation. Much of this discontent may be unnecessary. Selection techniques are available that a:-e
capable of closely matching the person and the job, but these techniques must be used wisely and well by
both participants in the selection· process - the employing organizations and those who apply for wc:-k.
t .

THE SELECTION PROCESS

Selection fonns a crucial manpower function. The trends towards automation and computerisation
. have increased the significance of this process. · _ , • .
' O,J!fDC~s'- ·. ' •
Selection is the process of securing relevant information about an '(} pie. _ng ~ennest
applicant to evaluate his qualifications, experience and other qualities su1t~a.forf li_!:, .,n ~zatio11
with a view to matching these with the requirements of. a job. It is
essentially a process of picking out the man or men best suited for the organizations' requireme~'.:-.
Selection standards and personal qualities of a candidate determine whether or not he is placed on
a job. Explicitly, selection standards are adjusted to the needs of the organization and labour mark ci
situations. The applicants pass or fail on specific selection standards of "hurdles"t and those surv1 v,1Pt'
- .
these standards or hurdles for specific jobs are placed in vacant positions. Thus, an effective selection
programme is a non - random process because those selected have been chosen on· the basis of the
assumption that they are more likely to be "better" employees thanJhose who hav~ been rejected.
The concept of strategic selection aims to provide a link between the company's business demands
and the 'kind' of personnel who can deliver the demands there on. Because improper selection is so
costly, management must make better use of all available techniques to ensure that the majority o l
those who are hired will work to the ultimate advantage of themselves and their ~rganization.
Fig. 6.1 Basic Selection Model
Examination of job

Select a Criterion Step I Choose a selection instrument

t Step II

Step III Measure performance on

Measure job perfonnance
on criterion Relate job selection instrument
perfonnance to
selection instrument If poor or no relationship
If good relationship, tenatively reject selection
performance
accept selection instrument instrument
Step IV

Periodically repeat steps

1-5 on ne,\ sample to make Try different
Step VI
sure of instrument selection instrument
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CHAPTER-6: THE SELECTION PROCES S I

ing a proper selectio n

l ls l·mportant m develop ....
lS Each step shown in the above selection mod e
·e procedure
.g
Step ·.I: Examin ation of the Job(s) having vacanc ies.
b job is of
h This step consists of job analysis . . A thorough knowledge iand understanding of a
s.
:e paramount importance and must precede the use of any test in the selection of worker
:s Step II: ~election of Criterio n and Predict or.
e of hoi\
The second step involves two things - choosing an indicator whi~h measures the extend
·e a particu lar
"good" or successful a worker is (typically referred to as the criterion) and choosin g
y to as
measure that can be to predict how successful a worker will be on the job. (typically referred
the selection device or:predictor).
Step III: Measurement of Perform ance.
es on
n Once the criterion and the predictor have been selected it is necessary to obtain measur
r to preset t
both from a sample of workers on the job. This can be done either by giving the predicto
new hi n:s
employees and simultaneously obtaining criterion measures, or by giving the predictor to
and waiting for a specific time before obtaining the criterion measures.
Step IV: Relating Predictor to Criterion.
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The fourth step involves determining whether a true and meaningful'relations~ip exists behve~
ship
~he employee scores on the predictor and the criterion. Establishing the ex~enc e of such a relation
1s called assessing the validity of a predictor.
Step V: Deciding upon the Utility of the Selectio n Device.
Making the final.' decisions as .t~ .whe.ther to use the predictor to select new job hires dcJ"-
nth
othn
not ~~ly ~pon the size of the. relat1onsh1p foun~ and its significance, but also upon many
~s of th.:
cond1tions, the number of app!tcants, number of Job opening , base rate, respecti ve vacanci
successful and unsuccessful worker groups.
Step VI: Re - evaluation
,
The fact that the predictiv·e situation is a dynamic ' ever_ changing , one sh ou Id ne\.cr. be 1urn.r,n
d 1 c--
What mak fi ect1on today may not be at all appropr iate to 1 ~ ·
es or goo se ch
jobs change, and employment conditions chan e Tl . morrow , app ,cants ' 'li' · .

- evaluated periodically to make certain it is dgoi.ng :~: aJ.:~ f:ro!:~lhe1cc~t1ohn prbogramm~ shou ld t,l, r-'
I as een designed.

Determining the Utility of a Selection Instrument

The t'.tility of a prediction device is the de ree to whic . . .
would h g h its use improves the quality of tL:
people bemg selected beyond what ave occurred had that dev·ice no t been usccl. T hc r:· a• ,
severa1 factors which are critical .m detennmm. . .. . • 1. '-
g ut1hty 111 any situa t·1011 mvo vmg group sck._: i( ... .
These variables are:-
i. Criterion reliability ii. Criterion relevance
iii. The selection ratio i1·. The percent of resent .
Predictor Validitv· Tl . . . p employees conside red S Ul' l' Cs <, f t:l
· · · le primary stat1st1ca I index · ft ·
instrument is its validity. Some illustrati ons are ~· r . t~ uencr~g the utility of any prc,li,'(•r
t, ,.;
g1,en m Fig. 6.2 m which two di ffi:rent predh.
 146111 .HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

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criterion relationships are shown, one with a validity of 0.00 and the other with a validity of u.-~;-
Jn both cases cut-off score on the predictor has been established that allows u~ to take the top ~,J
percent of the people taking the test. •
When we look at Predictor A, we find that the X criterion score df the"accepted" gr~up is
exactly the same as the rejected group. However, in Predictor B, we get quite a di~e~ent p 1c1l~r" .
We can see clearly that those people above the cut-off seem to do better on the cntenon than do
those below the cut off
Fig 6.2 Two different Predictor - Criterion relationship
r=0.00 r=0.70
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C
Rejects ~ Accepts
0 C
0
·.:::
E -~
·.::: ·;:::
u u
- - - - Cut off ~--Cu t off
Predictor A Predictor B

I Selection Ratio and Percent of Successful Employees

Two other variables which play an importa~t role in determining the utility of a predictor arr·. ·:

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Selection Ratio and the percentage of present employees considered successful. Simply descJ !. , ,.
the Selection Ratio (SR) may be expressed as:
n/N = SR
where n = number of job openings
N = number of job applicants available for placement
In other words, selection ratio is the relationship between the number of people to be hin~(l
the number of people who are available to be hired. When the SR is equal to or greater than •
the use of any selection device has little meaning. If, however, the SR is less than 1.00, then ;1
are more job applicants than positions and the employer is in a position to be selective in term'., v,
who he hires.
Overall, the effectiveness of the testing programme increases with decrease in the selection i .
Thus, as Tiffin and Mc Cormick observe, in group testing where manpower manager is · ink1 i •

in average, rather than individual results, he can effectively use the test with lower validity
adequately decreasing the selection ratio.

Percent of Present Employees who are Successful

Suppose a criterion score exists that cefines whether a worker is either satisfactory or u·ns·atisfar . ,
that is, if he perfom1s above a standard, he is considered satisfactory and if he performs belo . ·
standard, he is considered unsatisfactory. A valid and reliable selection system should be able
the "best" profile applicant to the job competency requirement. The scatter diagram below. Fip_.
depicts the four categories:-
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CHAPTER-6: THE SELECTION PROCESS \\1147

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"The horizontal axis gives the cut - off point for selection and the vertical axis gives that for
perfom1ance. A refers to those who were not selected on ttte selection cut - off score but who would have
been successful had they been selected. This error is called false negative. Another error, false positives
(D) is where.
persons have been selected on the selection cut-offI •score, but have not perfonned well on
the job. Contrast those with B true negatives, and C true positives, which refer respectively, to those who
are rightly rejected or rightly ·accepted. An objective, scientific system ... . .,,.-r.: < •1

should reduce the number of false negatives and false ·positives." dividud./Jl.ifff,;
'v_Me /li~?fas·
As Blum and Naylor observe, the purpose of the selection ,.._ · .- -
process is to make effective use of individual differences with a
view to selecting individuals who possess the greatest degree of
qualities required for effective jobs performance. Indeed, individual differences pro~ide the basis for
the selection and placement processes.
The competency model is used to match the job role requirements and identify the crucial
performance success_variables. A competency model attempts to ·access the achievement potential
of an effective employee using simulation process. The factors usually considered are technical,
intellectual, rational and interpersonal competency. Skills and behaviour are described in terms of
the actual and observable activities that employees have to accompl~sh. Competence really signifies

Fig 6.3 Selection Criteria

Cut - off Point

False Negative True Positive

V
u i:: A C
~ 0
§ ·E 1 - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - , 1 - - - - - - - - - - - -Cut - off Point
~ ·E B
;:; u D
0..
True Negative False Positive

