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Stuart Paul
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Contents
2 Literature Review 13
2.3 Sources 13
2.7 Referencing 17
3
4
1 An Introduction to Business Research and Your MBA
Project Report
Learning outcomes
After completing the study of this topic you should be able to:
The prescribed reading for this topic is from the core text: Sekaran and Bougie (2010)
Research Methods for Business, Chapters 1 and 3.
Introduction
This short topic about business research and the MBA project will set out the following
key areas:
Therefore, you are about to embark on a journey on which you will not only learn about
research and how to do it, but you will also (with a bit of luck!) contribute to knowledge
and understanding in an area of your choosing.
• Quantitative data are data in the form of numbers and are generally gathered through
structured questions, often utilising structured questionnaires. Quantitative research
concentrates on measuring the scale, range and the frequency of phenomena. Data
from quantitative research are usually highly detailed and structured and are presen-
ted statistically.
• Qualitative data are data in the form of words as generated from broad answers
to questions in interviews or from responses to open-ended questions in a ques-
tionnaire. Qualitative research is more subjective in nature and usually involves
investigating less tangible aspects of a research subject, for example, values and
perceptions.
These are two descriptions applied to types of research with which you should become
familiar. Research is often described as:
• inductive or deductive.
Researchers adopting a deductive approach take the steps described earlier for induct-
ive research and reverse their order. They start with a theory that they find compelling
and then test its implications with data. That is, they move from a more general level to a
more specific one. A deductive approach to research is the one that people typically asso-
ciate with scientific investigation. The researcher studies what others have done, reads
existing theories of whatever phenomenon he or she is studying, and then tests hypo-
theses that emerge from those theories. Most quantitative research studies are deductive
in approach.
Once you have answered these two questions, consider the points below. Do your answers
match these?
Inductive/qualitative approach
Advantages
• Data can be gathered which is ‘rich’ in personal comment and personal insights.
• With interviews, respondents are free to answer any way they would like − they
aren’t constrained to a pre-determined set of possible responses as you might see
on a survey.
Disadvantages
• The findings are subjective and it can be difficult to generalise from the research.
• And, because time is very often linked with cost, qualitative approaches can be
expensive.
Deductive/quantitative approach
Advantages
• It can be an extremely efficient approach for gathering data, especially for large
groups of people.
• Quantitative methods are easier to replicate and this can make it easier for other
researchers to test your findings.
Disadvantages
• Not a particular good approach to take if you are trying to explain why things hap-
pen.
• Assumes that researchers can be objective, but researchers may allow their own
values and interests to influence the research.
• You need to use a large sample to be able to make generalisations from the results.
For your MBA project, the decision to adopt a qualitative/inductive approach or a quant-
itative/deductive approach will be determined by:
Stage 2. Undertake background reading on your research area and consider appropriate
research approach.
Stage 3. Refine your ideas to develop a research proposal and give it a title. Decide on the
most appropriate methods for gathering data, e.g. questionnaire, interviews. Continue
reading and writing for your literature review and about main research approaches.
Stage 4. Prepare information gathering ‘tools’, e.g. questionnaires, interview guide. The
questions you ask in a questionnaire or at interview will be determined in large measure
by key points to emerge from your literature review. Continue reading and writing for
your literature review.
Stage 5. Collect data for your research project. Continue reading for your literature review.
Finish draft of your methodology chapter.
Stage 6. Analyse your research data. Draft results chapter. Your literature review should
be 90% written by this stage.
Stage 7. Draft the analysis and conclusions chapter of you project report.
For example, is it marketing, human resources, finance, operations, etc? Write down
your thoughts. At this stage, keep your ideas broad and general. Save these to file.
Then, think about how you would research this area. Would you adopt a quantitative/deduct-
ive approach, for example gathering data through questionnaires? Or, would you adopt a
qualitative/inductive approach by conducting a series of interviews? Do you have access
to those you wish to complete questionnaires or be available for interview? Set out your
thinking.
The answers to the above questions will enable you to contact your supervisor and receive
expert advice and guidance.
Name, Degree and Class Name, Registration ID Number, email address, phone
number where you can be reached during your project work
2. Project Title
Give the title of your proposed project. Later, as you delve more deeply into
your subject, you may wish to change the original title to more accurately reflect
what your project is about. Your supervisor will advise you on this.
State clearly and concisely the purpose and motivation for your project.
4. Project Question(s)
What is your research question(s), what do you expect your work to accom-
plish, and what conclusions do you hope to draw from it? Please remember to
confine your aims to what you really can accomplish in the time available and
with the resources at your disposal. If you are going to work with a hypothesis
− what is it?
What do you personally want to gain from carrying out the research and how
you will know if you have achieved it?
What theories will you draw on to shape your research? What do ‘leading author-
ities’ in your subject area have to say about it? This information will help you
(a) to develop and support your own views, and (b) to demonstrate to your
readers that you are aware of such previous work in your field. Always include
references.
7. Sources of Data
What types of information will you need to collect in order to answer your
project question(s), where will you get it from and how accessible is it. Can
you get access to a Company or organisation(s)? There are two kinds of data:
primary, which you collect yourself, perhaps by using interviews, question-
naires or observation, and secondary, which has already been published and
collated for some other purpose, such as annual reports, management reports,
company surveys or the Internet, and which you can re-analyse to help answer
your research question. Be specific about what sources of primary and/or sec-
ondary data you will use in your project.
8. Proposed Methodology
What is your proposed research approach and research strategy? What meth-
ods will you use to collect and analyse your data? For example, if you are going
to investigate a problem in a particular organisation, what ‘tools’, such as inter-
views, questionnaires, personal observations, examination of written records
or of systems will you employ and how will you process the results? In short,
how are you going to get your information and use it in order to answer your
project question(s)?
9. Anticipated Problems
Give a very brief summary of the contents of each of your proposed chapters.
This provides you and your supervisor with an outline plan to work to. You
may have to make some changes as you obtain more information, but it is
essential to create such a framework at the outset.
How long do you expect to take to complete your project? State as precisely as
you can:
• when you expect your final draft to be ready, and the target date for com-
pletion of your project.
Final point − Your proposal should be 2,500−3,000 words. Once your proposal
has been submitted it will be marked and sent to academic staff in the business
school staff so that supervision can be arranged.
A copy of this proposal should be sent to Jean Shields in the business school
office.