Selection Criteria
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adequate level performance in meeting the specific job role requirements. Identifying job com petence
is an exercise that obtains from peers, the superior, and subordinates, their perception of cternonstrahle
competencies that are desired for satisfactory perfonnance. Having clarified the job competency
requirements, the person/personnel requirements will have to be communicated.
Internally, organization circulars, notice boards and computer networks help disseminate the
relevant information for suitable candidates to supply. This process, of communicating requi rements
is generally referred to as the search process, the source (s) of potential applicants. This process
is meant to ensure that those suited for the job will apply. The search for personnel will be in the
appropriate labour market. The labour market can be assessed through a variety of sources:-
i. Advertisements ii. Head Hunters
iii. Poaching 1v. Networking - Word of Mouth
v. Walk in Applicants vi. Campus Placements
vii. Sons of the Soil viii. Employment Exchange.
In many organizations, intake of fresh manpower that is, entry level is specific to the lowest
level in that particular cadre. The first preference is to promote/select from within, using ciitcna
 148111 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

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like suitability, merit, seniority or a combination of these. Only after this source has been tried ar,·:
found lacking, would the organization go in for external hiring. •
Advertisements: Advertisements in the press, both national and regional is an age - old practice.
The press is the principal accepted media of _communicating to the public at;large, and to potentially
interested candidates, in particular. Dailies now follow the practice of clubbing job advertisements and
releasing them in special sections, on fixed days of the week. The basic job data for an advertisem ~nt
will be called out from the job description.
Head Hunters: A rather gruesome calloquialism, but nevertheless one that has gained common
parlance. There is a wide variety to choose fro'm, in response to companies' demands for manageria l
personnel at all levels to man their organizations, given the Central Government's New Economic
Policy Programme Implementation since 1991. This has meant the arrival ofMNCs as major players
in a. big way either directly or through joint ventures. Simultaneously, Indian companies _have had
the flood gates of opportu~ity opened to them with removal of restrictions on growth in areas of
their choice. Head hunting is a lucrative business.
When a company is setting up or expanding operations and needs a lot of manpower over time,
a placement agency is then hired on a retainer basis.
Poaching: Employee poaching is an age old phenomenon. Poaching is . .,,..~--:-~
' employing a person, working 'for another _company. In the traditional value ·-Poaching· is. : 4

system this was frowned upon, as each respected the other organization's ~ e!~ploying-;_a··J/irso11
, • •

right to hire and retain its employees . In the present scenario, it is a no wofkiJ~g for:ranother
holds barred market place with the concept of employee a no holds barred comptiiij · ,_ . • · ... ·
market place with the concept of employee loyalty having changed with tempting and challengir:;
offers available all the time. Poaching does create two kinds of internal distortion . First, is the denrd
of opportunity of existing employees and the second, adjustments in the compensation package, in
order to attract the competent outsider.
Nehvorkin g ·(Word of Mouth): This is an informal approach to source manpower. Concerned
people in the organization communicate with their friends and counterparts - vendors, busi ness
associates, clients, trade unions (if relevant), advertising agency, existing employees , seeking nam,'.
of suitable people for job vacancies they may have. This method is useful for attracting people, who
may be reluctant to write in an application , but may well be interested in a 'change'.
Wa)k - in Applications: Selectors can go to different towns, advertise and generate application s
at very short notice. Candidates have the advantage of deciding on the day of the advertisem ent if
they are interested, walk in for the interview and get the much awaited results, if not right after l ! 1._,
interview, certainly at the end of the day.
Campus Placemen t: Companies are keen to hire professionals in thei_r quest to maintain a
healthy bottom line, increase market share and grow in a competitive environment. The belief i-.;
that professionals can help in this process. Selection team from different organizations, announl··~
jobs, market their companies - the opportunities, compensation package, generate a short list .of
applications and finally select the desired number.

Sons of the Soil: In an economic system with heavy unemployment, 'outsiders' , migrants fro· n
other states of the Indian Union are a target group as they are made out to be depriving the 'loca:·
people of the state of their rightful claim to jobs in their home state.
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CHAPTER-6: THE SELECTION PROCES S li• J4'·

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Employ ment Exchange: The Employment Exchange-is a state- run head ihunter. Interest
ed job
from the
seekers can register and their particular are senf. to those emptoyers seeking assistance
exchange.
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Step in Selection Process (Techniques of Selection Process) . .,.,.. I I •

Although selection procedures change from orie organization to another in tenns Sele-ctw
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of size, industry, location, and scalar levels ·of jobs being filled, the selectio n I(
. e
process depends upon effective job - analysis and recruitment. As Yoder et al,
suggest, the selection· process involves seven steps as follows: (1) preliminary
screening of applicants, (2) review of application blank, (3) checking references,
(4) physical examination, (5) psychological testing,. (6) employment interview, and (7)
evallJtltion or
the programme. The above seven steps can also be classified as. techniques of selection.
Preliminary Screening: This is a sorting process · in which prospective applicants are
given thr.
from
necessary infonnation about the nature of the job and also, necessary information is elicited
screening
the candidates about their education, experience, skill, salary expected, etc. As regards
cadre
mterviews, they should be conducted by si(ilied and trained interviewers instead of some lower
defined.
clerk in the personnel department. The ~jection standards for applications should be well
fine
Two kinds of screening are normally done - the first is the rough and the second is the
eligibility
screening. The rough screening is more of the mechanical variety, where the basic
ents,
requirements are checked . It •is the fine screening that is not too easy to deal with, as judgem
es
based on informed opinion , have to be made. Yoder et al suggest Toops' successive - <'mrdles techniqu
d in the
as_an effective screening device. According to this technique, all selection factors -are arrange
.among
decreasing order of importance. For example, if the aptitude test has the highest correlation
ce,
all the selection devices with job success , it would be ranked first. Similarly, with work experien
the typ·c
a mechanical screening can de\ errnine basic cut - offs like the specific peri~ of work, but
will hr
of work - relevance, level, variety and richness are factors where some degree of judgement_
objecti ve
needed. Aptitude tests can be used to screen out the applicants. Some organizations use non -
screcnii ip
methods such as observational technique (i.e., facial expression) and length of experience, in
thus need
applicants. This is a highly arbitrary method having only a chance validity. The screening
cases the
to be done by a person, who has a high degree of awareness and analytical skills. In many
g.
HR department and the identifying department form a joint committee and do the screenin
Application Blanks: Application blanks are frequently used as· selection dev{ces. These
blanks
g the
vary from sma-l.l one - paged sheet to several folders consisting of hundreds of items regardin
applicant's history. Application blanks generally have two functions:
{i) They provide pertinent information about the employee which the organization
will need if the
individual is hired. For example, age, sex, marital status and so on.
{ii) They are designed to gather information about job applicants which the personn
el officer fr l:ls
pertinent to the hiring process . For example, work experience a~d _references.
ely
If the application blanks consist of the proper items, the personal history items can be effectiv
r or Ju l•
used. Usually, the past provides indications regarding the future. The most effective predicto
success is his demonstrated ability to perform effectively on a similar job.
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In general, application blanks is a highly structured instrument in which the questionR 11 · vc:
been standardized and determined in advance. Information requested on an application blan~ · ,'.
concerned with ·'personal history'. It includes items dealing with the previous work and life -ln::. _· 1Y
of the applicant. Weighted application blanks can be prepared on the basi~ of information reg<11dlllg
personal history items associated with job success: Suppose, if academic' achievement. is m;:i rlu:dly
associated with success in executive jobs, it is assigned a relatively high weight It is not pw:~., ~ik.
to prepare a weighted application blank for all jobs · in general. Rather, attempts should be made f.C)
prepare weighted application for specific jobs and specific organizations. Application blanks are not ?os
effective practically as they appear theoretically sound. Sometimes, the applicants tend to exaggerate
their abilities. Sometimes the personnel department members are not aware of the proper evaluation
procedure of blanks and accordingly cannot make their effective use.
Notwithstanding these limitations, the application blanks have been proved highly effectiV('. in
several jobs. Used properly as an aid to selection, the application blank can be and sometimes is
m~e of the better selection devices at the disposal of the personnel technician. One advan1~p,c. of
the ;.~pplication blank is that response bias does not usually· play as great a role. Even if a r,ci :,011
did ter~d to bias his answers on the application on matters to which he felt some concern abou{
giving ar~ honest answer, in many cases such data is ·subject to rather easy verification from otl 1(·.i
sources. Intuitively, it would be expected that many questi,ons on the applicatio~ blank should Le.
retated to job success. Similarly, past personal life history items have been found to be assoc.1:dc~rl
with turnover. These ought to give some indication of the emotional and personality characterisii c-.r,
of the applicant, \Which may have some bearing on eventual job adjustment. Thus, application l>l;i1 1b
are quite effective in the selection process. These do not contain questions that discriminate unL1, rly.
The infom1ation obt'ained from application blanks is job - related.
Reference Ched~dng: Many times job applicants are required to produce some sort of
documentary evidence that they performed satisfactorily in one or more of their past positiPns 'i'lic:
previous employers and schools can provide useful information. Attempts may be made 10 i , d::
personal vis its and tel ephone calls to procure objective responses. It is an effective practice to i,t ;i d
a brief questionnaire involving checking answers instead of requiring a great deal of writinp,. ·nw
enquiries should be as specific and precise as possible.
The difficulties with using references as guides in the se!ection of job applicants are many r)w.
must always be concerned with the accuracy of the description provided in the recommendat ioi i.
There are perhaps four major reasons for a letter of reference to be inaccurate in content.
(i) Knowledge of Applicant: Many times employers are asked to provide letters of re.._e , , t( )
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terminating employees of whom they have little or no direct knowledge. Indeed in some Orgam·.:; ... 111.,,
_ • • ,
11 11