12. Supervision
The supervisor’s role is to guide you through your project and to monitor your
progress.
Date: ………………
Having read through the proposal template, now move on to look at reflective exercise
1.4 and critique research proposal.
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
1.1 Introduction
The story below is one of the many typical complaints posted on an airline com-
plaint website (http://www.airlinecomplaints.org) describing passengers’ experi-
ences with CAP Portugal. CAP is the airline of PLC Travel Group, a leading inter-
national travel corporation based in Lisbon.
CAP − Nightmare
On 23 September 2010 I was flying from Milan to Lisbon and then to Faro
with CAP Portugal having the worst experience ever in my life. First of all,
the delay from Milan to Lisbon made me to miss flight to Faro. They put me
in the next flight 7 hours later which was also delayed for 3 hours and made
me to have a total time of 16 hours spend from Milan to Faro which is more
than unacceptable. I have had delays with other airlines as well in the past
but CAP is something different. They didn’t grant me the entrance to their
Lounge in order to find some quietness and make some phone calls to res-
chedule all my appointments which I lost due to their delays. I had to wait for
45 minutes at the transfer desk which was manned only with 4 people; the
slowest people I ever seen in my life, helping to form a queue at Lisbon air-
port of more than 200 meters with people who lost their planes. CAP People
were rude, barely English speaking, not helpful at all and when we at last got
on a plane they served us a lousy sandwich. From Lisbon to Faro they didn’t
had the smallest dignity to give us a glass of water, although they knew that
we were waiting the whole evening at terminal 2 at Lisbon where we could
not even get a sandwich to eat. At my return on 27 September from Faro to
Lisbon the CAP Pilot made the worst landing I have ever had in my life with
the most people in the plane praying. CAP means for me “Choose Another
Plane!”
PLC Travel Group was formed eight years ago by the merger of First International
Holidays with the tourism division of NTI Portugal. PLC Travel Group carries the
brands ‘Arches’, ‘Portugal International’ and ‘CAP’, and it is the largest tour oper-
ator in Portugal. PLC Portugal has its own airline company (CAP) and owns a fran-
chise chain of CAP travel agencies. CAP carries out charter and regular flights to
medium haul destinations such as the Mediterranean, North Africa and the Red
Sea and to long haul destinations such as the Caribbean. Today CAP’s fleet con-
sists of three (new) Boeings 737-800 and four (outdated) Boeings 767-300. Because
the Boeings 767 are rather outdated they need more maintenance than the aver-
age airplane. Despite an intense maintenance program, these planes have a lot of
technical problems. Consequently, the long haul fleet of CAP has dealt with a lot of
delays recently. New long haul planes have been ordered, but these planes will not
be delivered before 2016. This means that more delays will inevitably occur. For this
reason CAP needs to obtain more knowledge on the wait experience of passengers
during delays and the effects of this experience on customer satisfaction and the
evaluation of the service CAP provides.
This research proposal will address the problem and problem statement in section
1.2. Section 1.3 details the research questions that will help to answer the prob-
lem statement. Next, section 1.4 discusses the relevance of the project. Section 1.5
provides a brief description of the research design, whereas section 1.6 includes
information on the time frame of this study. Finally, this research proposal will provide
a selected bibliography.
Drawing from prior research in the areas of waiting, service evaluations, attribu-
tion theory, and mood theory, hypotheses are generated regarding the relationships
among a delay, affect, and service evaluations. The hypothesized relationships are
tested in a field setting involving delayed CAP airline passengers.
2. What are the affective consequences of delays and how does affect mediate
the relationship between waiting and service evaluations?
1.4 Relevance
Regarding the practical usefulness of the research project; this project gives CAP an
indication of their level of performance during delays and shows what the effects of
this performance are. The results of this project allow CAP to improve its service, to
keep people even during delays 'smiling'.
Taylor, S. (1994). Waiting for Service: The Relationship Between Delays and Evalu-
ations of Service. Journal of Marketing, 58, 56-69.
g. The specific research questions follow logically from the problem statement.
h. The specific research questions are precisely written and lead to observable
outcomes.
Do you think that the section “Research Design” provides enough information? Why
(not)?
Does the section “Time Frame” provide enough information? Improve this section
if necessary.
Topic summary
There are two key points to always keep in mind to ensure success in delivering a good
MBA project on time.
1. Think carefully about your research approach. Will it be deductive and quantitat-
ive? Or, will it be inductive and qualitative? This is key project and will determine,
in large measure, whether you will successfully address your research objectives.
2. Delivering your MBA project on time requires careful planning and execution. Develop
a plan and stick to it.
If you feel ready to attempt the End of Unit Progress Test for Topic 1, follow this link.
Learning outcomes
After completing the study of this topic you should be able to:
The prescribed reading for this topic is from the core text: Sekaran and Bougie (2010)
Research Methods for Business, Chapter 4.
An MBA project should enable you to look at a management or business issue from a
specific angle, to shape your thinking, and to spark useful insights on the topic of your
research. A good literature review should tell the reader about the key factors, frame-
works and theory about the management or business issue that you have chosen to research.
• Find out what other scholars have written about the topic you intend to research.
• To learn about the methods and approaches that other scholars have used in research-
ing the topic you intend to research. What methods have they used? Should you be
using the same or different methods?
• To learn about the theory that underpins the area you intend to research.
Finally, always remember that nobody will take your research seriously unless you can
demonstrate through the literature review that you know what other researchers have
found about the area you have chosen for your MBA project.
2.3 Sources
The first stage in a literature review involves the identification of published (and some-
times in an MBA project unpublished) sources of material about the topic you will be
researching in your MBA project. The quality of a literature review depends on the selec-
tion of sources. These may include books, academic journals, reports, theses, confer-
ence proceedings, and the like. For an MBA project the most useful sources are books
and journal articles. Books published by reputable publishers will have been edited and
reviewed while articles in academic journals are peer reviewed. The literature review in
a good MBA project tends to rely heavily on journal articles.
An enormous amount of data can also be found on the World Wide Web. Please note that
the Internet is unregulated and unmonitored. Therefore, reports and other information
which can be sourced through the Web should be used with caution. Think about who
has placed the data on the Internet. For an MBA project the internet can be source of
up-to-date and relevant information but be careful about its reliability.
Currency?
Authority?
Many of you will already be familiar with literature search techniques. Notwithstanding,
here is an exercise that will help you recap some key points about searching academic
literature. You should keep these in mind in order to make the most effective use of your
time.
Second, scan though the results and focus on those with academic domain names
such as …ac.uk or …edu.au. Academic sites are more likely to provide reliable data.
Download the information and see where it leads you.
Third, in parallel with the above approach, conduct a key word search on one of the
selected academic search engines such as Science Direct. The objective here to find
a recent academic journal article(s) covering the topic that you have chosen for your
own research. Such an article(s) will have an up-to-date set of references covering
your area of research; you can then set about reading the articles that have been
referenced.
Tip
Remember to learn word search techniques. There are there are three in particular which
you should become adept at using.
1. Learn to use AND & OR. If you want to enter more than one term into a search
engine you should link the terms with either the connecting word and or the con-
necting word or. Linking two terms with and will narrow your search to find only
results that contain both terms.
For example, a search using entrepreneurs and growth will find only the results that
contain both the term entrepreneurs and the term growth. It won’t find any results
that just refer to entrepreneurs on their own or just refer to growth without any men-
tion of entrepreneurs.
For example, a search using entrepreneurs or growth will find results that just men-
tion entrepreneurs, results that just mention growth AND results that mention both
entrepreneurs and growth. 2. This is a method of broadening a search by retrieving
all words with
For example: Recruit* would retrieve: recruit, recruitment, recruiting, recruits, etc.
Wildcards are another method of broadening a search where a word has more
than one possible spelling or you are unsure of the spelling. One or more charac-
ters within the word are replaced with a wildcard symbol (again the symbol differs
depending on the database used).
A question which is often asked by MBA students is: ‘how many references should be
included in a project?’ These can be no definitive answer to this − what we expect is
that a good MBA project will have comprehensive set of references. However, as a rule of
thumb a good project will reference in excess of 30−40 journal articles, books and web
citations. In addition another 5−10 references on research methods would be contained
in the methodology section. These references should be as up-to-date as possible with
most being from sources published in the previous 10 or so years.
• Introduction − this section sets out briefly the structure of the literature review.
• How can organisational culture be shaped and changed? − the literature about
this area could be summarised.
• Summary and conclusion − the key points to emerge from the literature review.
Having read through the proposal template, now move on to look at reflective exercise
1.4 and critique research proposal.
Tip
One useful tip in conducting an MBA literature review is to aim to find a small number
of recent journal articles in your research area. Look at how these scholars have written
their literature review. What do these literature reviews have in common in terms of writ-
ing style? Also, look at the references in these journal articles. These are the articles that
you should be reading for your own MBA literature review.
2.7 Referencing
Referencing is acknowledging your source in sufficient detail so that anyone wishing to
find the work you are citing can do so for themselves. In an academic body of work, it
is important to show the source of materials you have used or else you may lose marks
for poor referencing; and, if you do not reference properly your work may be regarded as
plagiarism. Hence if you use Lewin’s Change model without referencing Lewin, it will be
assumed that you are claiming the change model as your own − even if your name is not
Lewin.
In an MBA project, the sources are acknowledged briefly in the body of your text and then
at the end of your MBA project full details of each reference are presented in a reference
list. This is the standard academic way of writing and presenting references. Look at any
academic journal article and you will see that this pattern is followed. However, you will
see that the precise way of referencing varies from journal to journal and from book to
book. MBA students must adhere to what is known as the Harvard Referencing System.
There are various ways in which this referencing system is interpreted. The version that
you must use is set out on the UWS library website at: https://www.uws.ac.uk/about-
uws/services-for-students/library/guides-
and-online-help.
The importance of following the UWS rules on referencing cannot be over-stated. See
the appendix in chapter 4 of the core text for referencing and citing sources.
Charles sometimes feels that anchoring is like driving a car only by looking in the
rear view mirror; it will only show you what is behind you. He believes that if one
drives one’s car based only on what one sees in the rear view mirror, one will end
up with an accident. “In the late 1990s, for example, the stock market was going up
and investors simply jumped on the bandwagon and kept buying more and more
shares,” Charles explains to his roommate and best friend David. “Even though this
resulted in a stock market bubble, investors’ general tendency was to just leave things
be without making the effort to take any proper decisions with respect to asset alloc-
ation and risk − decisions that could have helped them to fare better in the future,
when the markets turned. If investors anchor themselves to the idea that the market
will keep going up, they will inevitably find themselves in a risk category that isn’t the
right fit for them, and they’ll be putting themselves at a great risk when that market
turns”, Charles continued. “Conversely, in a period of prolonged market downturn,
people tend to anchor themselves to the idea that stock prices are just going to keep
going down. This leads to an absolute disregard for investing in the equity market,
and results in a situation where individuals end up in a risk category that does not fit
them either.” Charles believes that what we are currently seeing is negative anchor-
ing, where people are framing their investments in the context of the most recent fin-
ancial crisis and all the negative news that they are constantly getting about the eco-
nomy, unemployment, bankruptcies and the like. Charles’ research project focuses
on whether and how market participants’ long-term stock return expectations are
influenced by anchoring effects and to what extent expertise reduces these effects.
After having developed a research proposal and a problem statement Charles is now
ready to engage in a critical review of the literature.
Explain the various functions of the critical literature review that Charles is about to
take on.
“The first step of a literature review includes the identification of the vari-
ous unpublished and published materials that are available on the topic of
interest, and gaining access to these.”
Discuss at least three different data sources that Charles could use and explain how
Charles will benefit from using these specific data sources.
Topic summary
In this topic we discussed the critical literature review. We started this topic by describing
various functions of the literature review. Subsequently, we discussed various aspects of
carrying out the literature review: data sources, searching for literature, evaluating the lit-
erature, and documenting the literature review. This topic also considered how to struc-
ture and write a literature review. Finally, we discussed two pitfalls you have to be aware
of when you summarize, add to, or challenge the work of others: misrepresenting the
work of others and plagiarism. Referencing theory and concepts is something you have
been doing throughout your MBA and it is assumed by the time you are doing your MBA
project you will be well capable of acknowledging the work of others. The appendix to
chapter 4 of the core text offers information on (1) online databases, (2) bibliographical
indexes, (3) the APA format for references, and (4) notes on referencing previous studies
and quoting original sources in the literature review section.
If you feel ready to attempt the End of Unit Progress Test for Topic 2, follow this link.