. recommendat10n
form letters of . are provided to all employees who terminate on a volunta
. · . "., 11 c.. 1
ry bas,s, 1
lett~rs merely ~n?1cate that th~ employ~e was not fired, and certainly are totally useless to other empft. ,'(' J :;
as far as prov1d111g any real mformat10n about the applicant's talents or potential for success.
(ii) Ability to Assess Applicant: Even if the employer has had su~~c,·ent e.xposure or f,0)1 1'• r ·f
. . . . . . 111
with the worker to become fam1ltar with his talents there is then the que':s t,·on of th e degree to w 1
. . . . ' H 11
the employer 1s capable ot gettmg an accurate impression of the worker.

(iii) Ability to Describe Applicant: Assuming that

. . . .
the employer has· bo th
th b·i · ,
e a 1 1ty ann fh,·
oppo,tun,ty to evaluate hi s workers. many people do not have the ·t· k"II · •
wn mg s I to transmH t.., : i
 CHAPTER-6: THE SELECTION PROCESS l\1E-.J t

II impressions accurately to another person via letter. To the txtent 'that the employer lacks the ability

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to communicate in this fashion, the accuracy of the recommendation is going to suffer.
(iv) Willingness to be Accurate: Reluctance on the part of the employer to portray the
unfavourable aspects ofthos~ he is asked to recommend is the most serious obstacle of all. Sometimes
such reluctance arises out of a general tendency to be "kind" or "6haritable" to the departing employee.
In other words, the employer makes a bad employee sound good just to get rid of him.
Traditionally, there are four approaches to securing letters of reference. Usuallr, the fonner
employer is asked to write a letter describing various aspects of the candidate, sometimes a
questionnaire is used or a form is provided and the former employer is asked to give detailed
information where known.
The U .S Civil Service Commission uses the questionnaire approach,
sending the Employment ·Recommendation Questionnaire (ERQ) to
an applicant's list of references. Extensive research on the ERQ has .
. demonstrated that even this objective - questionnaire approach has
limited predictive validity.
An interesting and potentially useful way of checking references involves the forced - Choice
Questionnaire.
In this situation, the person giving the reference is forced to choose the one item in each of a
number of pairs of items that best describes the former employee. What makes this unique is that
the items in each pair appear to be equally favourable to the employee. The forced - choice reference
check is usually limited to selection for clerical or other types of jobs that an organization fills in
large numbers.
Another way of checking references is to interview the persons over the telephone. A skillful
interviewer can obtain a more accurate and thorough evaluation of a candidate in this manner th<l n
with a questionnaire or letter. More specific as well as follow-up questions can be asked in a telephone
conversation because it is a more flexible interview situation.
A costly and time - consuming approach is the field investigation in which references are
interviewed in person. It can elicit a great deal of information not obtainable through letters.
The amount of effort a prospective employer is willing to expend on checking an applicant's references
depends on the level and importance of the job, a point equally applicable to all selection techniques.
Physical Examinations - Physical examinations are frequently conducted and used for differential
placement purposes rather than rejection of applicants. Most jobs are subject to the candidate beinf 1

medically fit, as certified by the company doctor or the civil surgeon. Large organizations have thei1
own medical clinics while the small organizations refer to _private clinics. Physical examination helps
in effective manpower utilisation by stressing differential placement involving assessment of an
individual's capacities and matching them with several job possibilities in the organizational sett ing.
Companies have now started taking interest in employee health and welfare -by conducting periodic
health camps, providing insurance cover, conducting safety programmes , designing safety equip1nent
and providing a safer working en_vironment. A healthy employee is in the interest of the organ i;r.,11 1n11
as sickness, leave and benefits could be costly and counter productive. Physical examinatirni s ,n l' l »
the utmost significance in selective or differential placement.
 152111 HUM AN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
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A physical examination serves the following purposes:

(i) It gives an indication regarding fitness of a candidate for the job concerned.
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(h) It discovers existing disabilities and obtains a record thereof, which may be helpful later in
deciding the company's responsibility in the event of a workman's compensation claim.
(iii) It helps in preventing employment of those suffering from some type of contagious diseases.
(iv) It helps in placing those who are otherwise employable but whose_physical handicaps may
\
necessitate assignment only to specified jobs.

Physical examination covers the following:

• The applicant's medical history. '
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• Physical measurements - height, weight, etc.
• General examination - skin, musculature and joints. \
• Special senses - visual and auditory activity.
• Clinical examination - eyes, ears, nose, throat and teeth.
• Examination of chest and lungs.
•. Check-~p of blood pressure and heart.
• Pathological tests of urine, blood etc .
• • X-ray examination of chest and other parts of the body.
• Neuro - psychiatric examination, particularly when medical history or a physician's observations
indicate an adjustment problem.
Following Hanman, physical - demands analysis can be conducted by three methods; (1) the disability
method, (2) the rating method, and (3) specific method. The disability method stresses upon employee
disabilities rather than abilities. The rating method involves rating of jobs demanding "heavy lifting",
"moderate lifting", "light lifting", etc. This is a highly subjective method. The specific method stresses
what the employee can do. Attempts are made to state job demands as well as employee capacities in
specific, objective terms enabling matching and comparison. This method also involves development
of specific physical and environmental demands of a job through job analysis, enabling the personnel
manager to assess specific abilities and demands for specific applicants for several specific jobs.
Psychological Testing - An important personnel selection technique is the psychological test.
As virtually everyone can attest, the use of psychological tests is widespread at all levels and
periods of life. Psychological tests are used in organizations for several purposes including selection
and placement of employees, transfer and promotion of employees, determining training needs and
evaluation of training programmes, and counselling. Many organizations administer tests not only to
applicants but also to current workers to determine which ones have the ability to be promoted.
Some people believe that organizations rely too heavily upon psychological tests. Others suggest,
with good reason , that many of the tests in the daily use are worthless. Still other critics, including
the U.S . Congress, argue that testing constitutes an unwelcome and unwarranted invasion of privacy.
And, finally, the problem of providing equal employment opportuniti~s offers a massive challenge
to the use of tests as selection devices, a challenge severe that the use of testing in industry is
experiencing a sharp decline for the first time in its long history.
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CHAPTER-6: THE SELECTION PROCESS 1\1 151

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However, in spite of these growing criticisms, it is still true that in most walks of life it 1s ·
impossible to progress without being asked to take some kind of psychological- test.
A test is a sample of an aspect of an individual's behaviour, performance or attitud~. It can also
be a systematic procedure for comparing the behaviour of two 1or more persons. A Psychologica l test
is standardised instrument designed to measure objectively one or more aspects of a total personality
, by means of samples of verbal ·or non-verbal responses, or by means of other behaviour.
~...,,.,- ·,. - - "'? - •
Characteristics of Psychological Tests:- Well-developed and QlfJ!{.~c~~ test
p~ol{f!T·,ps~p_h_
soundly researched psychological tests have several characteristics ·s-tandardiie,.d, ·ob1ec.tt)!..e,-.
that set them apart from the tests printed in the magazines; and .btf~kd·-ifp~;;}qu~4.gwrn_
is~
sunday newspapers. A proper psychological test is ·standardized, .... ' ,~· :~.. -and
teliab/e ~~
·vahd . · .

objective,. based upon sound norms, reliable, and valid.

Standardization refers to the consistency or uniformity of the conditions and procedures for
administering a test. Each test must have its own standardized procedure that must be followed
precisely each time the test is given. Any change in testing procedure may produce a change in
individual's perfonnance on the test.
Objectivity, as a characteristic of psychological tests, refers primarily to the scoring of the test
results. For a test to be scored objectively, it is necessary that anyone scoring the test be able to
obtain the same results. Scoring a subjective test is more difficult and is liable to be influenced by
personal characteristics of the grader including a like or dislike of the person who took the test. To
make fair assessments of job applicants as · well as equitable comp.arisons among them, objective
tests are clearly the more desirable.
A norm is the average or typical score on a particular test made by a specified popul ation. The
scores of the standardization sample serve as the yardstick against which the applicant's scores are
compared to determine their relative standing on the ability being tested. T_!ie two most widely used
systems of norms are percentiles and standard scores. Both measures indirectly, give infonnation
on the test performance of the individual relative to a known population. With this comparative
information, we are in a much better position to evaluate objectively the applicant's chances of
succeeding on the job relative to the other applicants tested.
The degree to which any measuring instrument is consistent or stable and would yield the same
scores again and again, if necessary, is defined as the reliability of that test instrument. Reliab, Iitv i;; ~

_usually measured by means of the correlation co-efficient. There are several methods for determining
reliability. The test-retest method involves administering a test twice to the same group of people
and correlating the two sets of scores. It is uneconomical to require workers to be away from their
jobs to take the test twice. This reliability measures the stability of the true scores over time. The
equival'ent forms, uses a test -retest approach, but instead of taking the same test a second time, a
similar fonn of the test is given at the same time and the two sets of scores are correlated. These two
forms should be as identical as possible except that specific items or questions on each fonT1 would
not be the same although they would represent a similar sample of items chosen. The disadvantage
of this approach is the difficulty and expense of developing two separate, equivalen{t ests .
A third approach to the determinatio n of the reliability of a test is the split-half 1111.·th1)d. The
test is taken once, divided in half, and the two sets of items are correlated with each other. Th is is
less time - consuming as only one administration of the test is required.
 1541/I HillvfAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The Kuder - Richardson method also measures internal consistency reliabillty; essentially triats
'
each test item as a subtest, so t4at instead of having two halves there are n subtests, where n is the
total number of items of the measuring instrument.
Whatever method is used, the investigation of reliability is necessary) in the development ·of a
useful test. In choosing a test to be used for selection or other purposes, the reliability co-efficient
ideally should exceed + .80.
Validity of any psychological· test is defined as the extent to which it actually measures what it
purports to measure. One way to determine validity is to correlate the test scores with subsequent
job performance. This approach to establish validity is called criterion-related validity, which is the
most frequently used approach. However, in recent years, psychologists have become interested in
another aspect of validity, that which relates to the nature or content of the test, independent of its
correlation with some external criterion - rational validity.
Personnel psychologists are concerned with two approaches to criterion-related validity:
predictive validity and concurrent validity. Predictive validity involves giving the test to all j ob
applicants in a specific time period and then hiring them aH, regardless of their performance on the
test. Most managements are ·not in favour of this expensive practice because some of those hired
will tum out to be. poor workers.
The usual app}oach in industry to establishing the criterion - related validity of a test is concurrer:t
validity. Ihis procedure involves giving the test to employees already on the job and then correlatmg
test scores with job - performance measures. The major disadvantage of this method is that by using
workers already on the job, the validation sample contains only the better employees. It is extremc:y
important to point out that high concurrent validity does not assure high predictive validity.
Two approaches to establishing the rational validity of a test are content validity and construct
validity. Content validity involves an attempt to assess the content of a test to assure that it includes
a representative sample of all the questions that could be asked. For example, · in hiring Secretaries,
typing and shorthand tests are certainly related to job performance. Content validity is generally
not measurable in any statistical or quantitative sense. One finds the greatest use of content vali di rv
among users of achievement tests, such as final examination in a college course. Construct valili;, y
is an attempt to determine the .psychological characteristics measured by a test. With this type d .
validity the user wishes to infer the degree to which the person being evaluated possess some ll ait
or quality presumed to be reflected in test performance. It tends to be more often used in theoretical
rather than pragmatic situations.
Another type of validity is face validity. Face validity is concerned with how well the te~t
questions appear to be related to the job for which the person is being tested . Job applicants ofl.: n
become upset if the test given to them appear to have little or no relationship to the job for which
they are applying.

Purposes of Psychological Tests:- The basic assumption ~P;y~bo1ogi~ai"te_sts -~.:~:s: .·.,.

~
underlying the use of tests in personnel selection is that individuals iirfuiicover ·talent that~,
are different in their job related abilities and skills and that these ·:tv<J~Jd> no( be'det~cted 11v
• ,.,. • .• . J ..

skills can be adequately and accurately measured. The emphasis is in ~znterv~ws _\:;'. ·
on finding a person with the right qualifications for a particular job;
the stress is on the job itself and on trying to select from among many applicants the ones who '.vii i
 CHAPTER-6: THE SELECTION PROCESS i\1IS'.,

succeed on that job. Tests seek to eliminate the possibility of prejudice on' the part of the intervie,wcr
or supervisor. Potential ability only will govern selection decisions. Tests may uncover ~ualifications
and talents that would not be detected by interviews or by listing of education and job experience.
Types of Psychological Tests:- Psychological tests may pe categorized into various groui,)inr,s
depending upon the particular purpose of the classification system. There are a number of ways to
categorize psychological tests. They can be discussed in terms of how they are scored, constru cted;
and administered, or in terms of the kinds of behaviour they are designed to measure. There may_
be group or individual tests, instrumental or paper and pencil tests; aptitude or achievement tests,
personality and interest tests, power or speed tests.
Individual and Group Tests:- There are number of tests which are designed to be administered
individually, that is, they cannot be given simultaneously to two or more people by a single tester.
For vocational guidance and counselling and for cli1nical and diagnostic work with emotionally
disturbed persons, individual tests are preferred . .It is usually possible to delve more deeply into the
behaviour being measured by using an individual test. Individual tests are more costly and, thr,rcfore,
are used to a less.er degree in industry than are group tests. Other limitation 1s that the beh;:iviour of
the individual is more dependent upon the skill, sensitivity, and friendliness of the test administrator.
An example of individual test would be the Stanford -Binet intelligence scale.
Some tests are designed so that. they can be administered to a large number of people at the same
time. These group tests are advantageous in a situation that requires the· testing of many people. A
test designed for group administration can be given ·to 20, 200, or 2000 applicants; the only limit
is the size of the testing facility. The examples of group tests are Purdue Vocational Achievement
Tests, the Adaptability Test, Wonderlic Personnel Test, etc.
Instrumental or Paper and Pencil Tests:- The instrumental tests make u~~e of tools and usually
are individual in character. Mechanical ability, for example, is tested better by 1'iaving the applicants
perform a series of mechanical operations than by having them answer questions about the nat ure; of
these operations. For the evaluation of more complex skills, expensive equipment may be ri.~ ~uircd .
Instrumental tests may take longer to administer than paper-and-pencil tests and also may req.:.·_irc
an individual testing situation.
The paper-and-pencil tests are usually group tests involving written responses. The questions ;:ire
in printed form and the answers are recorded on an answer sheet. Most of the standard gro 11 p tests
of intelligence, interest, and personality are paper-and-pencil tests . The examples would be MMPJ ,
MPI, CPI, etc. The example for instrumental test would be, The Pintner Paterson Scale, The Arthur
Point Scale etc.
Achievement or Intelligence Tests:- These are also called 'Proficiency tests'. These measure· the
skill or knowledge which is acquired as a result of training programme and on the job experience.
These measure what the applicant can do. In other words, these tests indicate how effecti vely an
individual can perform a job or what he knows about it. These tests are useful if the candidates
have prior experience of similar jobs. These are of two types:
(l)Test for Measuring Job Knowledge:- These are known as 'Trade Tests'. These are prin~t1rily
oral tests consisting of a series of questions which are believed to be satisfactorily answc:1 l·d nnly hy
those who know and thoroughly understand the trade or occupation. Oral tests may be suppl emented
by written, picture or performance types.
 1561/I HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