Learning outcomes
After completing the study of this topic you should be able to:
The prescribed reading for this topic is from the core text: Sekaran and Bougie (2010)
Research Methods for Business, Chapters 2, 9, 14 and 15.
Hi I'm Tom Keegan. I am one of the authors for Strategic Business Project. In this module
I am looking at Quantitative Techniques and Methods. The thinking behind this is to
prepare you for your project. We are not trying to turn you into a mathematician or a
statistician. Ideally we want to prepare you so when you work with data − any numbers
you are actually able to use those numbers in a way which is knowledgeable and actually
shows off your knowledge and address your research questions. Thank you.
Introduction
Quantitative methods are used and accepted in business and management research.
Throughout your MBA you will have been involved in quantitative analysis. Any time
you have analysed the figures in a case study or exercise you will have been quantifying
data. In the work place if you are looking at sales trends or trying to discern relation-
ships between resources used (inputs) against outcomes achieved you will be carrying
out quantitative analysis.
In quantitative research we are interested in what has happened, or how often some-
thing has occurred or how much has been produced. Quantitative research is particu-
larly appropriate when we want to apply a measure − in other words to quantify.
Using a quantitative approach to our data means that we assume that a numerical ana-
lysis of our data can yield valuable insights into the way that people make decisions as
these will impact the data. When we do quantitative analysis we are involved in count-
ing and measuring data in different ways, in estimating means and in finding similarities
and difference between groups. The point of this is not just to produce impressive tables
of statistics, but to give the reader an idea of what our data looks like and what makes
it interesting and meaningful. Note we are not attempting to turn you into a statistician
or a mathematician. The only objective here is give you the confidence to engage with
numbers in your strategic business project.
1. Measurement − the need to have measures for concepts and the ability to map
concept properties. There is a focus on rules and procedures need to be followed to
ensure the research can be replicated. The measures need to be able to reliable and
valid for what is being measured. For example how would you measure concepts
like motivation or business ethics?
2. Causality − the researchers want to explain why things are the way they are. They
seek to identify relationship between dependent and independent variables. They
also want to have confidence in their findings that the causal inferences hold true.
One criticism is that quantitative researchers fail to distinguish people and social insti-
tutions from real world. Another view is that the measurement processes adopted pos-
sesses an artificial and spurious sense of precision and accuracy. Other criticisms indic-
ate the view that an over reliance on instruments and procedures hinders the connection
between research and everyday life. A final criticism is that the analysis of relationships
between variables creates a static view of social life that is independent of people's lives.
An awareness of these views provides you with a balanced understanding of the differ-
ences between the qualitative and quantitative researchers stand points.
There is no particular best approach and at times perhaps students have preferred to
follow a qualitative approach because it may seem easier to carry out interviews or focus
groups due to a fear of numbers and statistics associated with quantitative techniques.
As has been stated in earlier sessions it is possible to have a mixed methods approach to
your research. For example you can use questionnaires and interviews, or you may find
that your questionnaires also have questions that enable respondents to provide written
responses as well as numerate one. Qualitative and quantitative research approaches
can complement each other. For further enlightenment consider reading up on triangu-
lation.
Hint: Essentially you need to consider how the management problem could have
been researched.
Dorothy Dunning, Chief Production Manager, was on top of the world just two
years ago. In her non-traditional job, she was cited to be the real backbone of the
company, and her performance was in no small measure responsible for the mer-
gers the institution was contemplating with other well-known global corporations.
Of late, though, the products of the company had had to be recalled several times
owing to safety concerns. Quality glitches and production delays also plagued the
company. To project a good image to consumers, Dunning developed a very reas-
suring website and made sweeping changes in the manufacturing processes to
enhance the quality of the product, minimise defects, and enhance the efficiency of
the workers. A year after all these changes, the company continues to recall defect-
ive products!
Qualitative research requires you to use numbers − any numbers, any data with num-
bers can be analysed by you. So that means, if you have inventory stock, for example, or
sales or customer enquiries or customer queues, or even just counting things, observing
things, are all able to be analysed. What we appreciate you have to do is to understand
how you can gather that data and make sense of it. What we are looking for is ability to
look for trends, patterns, to look for relationships. In doing so then able to get these find-
ings into your project and that's what we are hoping to do in the next few topics here in
quantitative techniques.
Questionnaires provide a critical communication link between the researcher and the
respondent, see Chapter 3 of the core text. To be effective the questionnaire must:
1. Who are you targeting with your questionnaire? Consider business executives, they
are busy people and may get a number of requests for information − what does this
mean for your questionnaire?
3. Who will complete the questionnaire − you or the respondent (target)? This has
implications on your time and questionnaire accuracy and return.
The questions you will use will require some thought. To a certain extent questions can
be standardised. There are initial considerations how complex is the information you
are seeking. This may require you to think carefully the sequence of questions, what
we might call a ‘funnel’ approach, see Figure 3.2. Respondents may not be comfortable
providing sensitive information so you need to think through the question sequence to
lead them there.
You need to consider if the respondent will understand the questions. So there is a need
to consider the terminology used, also the jargon, for example asking a manager a ques-
tion about the BCG (Boston Consulting Group matrix) assumes they know what you are
talking about!
The question content is important, but there is also a need to consider if the questions
are necessary, the dilemma is the number of questions to ask and if the questions are
sufficient.
We can also make assumption about data availability. If you think about it will the respond-
ents be well informed and willing to take part in the questionnaire, and will they be able to
recall or remember the experiences you are seeking, for example people often get con-
fused about adverts they have seen. Some questions might be embarrassing and some
respondents may provide you with what they think you want to hear. Equally if the ques-
tion is one that may reflect badly on them they inflate answers (bluffing), for example if
you ask about a respondent’s salary they may give a higher salary.
The questions can be designed in a way to ask for spontaneous answers, for example
what adverts have you seen recently? Or the questions could use prompts, for example
what soft drinks adverts have you seen recently? This might be seen as minor prompting,
showing the respondent the advert and asking them if they have seen it is prompting.
Question phrasing is important, you should make the question easy to understand and
easy to answer. This requires clear and simple words. There is a need to avoid biased
words or vague/ambiguous words. You should be avoiding leading questions and double
barrelled questions.
In terms of respondent response you have options in terms of open ended and close
ended. You can also have multiple-choice. For example:
• open ended
“What do you think of the choice of food available in the University canteen?”