(2) Work Sample Tests:- Tlwse measure the proficiency with which equipment can be handled
qy giving hipi a pie.ce of work to judge how efficiently he does it.
by the candidate. This is done _
Aptitude or fotential Atiility Tests:- These tests measure the latent ability of a candidate to
learn a new job or skill. These tests assess an individual's potentiality to learn a:job through adequate
training and are effective if applicants do not possess earlier job experience. 'instruments used are
variously described as tests of 'intelligence' 'mental ability', 'mental alertness', or simply as 'personnel
tests'. These are of three types:
• Mental Tests:- These measure the overall ,intellectual ability or the Intelligence Quotient (1.Q.)
of a person and enable us to know whether he has the mental capacity to deal with new
problems. These .determine an e;mployee!s fluency in language, memory, induction, reasoning,
speed of perception and spatial visualisation.
• Mechanical Aptitude Tests:-These m~sure the capacity of a person to learn a particular type
of mechani~al work. These are useful when apprentices, machinists, mechanics, maintenance
workers, and mechanical technicians are to be selected.
• Psychomotor or Skill ~ests:- These measure .a person's ability to do a specific job: These are
primarily used in the selection of workers who have to perform semi-skilled and repetitive
jobs, like assembly work, packing, testing, inspection and so on.
There are certai~ tests ,v~ich when used in a particular way are classified as achievement tests
and when used in other ways, can be designated as aptitude tests, that is, depends upon use. For
example, •
• the "Wing Standai;dized Tests of Musical Intelligence".
• the "Purdue Clerjcal Adaptability Test"
• the "MacQuarri,e Test of Mechanical Ability"
• "Minnesota Spatial Relations Test"
Pers.onality Tests Personality tests are still used for selection purposes despite evidence casting
doubt on their pr,~dictive validity. These tests discover clues to an individu~l's value system, his
emotional reactions, maturity and his characteristic mood. The tests help in assessing a person's
motivation, his ability . to adjust himself to the stresses of everyday life and his capacity for
interpersonal relations and for projecting an impressive image of himself. The personality tests are
basically of three types:
• Objective Tests: These measure neurotic tendencies, self-sufficiency, dominance, submission
and self-confidence.
• Projective Tests: In these tests, a candidate is asked to project his own interpretation onto certain
standard stimuli. The theory behind this approach is that an individual will project personal thoughts,
desires, wishes and feelings onto this amorphous structure in an effort to give it some meaning.
• Situation Tests: These measure an applicant's reaction when he is placed in a peculiar situation,
his ability to undergo stress and his demonstration of ingenuity under pressure.
These tests are time consuming and must be administered individually. Extensive training and
experience are required to interpret them properly. Although projective techniques are used in personnel
selection, particularly at the executive level, the evidence against their use is overwhelming.
Interest Tests: These are designed to assess individual predispositions, motivation and application
orientation. These tests are used for vocational guidance, and are assessed in the form of answers to
 CHAPTER-6: THE SELECTION PROCESS i\1 Ir.·.

a well-prepared questionnaire, basically, interest tests include items about many daily act1v1t1es :➔ 11.u
' • • • 1

objects from amoµg which the test takers select their preferences. It is important to note tha1 j 1.J.;,i
because a person possesses a high degree of interest in a particular occupation, it is no t~wm:ntee
that he or she has the ability to succeed in that job. All it suggests is that the. individual's intere~ts
are compatible with the interests of people who are successful iin that car~er.
Two widely used interest inventories are the Strong - Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) and
the Kuder Occupational Interest Survey (KOIS)..
Speed and Power Tests: Some tests are constructed so that every item is very easy - the task is
to complete as many items as possible in a short time. When test performance is based prima rily upon
the speed with which one works, the test is referred to as a speed test. The other extreme, would he : i
test where the items were difficult and the person was given as much time as necessary to complete
the items. I~ such tests a person's score is based exclusively upon his ability to answer the questions
correctly, no ·matter how long it takes. This type of test is called a power test. Tests of clerical a.bil iiy
are an example of speed test whereas power tests may include, Tweezer Dexterity Test etc.
Essay and Objective Tests: The essay type test is perhaps one of _the oldest methods to test
the candidate's ability to organize his thoughts clearly and logically recapitulate important events,
dates .and relevant material. Lord Macaulay, has been credited with introducing this concept for Ow
Ind\an Administrative Services. On the other hand, objective test has one correct answer and doc-:;
not require a candidate to write extensively. Those tests try to check the powers of mental ab ility
.and reasoning and above all, find out whether the candidate is .clear in his mind and has understood
and internalized the concepts.
Language and Non - Language Tests: Sometimes it is important to distinguish between those
tests which require a knowledge· of a particular language (English) in order to understand either
the test instruction or the test items themselves. All such tests are called Language tests because
performance on them depends partially upon the language ability of the tests, regardless of t ypl: of
ability the test is designed to measure. In some cases it is desirable or necessary to avoid the Jangt1a ;1c
bias of a test. F or example, to test the mechanical ability of people who are illiterate, using the test
that has complicated written instructions would be quite inappropriate. To solve this problem, tests
have been constructed in certain areas which are "language free" tests. They require no languap_c
skill on the part of the testee. These are referred to the 'non-language' tests.
Computer - Assisted Testing: A dramatic innovation, computer assisted testing, was developed
at the Personnel Research and Development Cent~r of the U. S. Civil Service Commission. Designed
for large-scale group testing, computer assisted testing is nevertheless an individual testing situation
in which the person taking the test interacts with a computer. The advantage to computer-assisted
testing is greater than just the mechanical presentation of questions. This testing considerably reduces
the time needed to take a test. Testing can occur at any time a candidate applies for a job, not j ust
when a qualified test administrator is available. A wide range of abilities can be measured in a • ho n
period of time, thus ensuring that the motivation and interest of the test taker will not wane. /\ b o,
immediate feedback is available to the personnel department; the computer provides the applicant 's
scores in a matter of seconds.

This is, however, an expensive and sophisticated procedure that is appropriate only for l. 11 f L'

organi zations that regularly test great numbers of people.

 158111 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Th~ Thomas Profiling Hiring Technique: A variant of psychological test, the Thomas _P1· .;·.: :r.r
· Hiring Technique fom1S a vital selection device as well as offers insight into how the cand11..J;:-1 :,.· ,::rn
be developed after he signs up. It facilitates the best behavioural fit between person and the ' · r1 • l t
was devised by New York-based Thomas International Management Syste,ms in I 945. This techrt1que
is used by American Express and Digital Equipment India to recruit, train and counsel employee'., as
well as build teams. It can b~ adapted to suit different companies and employees' career aspira1 , . · s.
It embodies two elements.
(i) The Persona1 Profile Analysis (PPA), which highlights the behavioural characteristics of the
applicants.
(ii) The Human Job Analysis (HJA), which indicates the behavioural requirements of the .f<'.' ·.
The PPA measures an individual's behaviour in the workplace and indicates how the w.-:;.- ·d-
1
be employee sees himself, how he is likely to behave under pressure, and how he is likel y r·, )e
perceived by others. it is obtained by a 24 point questionnaire which can be completed within 10
minutes by the applicant.
The HJA compares the skill sets and behavioural patterns demanded by the job with those of
the candidate. Combining the PPA and HJA, it is possible to prepare Thomas International PrnL'; ·! g
System (TIPS). The Two elements together match the people and the job and thus, facilitate optimu :
job satisfaction and maximum p~ductivity.
Pros and Cons of .Psychological Testing: The primary advantage of psychological tests, ris a
selection technique, is that they can improve the selection process. Tests provide insights ab<r 1 · '
individual candidate, which may not be revealed in an interview or through the qualificatio1ic,
achievements listed. A testing programme such as the one developed by sears can be of gre,11 ·: ·
to any organization. Psychological testing offers objectively and standardised behaviour sampl e w l.. :- i1
ends itself well to statistical evaluation. Tests are less susceptible to biased interpretations on tJw :· ,;-t
of the examiner. Also, it is somewhat easier to conduct evaluative research on psychologic::i i ; . .,
than on some other methods of selection. A great deal of information about a person can usu~i,y ., _,
gathered in a relatively short period of time in using tests .
In tenns of predictive value, it is true that tests have been more useful in predicting ~;n r --.
in training programmes than in predicting successful job perfo1mance. In terms of the prcd ". , ! ,

efficiency of tests for various kinds of jobs, the following general conclusion can be drawn:
(i) For clerical jobs, tests of speed and accuracy have been very successful in predictin 1, c,l·
performance. Tests of intelligence and arithmetic are also useful. , ·

(ii) Tests fo~ j~bs sue? as assembly-line operator and general factory worker have proven va]\ 1;..' .- •

fo~ p~ed1ct10n of Job performance. Th~ primary kinds of tests used measure dexterity, ;,; , : :
ab1ht1es, and mechamcal comprehens10n. For some highly skilled jobs, general intell ipe :ic:·
tests are also useful. • ,

(iii) The cha~acteristics and abilit_ies required for a successful sales career are complex·. App<l lT r,: 1-. ,
personality factors are very important, but this in one area in which testing seems to be : _. .':--:
efficient.

(ii) The predi~tion of potential managers and executives has been a major focus of pei ,
psychologists, and many tests have been developed and applied with mixed results. Thr :... ,
of te st s used include projective and objecti ve personality tests and tests of mental abil1h •.
 CHAPTER-6: THE SELECTION PROCESS i\: I~•J

I
Tests are only as good as the quantity and quality of the research preceding and accompanying
their use. Continuous supporting research is required if psychological testing is to be a positive •
addition to a selection programme. The higher the level of the job, the more difficult it has been to
predict perfonnance by means of psychological tests. It is precis1ely these high-level jobs that are the
most important in industry and that demand better and more ·efficient means of selection.
As is the case with the other selection techniques, the usefulness of a psychological testing
programme to an organization depends on the amount of time and money the management is willing
to invest in the necessary psychological research.

Limitations and Dangers of Psychological Testing

From the basic description of tests, one should not conclude that a hundred
--~7 ,
st~_
-
percent prediction o( an individual's on-the-job success can be made through
· these tests. These tests, at best, reveal that candidates who have scored above
1Jl.*'., ,~
ver,·:
the pre-determined cut-off points are likely to be more successful than those who ;1-t,. 'J
have scored below the cut-off point. Tests and their users have been criticized
for discriminating against the deprived classes, because their social background has deprived them from
· getting familiar with tests. Answering a test requires a special orientation, even though one may have
the requisit~ knowledge, it requires a mental alertness and agility which test fa~iliarity breeds.
• One of the limitations of the personality tests is that it is possible in many cases to give a
socially desirable answer, which defeats the purpose of getting a candipate's profile. The use of tests
in the competitive and profit-conscious world of modern industry results in certain problems like
over promotion and competence of the testers.
A continual danger with psychological tests is their excessive and uncritical use by guliible
personnel managers who lack the ability to discriminate between good and poor tests. Tests may
have been oversold to those in a positi'on to use and abuse them. It is more profitable to bring out a-►
new test than to refine or modify an existing one. Obviously, if personnel managers were not buying
them, they would not be produced and promoted at such a rapid rate. All too frequentl y, a personnel
manager will choose· a test just because it is new, without making any attempt to investigate the
research conducted on_the test or the test's reliability and validity.
Even the best psychological tests are not completely valid. There is always a margin of error in the
prediction of job success. Sometimes unqualified people will be hired, but the reverse situation is also
true; sometimes otherwise qualified persons are rejected on the basis of their test performance. Chiefly for
this reason, a selection programme should not be based on a single device. The use of several techniques
allows for the gathering and evaluating of as much information as possible on an applicant.
One frequent criticism of the use of psychological tests for selection is that they lead to the hiring
of the same type of person not inclined to rock the boat, unimaginative, interested in preservin~
the status quo. The argument is that the truly exceptional and questioning individual is penalized,
particularly by personality tests, which guage everyone by a standard of normality. At any rate, mos1
organizations need both kinds of people, the conservative and the exceptional - some to perfom1 the
routine work and others to lead and challenge.
Another weakness and dangers of testing, independent of the quality of the tests themselves,
is the lack of care paid to the everyday business of giving the tests in an employment situation,
 160111 HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

-that is, sloppy test administration. This is a major indictment of the testing programmes of tl.t····
organizations. Such shoddy administrative procedures can negate the years of sound research devotl ·l
to developing the programme. One untrained or careless clerk can virtually destroy the effectivcn, ·· ,;
of the most expensive and thorough selection system.

Problems of Administering Tests in Industry

There are several problems that arise in giving tests in industry.
I
(i) Applicants or employees who perform tests are likely to be cautious.
(ii) Regardless of their success on the job, employees worry about the test, for they feel that poor
test performance may cost them their job.
(iii) Employer has a serious morale problem on his hands.
(iv) Much of the anxiety of employees can be relieved by statements to the eff~ct that the testing
programme to be used in the company in the future will depend upon whether the established
employees do well on the tests.
(v) The attitude of the examiner while administering the tests is important. He must know how
to cope with unanticipated responses during the testing. The person adm~nistering the k ~t
programme .not only shoul~ be trai~ed in psychological_ testing techniques; but also should
spend an apprentice period with an experienced examiner.
•
Precautions in using Selection Tests
Test results can help in selecting the best candidates if the following precautions are taken :
{i) Norms should be developed as a source of reference on all tests used in selection and on a
representative sample of people on a given job in the same organiz~tion. Nonns devel op,',.!
elsewhere should not be blindly used because companies differ in their requirements , cult ti. ,:,
organization structure and philosophy.
(ii) Some "warm up" should be provided to candidates either by giving samples of test, and / 0r
answering queries before the test begins.
(iii) Tests should first be validated for a given organization and then administered for selection c.t
personnel to the organization.
(iv) Each test used should be assigned a weightage in the selection.
(v) Test scoring, administration and interpretation should be done by persons having techmc i:
competence and training in testing.

Ethical Standards of Testing

In recent years, the general attitude toward psychological testing has become increasingly criti _. · ·.
Popular books and articles have attacked not only the use of tests, particularly in the pub1i..::
school systems, but also their widespread use in industry and government for selection purpo ,(·~.
Many people react with uneasiness, anxiety, or even fear to test taking, and this reaction 111 , ,
be mixed with suspicion and hostility. Labour unions have rarely encouraged the establishrn,.-; ·i
of testing programmes in industry. They seem to believe that testing serves only the compan:,·.
never the employee.
 I

CHAPTER-6: THE SELECTION PROCESS Iii 16 1

~ractic_es of
'
The American Psychological Association is justifiably concerned about the eth!cal
J~b~ m busmess.
all psychologists, whether engaged ip research in university or selecting persons for
This 1s harmful to
Some tests have been used for selection in the absence of adequate validity data.
.
the applicants and surely does not represent a concern for their dtgnity and worth
and use of
The ethics code of the APA discusses proper safeguards for the distribution
psychological tests.
Test Users. Those who administer and interpret tests should be aware
of the principles of
. They must
psychological measurement, of validation, and of the limitations of test interpretation
every effort to
adhere strictly to the standardized procedures for administering a test and make
achieve in the scoring and recording of test results.
Test Security. Actual questions from tests should never be reprinted in any public
medium such as
qualified users.
a newspaper or magazine. The sale and distribution of tests should be restricted to
Test Interpretation. Test scores should only be released to those individuals
who are qualifi ed
e of the personnel
to interpret them. For example, the scores _should not be given to anyone .outsid
training neces_sary
department such as the applicant's potential supervisor unless he or she has the
to interpret the scores.
Test Pu~lication\ Tests should not be released for use without adequate
background research
containing data on
to support the claims .of the test. Fully informative and current test manuals
not be released for
reliability, v~idity, and norms should be made available with all tests. It should
public use without an adequate objective data to support their merit.
One aspect of psychological testing that has come under attack in recent
years is the use of personal or intimate questions. Critics charge that such
personal probing is an unwarrante-d and unnecessary invasion of privacy. For
example, in personality test questions range from sex life to the condition
of one's digestive tract. Few people question the right of an organization to
·to be directl y
investigate job applicants. Certainly, personal characteristics that have been shown
no known relevance
related to job perfonnance must be investigated, but personal questions that have
constitute an un-necessary invasion of privacy and must be avoided.
Employment Interview:- The interview is the most frequently used selecti
on instrument, as it is
opportunity to check
one that provide an opportunity for a face-to-face interaction with the candidate, an
e is hired now a
out and clarify the data given in the application. It is extremely unlikely that anyon
selection techniques
days without being subjected to a personal interview. Regardless of what other
are used, every prospective employer seems to want the chance to meet ~ job candid
ate in person.
conversation fo r
The tenn "Interview" refers to a conversation with a purpose. It is a face-to-face
or counselling or
the purp~se of obtaining factual information, assessing the individual personality,
nel practice, ~md
~h~rapeut_1~ purposes. The employment interview is easily the most pervasive person
ew is three-fold-
1t 1s a cntical part of the employment process. The purpose of employment intervi
sal of person ality by
obta~n!ng infonnati?n, givi1~g information, and motivation. It provides an apprai
g, work hi <;tory.
obtam1_ng rele~ant mformat1on about the prospective employee's background , trainin
its personnel puli( 1,'s
education an_d m_terests. Further~it provides information regarding the enterprise,
between the empl oyer
and the specific Jobs to the _applicants. It seeks to establish a positive relationship
nd th tment with the
a e employee and motivate the prospective employees to accept the offer of appoin
 162 1// HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

company. The interview is an artificial situation, where the candidate is putting on the best 'face' :1nd
the panel .is trying to find out the ' real face'. Each individual is urique and therefore, each intervit w
should be tailored to tap that 'uniqueness' and relate the data to the job competency requiremrn 1 ,
Personnel departments and managers rely heavily on the interview a~ a selection tool and are
extremely reluctant to hire persons without the chance to meet and question them. Personnel psychologi•t\
on the other hand, are considerably less enthusiastic and optimistic about the value of the intervie·.. · · r
selection, the evidence shows consistently that the interview is not a good predictor of job success. The
predictive validity of the interview renJains embarrassingly low, a conclusion first demonstrated in l 915
by \Valter Dill Scott. Experience has demonstrated that no matter how many validity studies perso!lnPI
psychologists conduct, the interview continues to be used for selection purposes. As a result, personnel
psychologists are focusing on the mechanics and dynamics of this complex. face- to-face meetin;2: :.1
the hope of understanding its process and problems. The more we learn about what actually happ::Pf)
during an interview, the better chance there is of improving its usefulness.