• closed ended
• multiple-choice
A. The Herald
C. The Scotsman
D. The Sun
In terms of design and multiple-choice you have to think about options such as:
• ranking questions
• attitude scales
As we stated earlier in the topic there is a need to think about the question sequence
(remember Figure 3.2). The questions at the start should engage interest then move from
general to specific and end with personal questions (if required). One approach to think-
ing about question sequence is the acronym ORDER, see below.
Questionnaire layout is also important, you need to consider the paper quality, the length
of the questionnaire, spacing, font/colour/borders, routing and use a variety of question-
ing techniques. The object is to get who you send the questionnaire to complete it.
A final task is the process of pre-test, revision and final version. Questionnaires need
piloted, ideally 10−15 people (or 10% of your sample size), you are checking for clarity,
logical flow, routing and length.
Considering each of the questions in turn state whether you think the questions
could be improved. If so suggest an alternative. Once you have worked through
your answer have a look at the suggested answer.
Questionnaire: Outsourcing
my organisation is:
Comments:
E. All
Comments:
A. Multiple suppliers
D. Single supplier
Comments:
A. Service quality
B. Information security
C. Supplier management
D. Innovation
Comments:
what are/were the primary business drivers for outsourcing IT (please rank 1 to 5)?
A. Cost reductions
D. Globalisation
Comments:
what do you now see as the cost vs benefits of IT outsourcing in your organisation?
D. A mistake
Comments:
3.2.2 Observation
An alternative approach to gathering data is observation. This is a different form to what
has been described as observation in the core text. For example if you wished to investig-
ate interactions in a class room then you might count the number of times this happened.
If it was a mixed class you might want to look at the interactions between a tutor and the
female and male students, and you might also wish to look at interactions between stu-
dents (male to male, male to female, female to female). So counting and noting instances
can allow you to generate and then analyse data quantitatively. Equally you could be
observing people working, or customers in a queue, reviewing production quality, cus-
tomer service, etc. At the end of the day if we can measure the activity we can use quant-
itative techniques to analyse the data.
initial impression from your data. For example, you may believe that a firm's financial
performance has improved beyond that of its competitors. Your impressions of the firm,
and those expressed in the media, may not be related to the actual figures − but you
cannot tell unless you analyse it first.
Unless your data is clearly structured and analysed you will not be able to understand
it and analyse it and you certainly will not be able to convince others. This is why being
able to organise and describe your data adds value to your project. If you organise your
data well you will also give the reader more confidence in your project as a whole. Unless
you are downloading secondary collections of data, you will probably find that the data
you gather is not in a structure that will enable you to analyse it. For example, you may
have survey responses. You may also have data from different sources. You will need to
collect the data together and put it into form that you can understand and process.
Is there any best way to organise data? To some extent it depends on the type of data that
you have. If you have data that extends over a period of time (time series data) you will
often begin with a vertical column of dates or years. The main point is that the organisa-
tion can be easily understood and analysed. For example, if you wanted to find out the
impact of recent tax changes on the business community, you may have used question-
naires to gather data. The answers to your questions will provide you with initial data
about your sample, such as age, marital status and employment status. Hopefully you
have designed your questionnaire so that the different options are easy to organise. If you
assign a number to each questionnaire they will be easier to identify later. Some of the
questions will have numerical answers such as age, but to others you will have to assign
codes for the various responses. If you can put these into your questionnaire design ini-
tially it will save you time later.
After you have carried out the analysis of your data, one of the things we are going to do
next is to display the data. To do this, you have choices to make and these choices can
lead to bias. You have to think carefully about how you are going to present your data. You
can use charts: bar charts, you can use pictograms, you can use histograms, any manner
diagrams. The choice is up to you. How you use them is also where you speak to your tutor
because there is a danger you could introduce bias by leaving things out or bring things
in. For example, some pie charts, depending on what colours you use, can biased because
you can place emphasis on areas you want to place emphasis on. So think very carefully
about the diagram you use, and also does it add value to your project. Many students use
too many diagrams and they don’t add value because they are not discussed. So think:
do I need a diagram? If you do, make the best use of it. Lastly, many students forget to
label a diagram properly or use the right number. Think again about the proofing and
also what you want to project.
Misleading diagrams
From what we have read so far we can see it is important to consider how we present our
data. At every step we make decisions on what to keep what to leave in so even before we
start to present our data we are introducing bias. The decisions we make in what axis to
use and colours also influences our readers.
Can you see any bias or manipulation of the data? Make some notes then check the
suggested answer.
Source: http://img0.tuicool.com/2eyYfe.png
Figure 3.3 Apple SmartPhone market share
Can you see any bias or manipulation of the data? Make some notes then check the
suggested answer.
Source: http://media.nbcchicago.com/images/410*307/Fox's+Pie+Chart.jpg
Figure 3.4 The 2012 Presidential Run
Reflective exercise 3.6 continues the theme by looking at graphs.
Can you see any bias or manipulation of the data? Which graph appears to show
a greater increase in the use of cellular phones? Make some notes then check the
suggested answer.
Source: unknown
Figure 3.5 Cellular phone usage
Presenting data effectively is important and Figure 3.6 gets this message across very well.
See reflective exercise 3.7.
Clarity − are the most important elements or relations visually most prominent?
Consistency − are the elements, symbol shapes and colours consistent with their
use in previous graphs?
Necessity − Is the graph a more useful way to represent the data than alternatives
(table, text)?
As an MBA student, we expect you to be critical and sceptical of what you read. To do
so, when it comes to using Quantitative Techniques, looking at your own data, and also
looking at other people’s data, you have to ask several questions. The first of these may
be: How do they know? What's in it for them? Does it make sense? What's changed in
the data? By being curious and looking at these aspects of data, and looking at what is
presented to you and being critical, you might be in a better position to be more analytical
of your own work, more sceptical of your own work and produce work which is actually
very good. Because at the end of the day, we are trying to get you to present a very good
piece of work here which makes the best use of your data. To do that you got to make
sure that isn't bias in it, that there are no false claims. For example, if you look at adverts
on television today, they can make claims about some products − about 97% of them are
doing it. How do we know that it is actually true. So again by digging deeper and asking
those questions as well we are trying to identify what's actually going on, and also make
you a little bit more robust in your research.
have illustrated how the mean, median, and the mode can be useful measures of central
tendency, based on the type of data we have.
The three measurements of dispersion connected with the mean are the range, the vari-
ance, and the standard deviation.
Range refers to the extreme values in a set of observations. The range is between 30 and
50 for Company A (a dispersion of 20 units), while the range is between 10 and 70 units
(a dispersion of 60 units) for Company B.
Another more useful measure of dispersion is the variance. The variance is calculated
by subtracting the mean from each of the observations in the data set, taking the square
of this difference, and dividing the total of these by the number of observations. In the
above example, the variance for each of the two companies is:
2 2 2
(30−40) +(40−40) +(50−50)
Variance for Company A = 3 = 66.7
2 2 2
(10−40) +(40−40) +(70−40)
Variance for Company B = 3 = 600
As we can see, the variance is much larger in Company B than Company A. This makes it
more difficult for the manager of Company B to estimate how many goods to stock than
it is for the manager of Company A. Thus, variance gives an indication of how dispersed
the data in a data set are.
The standard deviation, which is another measure of dispersion for interval and ratio
scaled data, offers an index of the spread of a distribution or the variability in the data. It
is a very commonly used measure of dispersion, and is simply the square root of the vari-
ance. In the case√of the above
√ two companies, the standard deviation for Companies A
and B would be 66.7 and 600 or 8.167 and 24.495, respectively. The mean and stand-
ard deviation are the most common descriptive statistics for interval and ratio scaled
data.
Example 3.1
So to recap as we stated, a statistic is a number that describes a feature of your data.
Imagine we carried out a survey of students who enrolled at UWS in 2014.
The sample size is 598 and for the ages of those surveyed in 2014 the:
• average is 24 years and 11 months
• minimum value is 16
• maximum value is 73
The average, minimum, maximum and sample size are examples of statistics we can
use to describe our data.
Generally we use two statistics per data item. The first of these are measures of cent-
ral tendency − a single value the data appears to clusters around, so we have the:
• Mean: the average over the values.
• Median: the middle value.
• Mode: most frequently occurring value.
We also use measures of dispersion − how spread out the data is Standard deviation,
Quartiles and Percentiles. If we look at Figures 3.7 and 3.8 we can see a situation
where the mean is the same but the standard deviation is different.
Use dispersion to distinguish between the two. Note the standard deviation in the
The data that is more spread out has larger standard deviation. So statistics allow us
to describe our data.
(𝑂𝑖 − 𝐸𝑖)2
𝜒2 =
𝐸𝑖
where χ2 is the chi-square statistic; Oi is the observed frequency of the ith cell; and Ei
is the expected frequency. The χ2 statistic with its level of significance can be obtained
for any set of nominal data through computer analysis (Excel). See Table 14.2 in the core
text for an example of a contingency table.
Thus, in testing for differences in relationships among nominally scaled variables, the χ2
(chi-square) statistic comes in handy. The null hypothesis would be set to state that there
is no significant relationship between two and the alternate hypothesis would state that
there is a significant relationship. The chi-square statistic is associated with the degrees
of freedom (df), which denote whether or not a significant relationship exists between
two nominal variables. The number of degrees of freedom is one less than the number of
cells in the columns and rows. If there are four cells (two in a column and two in a row),
then the number of degrees of freedom would be 1: [(2 - 1) × (2 - 1)]. The chi-square
statistic for various df is provided in Table III in the statistical tables toward the end of
the core text.
Example 3.2
A manufacturing company has introduced Just-in-Time manufacturing and pur-
chasing systems and is conscious that a vital factor is the quality of bought-in com-
ponents.
As part of the programme of quality control, an investigation has been carried out
on Part No 8766. This part is bought in from three suppliers X, Y and Z − and the
results of a Good Inwards Quality Control Check on a sample of 500 components
were as follows.
Product quality
Good Minor fault Major fault
Supplier X 95 3 2
Supplier Y 190 7 3
Supplier Z 195 3 2
The sample size of 500 was chosen on the basis of the proportion of Part No 8766
supplied by each of the three suppliers.
Hint: expected number is the (row total × column total) / Grand total, e.g.
(480 × 100)
Supplier X: Expected value for Good = = 96
500
Required − investigate whether, based on the sample evidence, there is any rela-
tionship between quality levels and supplier.
Solution
3. Set up the contingency table and include row and column totals. The contin-
gency table in this example should have 3 rows and 3 columns
4. Calculate the expected values: Total column × Total row all divided by the
grand total.
Product quality
Good Minor fault Major fault Total
Oi Ei Oi Ei Oi Ei
Supplier X 95 96 3 2.6 2 1.4 100
Supplier Y 190 192 7 5.2 3 2.8 200
Supplier Z 195 192 3 5.2 2 2.8 200
Total 480 480 13 13 7 7 500
3.4.3 Correlation
A Pearson correlation matrix will indicate the direction, strength, and significance of the
bivariate relationships among all the variables that were measured at an interval or ratio
level. The correlation is derived by assessing the variations in one variable as another
variable also varies. For the sake of simplicity, let us say we have collected data on two
variables - price and sales - for two different products. The volume of sales at every price
level can be plotted for each product, as shown in the scatter diagrams in Figure 14.7(a)
and Figure 14.7(b). We can check for correlation between the variables. If the scatter
diagram slopes upward from left to right then we can say it is a positive correlation, if
the plots have no pattern then there is no correlation and if the scatter diagram slopes
downward from left to right we could state it a negative correlation.
A correlation coefficient that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship can
be computed by applying a formula that takes into consideration the two sets of figures
- in this case, different sales volumes at different prices. Theoretically, there could be a
perfect positive correlation between two variables, which is represented by 1.0 (plus 1), or
a perfect negative correlation which would be −1.0 (minus 1). However, neither of these
will be found in reality when assessing correlations between any two variables expected
to be different from each other.
A correlation coefficient that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship can
be computed by applying a formula that takes into consideration the two sets of figures
- in this case, different sales volumes at different prices. Theoretically, there could be a
perfect positive correlation between two variables, which is represented by 1.0 (plus 1), or
a perfect negative correlation which would be −1.0 (minus 1). However, neither of these
will be found in reality when assessing correlations between any two variables expected
to be different from each other.
• Tease out key themes from the data by applying a systematic analytical framework
such as coding.