Types of Interviews
Interviews used in industry differ according to their objectives. Two traditional kinds of interview
are the standard or unstructured interview and the patterned ·or structured interview.
The Unstructured Interview is characterized bY, a lack of structure or advance planning. So loo,,, i.,
this method that it is sometimes considered°to be ha~azard. The fom1at and approach to questiomr: .,
well as the questions asked are left entirely t•the discretion of the individual interviewer. A basic weakness
of this is its lack of consistency in assessing candidates, which in tum leads this method to be extre'1 .. ·I·:
low in predictive accuracy. Despite its recognized limitations, however, the unstrnctured intervie\
l
heavily relied upon in many organizations. Some companies use this ·approach as _a preliminary, .:_, t-
acqu~inted technique and follow it up in the selection process by a more strnctured interview.
The Patterned or Structured Interview uses a pre-determined list. of interview questions 'll'1t
are asked of every applicant in a particular job category. This method has been designed by Mc\ t!'. :l
to assess personality traits such as stability, industry, ability to get along with others, self - reiian,:·~,
\\'illingness to accept responsibility, freedom from emotional immaturity and motivation. The ratio•~:~:e
of thi s method is that an individual's past behaviour is indicative of his or her future behaviour. , :1is
approach provides a broad framework of the interview procedure for guidance of the inten-ic. :"·,
that is, planned to a higher degree of accuracy, precision and exactitude. Stress is laid on asse~·. .1 1

personality, motivation and interests. Training of interviewers causes agreement among judgements.
The patterned interview can be used in varied employment situations.
Informal fnterview may take place ·anywhere. The employer or a manager in the personnel departrr1tnt
may ask a few questions, like name, previous experience etc. It is not planned and is used widely whe:1 J.i
lahour market is tight and you need workers very badly. A friend or a relative of the employer may tal<.e
a candidate to the house of the employer or manager where this type of interview may be conductr--_\
Formal Interview is held in a more fonnal atmosphere in the employment office b~ i:c
employment officer with the help of well-structured questions. The time and place of the inter. , . . \
arc stipulated by the employment office.
i\on-directive Interview is designed to let the interviewee speak his mind freely. This in-,,.- .·.:
the minimum use of direct questions. Questions eliciting "yes'' or "no" answers are avoided. l .s
assumed that the more the intervie\\'ee is allowed to talk freely about himself or herself the : 11 •,-..
he or she is likely to reveal his or her personality in the interview situation. The intervicwci is
a careful and patient listener, prodding whenever the candidate is silent. The idea is to p,ivc-. !lie.
candidate complete freedom to "sell" himself without encumbrances of the interviewer's questions.
This method involves scoring difficulties.
Attitude Interview is designed to obtain information from the interviewee concerning his
attitudes about his job, the company etc.
Depth Interview is designed to intensively examine · the candidate's background and thinking
and to go into a considerable detail on a particular subject of special interest to the candidate. The
theory behind it is that if the candidate is found good in his area of special interest, the chances arc
high that ·if given a job he would take serious interest in it.
Group Interview has been devised to see how the candidates react to and against each other. '!'his
is designed to assess leadership. Usually, a topic is given for the discussion to a leaderless group of
applicants. The observers remain in· the background to assess as to who assumes leadership, how he
or she does ·so, and how he or she is accepted by other participants. It has been recognised that this
method provides opportunity to rate effectively such qualities as initiative, poise, adaptability to 11cw
situations, ability to get alongwith others, social awareness and speaking ability. Intensive research is·
needed to determine the efficacy of this method for selecting individuals for leadership positions.
Stress Interview is dhsigned to test the candidate and his conduct and behaviour by putting him
under conditions of stress and strain. This method is used in jobs where emotional balance forms an
essential quality."'Attempts are made to exert pressures on the candiqates by exposing them to rapid
firing of questions. Obviously, the interviewers appear hostile and unfriendly. This. is very usefo I
to test the behaviour of individuals under disagreeable and trying situations. This method has been
frequently used in the selection of spies and sometimes while selecting business executives. There
is no evidence for the validity of this method.
Panel or Board Interview is done by members of the interview board or a selection committ ee.
This involves use of several interviewers collectively interviewing a candidate and making a rc'l \ini•,
on several traits. This is done usually for supervisory and managerial positions. It pools the co1lective
judgement and wisdom of members of the panel. The candidate may be asked to meet the panel
individually for a fairly lengthy interview
Placement Interview is designed to evaluate the candidates -for the purposes of hiring, promotions
or transfer.
Counselling Interview is done in order to help the employees with any particular personal or
on-the-job problem which might be harmful to his performance both on-and off-the job.
The above two kinds of interview - placement interview and counselling interview, are not
used for the selection purposes. These are used for the employees who have already worked in the
organization. , . ~- .... !: ~ -· ::r . ~ •.--•....- - .-
'Situa:tional interview is to
Situational Interview is a recently developed type of interview. .: pr'eparj
:~:fist 0j critical ....
This is highly structured to meet the needs of a particular job. .:in-'fideiiiiiJ,it differe,idtiie ·
The interview questions are not designed to inquire into general · _'/J__ep"veen, c~e!'t ,succes.~fitl
characteristics, traits, or abilities, but rather into the actual behaviours . ().71:iJ:,unsupcessfitl
imp_l.oylies-· · · -'_
needed for the job in question. The job behaviours are detem1ined - · ~ - - •- ,
by a systematic job analysis conducted by the critical incidents technique.
 JM 1/1 HUMA N RESOURCE MANA GEME NT

a list of critical incide nts th:::t

The first step in developing the situational interview is to prepa re
ThesF incidents are written by
differentiate betwe en curr~nt successful and unsuccessful emplo yees.
visors determine bench marks fN
supervisors who have intimate knowledge o: the job. The _super l,
nts a~ questions, all of which
scoring the critica_l incidents. It is relatively easy to rephr ase the incide
are direct ly ·relate d ·to how the person would behave on the job
for .which he or she is apply ing. l
Because of the use of th~ benchmarks developed by perso ns who have
detailed know ledge of the job, l
the scorin g of the situational interview is objective: The situat ional
intervie"Y is quick to admin ister,
becau se the questions are directly
l
I

once constructed. Also, it increases the motivation of job applic ants

I

related to the job for which they are applying.

select ion proce ss, testin g ranks
Inspite of the wides pread increase in the use of tests as part of the
dolog ies. The ·selec tion interv iew
secon d in terms of the most frequently employed select ion metho
and Presiden~s.
is used for jobs rangin g from worke rs to executive Vice- Presid ents
ion purposes. The length varies
There is no stand ard time limit associated with interviews for select
attached to the interv iew as a
depen ding on the type of position, numb er of applicants, impor tance
based upon only seven emplo yment
selection device and perso nality of the interviews. In an early study
appro ximat ely twelv e minut es.
interviews, lJhrb roch (1933) found the interviewer durati on to be
ate as a select ion de vice
Model of the Selection Interview The interview is diffic ult to evalu
into the select ion proce ss. It must
simpl y becau se of the some what comp lex fashion _in whic l\it ·fits
asses smen t interv iew situat ion is
be remem bered that the basic purpo se of the interv iewer in any
nt to the select ion decis ion, and
twofo ld ·: first, to gathe r as much data as one can 41\1/hich are releva
the applic ant.- The best w ay to
secon d, to evalu ate the data availa ble and decid e to select or reject
ive regres sion equat iqn. (Fig 6.4)
view an interv ie,\rer is to invision that he acts as a s011 of intuit
ding upon 'the sourc e of inform ation
Bello ws and Estep (I 954) classi ~ed data into two categ ories depen
In the first categ ory are data from
for the interv iew with the purpo se of select ing the applic ants.
Fig. 6A: Model of the Selection Process
Total information about applicant
available to the interviewer
t
Data which are or could be
obtained elsewher e, but which Statistical Predic tor Model Statistical Prediction of
Success
= \'s
are part of the interview record
(e.g.; test) score, Biograph ical Interviewer Predictio n
information leners of can serve as input to the
recomme ndation etc. statistical model