Significance levels
When a sample is taken to test some hypothesis it is likely that the information gleaned
from the sample does not completely support the hypothesis. The difference could be
due to either the original hypothesis being wrong or the sample being slightly unrepres-
entative. It is important to test which of the two possibilities is more likely. The tests will
show whether any differences can be attributed to ordinary random factors or not. If the
difference is probably not due to chance factors the difference is said to be statistically
significant. As we are dealing with samples and random factors, we cannot say with a
100% certainty that a difference is significant. Various levels of significance are chosen,
most commonly 5% or 1%. Thus the result of a particular test might be expressed as:
‘the difference between the sample mean and the hypothetical population mean
is significant at the 5% level’.
See sections 15.3 and 15.4 in the core text for t-tests. The one sample t-test is used to test
the hypothesis that the mean of the population from which a sample is drawn is equal to a
comparison standard. We can also do a (paired samples) t-test to examine the differences
in the same group before and after a treatment. For example, would a group of employees
perform better after undergoing training than they did before? In this case, there would
be two observations for each employee, one before the training and one after the train-
ing. We would use a paired samples t-test to test the null hypothesis that the average of
the differences between the before and after measure is zero. Note it is also possible to
test the differences between the proportions of a given attribute found in two random
samples.
Topic summary
This topic introduced quantitative research methods. Essentially any data that is numer-
ate can be analysed using quantitative techniques. Quantitative research methods can
complement qualitative research methods and it is worth considering how you might
combine both approaches in your project. The topic indicates that questionnaires are
an appropriate tool for gathering data. Care must be taken in questionnaire design and
it is best to pilot the questionnaire to resolve any issues before it goes ‘live’. Observation
was also discussed as a method for collecting quantitative data. The topic indicates that
the researcher has number of choices in how the organise and present the data. These
choices can introduce bias and researchers need to be aware of how they might intro-
duce bias in the design of their research instruments as well as the administration of the
instruments and the presentation of the results. The data can be analysed using statistical
concepts and it is possible to describe the data in terms of range, ‘average’ and standard
deviation. Software such as Excel can carry much of the quantitative analysis and this
enables the researcher to consider relationships between variables and carry out hypo-
thesis testing.
If you feel ready to attempt the End of Unit Progress Test for Topic 3, follow this link.
Learning outcomes
After completing the study of this topic you should be able to:
The prescribed reading for this topic is from the core text: Sekaran and Bougie (2010)
Research Methods for Business, Chapters 1, 7, 8, 9, 13 and 16.
Introduction
Qualitative methods are increasingly used and accepted in business and management
research. If a manager needs to know only what has happened, or how often something
has occurred or how much has been produced, then quantitative approaches to research
would suffice. Such approaches are particularly appropriate when we want to apply a
measure − in other words to quantify. However, in order to understand meanings that
people place on their experiences, a qualitative approach is often required. In very simple
terms quantitative approaches tell us what things have happened, qualitative approaches
tell us why things happen as they do. The choice between qualitative and quantitative
research approaches depends on the area of investigation and the purpose of the research.
Neither is better; indeed, some research projects incorporate both approaches, often
called a mixed methods approach.
• The purpose and objectives of the research. This is the paramount consideration.
Ask yourself: is a qualitative approach the best means to achieve the purpose and
objectives of my MBA project?
• What are my skills? Do I have the necessary skill, personality and enthusiasm to con-
duct qualitative research?
The process of qualitative research invariably involves a much smaller sample size than
quantitative research. While sample sizes will vary with the qualitative technique employed,
these are generally small. For example, a dental surgery may wish to carry out a patient
satisfaction survey. If the surgery has 400 patients, a quantitative approach may involve
asking 100 of these patients to complete a questionnaire. A qualitative approach aimed at
assessing patient satisfaction may only require one or two focus groups or 8-12 in-depth
interviews.
Qualitative research involves non-probability sampling − that is, the researcher is not
attempting to generate a representative sample. Three main types of non-probability
sampling are common:
• Purposive sampling. Instead of obtaining data form those who are most conveni-
ently available, a purposive sample, also commonly called a judgmental sample,
is one that is selected based on the knowledge of a population and the purpose of
the study. The subjects are selected because of some characteristic. Researchers
who you might often see at a mall or in shopping centre carrying a clipboard and
stopping various people to interview are often conducting research using purpos-
ive sampling. For example, they may wish to ask shoppers about their experiences
of a particular shopping outlet. Another example would be a researcher wishing to
establish the views of senior business executives about the importance of health
and safety issues at places of employment. The researcher could attend a business
conference in order to ask those attending for a short interview on this subject.
In this instance, the researcher is attempting to focus on the target group. Pur-
posive sampling can be very useful for situations such as an MBA project where
a researcher needs to reach a targeted sample quickly and where a representative
sample is not the main concern.
There are two key questions which the researcher must decide before embarking on an
interview programme:
A group interview is an interview which involves more than one interviewee. The num-
ber of interviews at a group interview can vary from two (sometimes referred to as a dyad)
to four or five. When the number of individuals exceeds this number, the researcher is,
in essence, conducting a focus group (see below). In general, the smaller the number of
interviewees, the more in-depth a group interview can be. In larger group interviews, a
greater range of ideas and views can be covered. In terms of composition, groups can
be homogeneous, that is comprised of similar individuals who share the same or similar
backgrounds and experiences. Groups can also be heterogeneous, that is, comprised of
individuals who have different backgrounds and experiences. For an MBA project with a
focused research topic it is likely that group interviews will comprise of individuals who
are homogeneous. Larger group interviewing, for example of more than 6 individuals,
usually takes the form of a focus group. Those being interviewed are usually chosen on
the basis of their expertise and/or experience of the topic on which information is sought,
thus focus group members are likely to be described as homogeneous. For example,
human resource managers may be brought together in order to discuss the key factors
in the recruitment of specialist ICT staff. Focus groups are used extensively in market
research and, with use of technology, their use is being extended with ever-greater use
being made of online focus groups. Whatever the precise form that a focus group takes,
a skilled moderator is required if this method is to successfully address a research topic.
Moderation skills require specific training and experience. Thus, unless you have exist-
ing experience of running focus groups, this technique is not generally recommended
for an MBA project. Your supervisor will advise on this.
Phase 2
Phase 3
a. Use the angel investment process to provide structure and to get the business
angel talking.
b. Identification of investment opportunity − How did you learn about it? From
whom did you learn about it? What attracted you to the opportunity?
f. Throughout the interview, bring interviewee back to reasons for the invest-
ment. Focus on specific reasons − try to avoid generalities, where possible.