Interview er

Interview ers Predictio n of

= VI
Success

Data which are complete ly

Human Predicto r Model
unique to the inter\'iew
process (e.g.; personal dress
and general manneri sm)

Validity of those predicto rs

truly unique to the interv iew = \.'' I
process
I CHAPTER-6: THE SELECTION PROCESS ijl 1tJ5

sourct;s not ~irectly ti~d to the interview situation itself. These auxiliary sources include letter or
~ecomm~ndation'. ap~hcation blanks, psychological iests. The second major category of data i!:.
m(onnation obtamed m the face-t?-face situation which is unique to the interview itself. For example,
data about the dress and mannensm of the applicant, his or her sppech etc. (Fig. 6.4.)
S~monds (1939) ·has listed a series of factors which he belie~es can influence the quality and
quantity of data collected ,in the interview: ·
• Fac_tors Inherent in the applicant (age, intelligence, sex, race, language ability, emotional need,
socioeconomic level, emotional security etc.)
• Fact?rs inherent in the interviewer (personality, social outlook, psychological understanding,
previous acquaintance with applicant etc.)
• Factors in the general situation where the interview is conducted (place, time, persons, present,
emergency character of interview, first, second or subsequent interview etc.)
• Factors in the form and content of the interview (content of questions, form of questions.
interpretation, suggestion etc.)

Limitation s of Interviews
It is fortunate that in at least. some ogga~i~ations the interview is not th~ sole selection technique
because it is not01;iously inaccurate by itself. There are a number of additional problems with its use
for selection that must be ov!rcome.
• Failure of Interviewers to Agree. A major problem with the interview is the difficultly 0f
getting several interviewers to agree in their assessments of the same applicant, particular! -.
with .the unstructured interview technique. The more highly formalized or structured is the
interview procedure, the greater will be the agreement among interviewers. This is feasible in
principle, it is not widely practiced.
• Failure to Predict Job Success. Even if the problem of interviewer consistency were so!veJ .
there remain the difficulties with the predictive accuracy or validity of the Interview technique.
The major cause for the lack of predicti ve utility is that the interview is a subjective interpersona l
process. The interviewer's assessment of a candidate can be distorted by personal prejudices as
we11 as by the nature of the interview situation. Interviewers tend to be affected much more
by negative information about an applicant than they are by positive information. One or two
negative items about a potential employee can cause an interviewer to overlook or ignore more
positive information, no matter how important it is.
• Stress of the Interview Situation. In an interview, it is natural to expect a certain amount
of nervousness on the part of the applicants. A trained and experienced interviewer can do
much to prevent or reduce applicants nervousness by trying to establish a rapport early in the
interview. How sympathetic , understandin g and friendly the interviewer appears can influence
the applicants' behaviour, which, in tum, influences the interviewer's assessment. Stres~ in the
interview situation can also operate on interviewers , particularly if they are behind in (heir
quotas and are being pressured by the home office.
Interviewers' Standards of Comparison: The Contrast Effect. Many interviewers sr -: ma,, 1y
1
•
1
job applicants, often one after another, and how they evaluate a particular applicant de1 c n l '-
on the characteristi cs of those persons whom they had interviewed previously. Interviewer'.- .
often do not have any standard for the kind of person who is considered a suitable employc•:.
 1661// HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

How favourable an applicant a_ppears depends on how good or poor the others are; in othc:
words, the standard for the suitable employee is constantly changing.
·• Interviewers' Prejudices. Another characteristic of interviewers that can influence their
1
judgemen t is th~ir own likes and dislikes. Men interviewers may believe that women are incapable
of performin g certain kinds of jobs. Majority group members may believe that minority - group
mimbers are unwilling to work hard. Biases can operate both ways. Just as interviewers may dislike
people with certain characteristics and disqualify them for a job regardless of their qualifications,
they may also hire others simply because they exhibit some ·characteristic the ·interviewer likes.

The Science of Interview ing

You cannot. hire quality people without a systematic approach to interviewing. Four basic rules guide
an int~rview process.
• Use the big guns - If you want job prospects to know that you are serious, high-ranking
executive should take the time to get involved in the interview process.
• Make interviews tough and technically demandin g even for people you know you want -- We are
a hard:-charging company in a tough business and have a no-non~ense way of communic ating.
People should know that before they sign on. At the. beginni,g of the evaluation process,
candidates receive a forn1 that lists the technical skills the position requires., with whom they
will be interviewing, and the questions they will be ~ked. This focuses the interviews and
alerts the can.didates to how rigorous the session will be.
• Interviews should lead to detailed assessmen t of strenghts and weakness, not vague impressio n•;
Our interview evaluation form include numerical scores ( on a scale of zero to five) that mirror
the technical qualifications on the requisition . The strategy highlight the specific strenghts anc!
weaknesse s of the candidate, particular concerns he or she has expressed about the job or the
company, and other critical issues.
• Check for Cultural fit - Most companies claim to do this, but few are very systematic . We probe
work attitudes and career goals through a questionn aire that require brief but direct answers : ;
open-ende d questions. The questionna ire forces candidates to be as specific as possible abc;:i:
hard-to-qu antify issues.
(Source : T.J. Rodgers: " No Excuses Management". Harvard Business Review, JuJy-
August, 1990.)

Interviewer Skills
A good interviewe r should have the following qualities:
• Knowledg e of the job or other things with which interviews are concerned .
• Emotiona l maturity and a stable personalit y
• Sensitivit y to the inter.viewe e's feelings and a sympathe tic attitude.
• Extrovert behaviour and considerab le physical and mental stamina.
There are certain interviewi ng technique s which can help an individual to become an effectiv-:
interviewe r. First, attempts should be made to prepare for an interview in advance. According ly, the
 I
CHAPTER-6: THE SELECTION PROCESS 11,167

intervie~ers should familiarise themselves with the job in question and collect information about
the applicants. Secondly, an attempt should be made t,o carefully begin the interview. Thus, the
interviewers should establish a rapport with the interviewee and place -·him or her at ease. Thirdly,
_enough care s·hould be exerted in conducting the ·interview. /Attempts should be made to get the
applicant to talk about re\evant issues. The interviewers may initially try several subjects but
subsequently should return on issues, where the interviewee 'froze'.

Guidelines for lmprovin·g Interviews

Not all interviews are effective. Their effectiveness can be improved despite of interviewer's skills,
if the following points are kept in mind:-

(i) An interview should have a definite time schedule with ample time for interview. It should
not .be hurried.
(ii) The impersonal approach should be avoided.
(iii) Interview should have the necessary element of privacy.
(iv) The interview should end whe!) sufijcient information has been gathered.
(v) The interviewee should be.told where he stands-whether he will be contacted later, whether
he is to visit another person, or it appears that the organization will not be able to use his
abilities.
Overall, as Yoder suggests, the procedures which can enhance effectiveness of interviews
include competent interviewers, training of interviewers, suitable place for interviews, planning of
the interviews, study of job description and having information available about the applicant before
the interview, understanding of own prejudices on the part of the interviewers, putting the inten iew
at ease, taking enough time, letting the interviewee talk, keeping the control of the interview, closing
the interview in a friendly manner, recording the facts obtained in the interview, while they are t'i:esh
and following up. Despite these guidelines, the interviewers should be sensitive and flexihle enough
to ·adapt their techniques and procedures to the specific situations.
A relatively recent innovation in interviewing is the use of videotape. This does not- involve
a traditional, face-to-face, question and answer interview. Rather, it is the applicant's side of an
interview that the personnel manager can see and hear, but not respond to, nevertheless, videotape
can save time and money for both employees and applicants·.
Employers can obtain much useful information by watching a tape of applicants describing
themselves their interests, abilities, values, and backgrounds. Clearly unsuitable candidates can be
eliminated before undertaking the effort and expense of other selection procedures. An empioyment
.agency with a file of interview tapes can greatly speed up the initial screening process for a large
organization. Some employment agencies maintain tape files of personnel managers descri bi ng the
requirements and advantages of available jobs with their organizations. The use o f th~ \ idcotapc
interview seems to offer definite advantages in the selection process and is rapidly gain ing
popularity.