Phase 4
a. Attempt to get interviewees to talk about critical incidents. Ask: what do you
know now that you wish you had known when you started out as a business
angel?
Phase 5
a. Wrap-up. Ask interviewee if any significant factors have been missed in rela-
tion to learning to be successful as a producer.
b. Thank interviewee and ask if you could, if necessary, contact then again to
clarify any points.
Tips
a. Always chooses a setting with the least distraction and in which the interview will
feel comfortable.
c. Occasionally verifies that the recorder is working, (worth doing before the inter-
view as well!).
Note: Experienced researchers find that preparing an interview guide takes several
iterations. Therefore, keep your first attempt at preparing an interview guide. This
may well be the draft you refine several times to arrive at your final interview guide.
The cornerstone of qualitative analysis is the coding of the interview transcripts. Cod-
ing requires the researcher to transcribe the interviews and then to read the transcripts
several times to pin-point the themes which have emerged. For example, what did the
interviewees say that was surprising? What was said that was common to all or a number
of the interviewees? At a basic level, coding is simply any way of categorising and sorting
data for the purposes of analysis. In qualitative research coding can be done at the end
of the interview programme or as each interview is completed. In an MBA project it is
recommended that you analyse each interview as soon as possible.
The first stage of the coding process is a ‘trawl’ through the interview transcripts to see
what is there − what patterns are emerging from the data? As you read the transcripts
note down the thoughts and ideas that occur to you as you read the data − it is advisable
to write these down as you read. One tip is to format your interview transcripts with a
wide margin that gives you the space in which to write. From this reading or ‘sort’ of the
data you will have developed an initial coding scheme. The second stage of the coding
process is to re-read your data in order to refine, expand or reject initial categories. Once
you have identified the significant elements in your data these need to be ‘tagged’ or
coded. A code is essentially a way of identifying significant parts of the data, so it can be
in any form of letters or numbers that make sense to you.
This exercise requires you read through this verbatim interview transcript between an
experienced researcher and an interviewee. The subject matter was about undertaking
sporting activity as a means of keeping fit.
Interview transcript
Male, age 35
A: Well I don’t think there was any one reason − it was always there, my parents
encouraged me to be active and then we did sport and PE and stuff like that at school,
so no one reason, like many young lads I dreamed of being a footballer.
A: I still play football but not much, I can’t keep up with the younger lads anymore!
Sounds daft as I don’t think of myself as being old but the eighteen, nineteen year
olds just run faster than me, even though I go jogging every day.
A: Oh yeah, I hurt my knee a while back, got a knock in a match and couldn’t do much
for a couple of months, I started putting on weight just sitting around, all the blokes
in our family are a bit big and working in an office means I don’t get any exercise at
work so yeah, I need to do it.
Q: Football and jogging are very different, one’s a team game and the other you do on
your own, or do you go jogging with anyone else?
A: When I was playing regularly I was jogging anyway, you need to do that to keep
your stamina up but yeah, playing football is all about the team, it’s like no one’s
bigger that the team − well in theory (laughs) − so it’s a lot about having mates and
you’re all in it together as much as actually kicking the ball around. Sometimes we
would train together − well that sounds a bit serious but it was like that, so we would
go jogging together once a week or sometimes more. But then people move on, they
change jobs or whatever and stop coming along. Sorry, what was the question again?
A: Oh right, yes. The missus came out with me a few times but she couldn’t keep up,
she goes to the gym now with her friends. So I go out on my own.
A: I try and go every day, once you get into it you notice the difference when you
don’t.
A: Mostly, but not if it’s pelting down, playing footie you get used to that, it just comes
with the territory, I’ve played footie in the pouring rain, you see I think if you’re going
to do it you can’t get all picky and stop going because it’s cold or dark, no point in
that, so unless it’s really tipping it down I’ll go out.
Q: Just before, you mentioned the social side of sport, with the football team, can you
tell me a bit more about that?
A: That goes way back to school, I was picked for the first team a couple of times and
for a while thought I was going to be pulling on an England shirt but (laughs) I guess
every other kid in the team was thinking that! But yeah, it was part of something,
even when I was in the second team and tagged along I still had the feeling that I
belonged. Then when I went to sixth form college I joined a team there and that was
great, we had a lot of laughs, some good nights in the pub after a match, stuff like
that, and then I used to go and watch Aldershot when they played at home, with
them being my local team.
A: Well not so much now, I mean when I was a kid all the lads supported teams and
some went for the big ones like Man United or Arsenal, but to me and some of the
lads it was Aldershot as they were our local team, they were like ours, right? But that’s
all about having a good time with your mates really.
A: Yeah, well I went last Easter when I was down there visiting the parents, some of
the old crowd are still there and I met up with them, it was a laugh, if they came up
this way for a cup match I’d probably go.
A: Yeah well in school we did some, but to me it was always football, I never liked
cricket, rugby’s Ok, I watch that if it’s on the box.
A: Match of the day, most matches that are on, world cup of course, rugby, maybe
some athletics, I like the Olympics but that’s it, I’m not that much of a sports nut.
A: (laughs) No, well sometimes if she can’t be bothered moving of the sofa, she’d
rather watch East Enders and girly stuff like that, but we’ve got two tellies in the
house so we can both watch different things if we want, and we have broadband
as well but the kids are on that all the time.
Q: I know what you mean, we do that in our house as well. Now you said your wife
goes to the gym, have you ever thought of that?
A: Well, you go in, and there’s all this music, and people on machines wearing all
these fancy clothes and they’re like jogging on these machines but they aren’t going
nowhere, well I just didn’t like it, I mean why pay money to jog nowhere, when you
can jog somewhere for nothing? Even if it’s just round the estate.
A: Now you’re sounding like my missus! But I don’t really care about that, I just didn’t
like it, tried it and fair enough for them that like it but it’s not for me. Do you go to a
gym?
A: Well there you go, it was just like that for me, I didn’t like it.
After reading the interview once, print a paper copy. Read it again marking directly onto
the paper copy any key points or themes which emerge from the transcript as you read.
What you are doing is coding!
Once you have tried coding this interview, look at the way an experienced researcher has
done this.
Codes are often developed in terms of main categories and subsidiary ones. So in
the example above we would have:
If we were to read through more transcripts of the interviews, we may probably add
to those so we could end up with something that looked like this:
Types of sport:
Football
Jogging
Rugby
Badminton
Cricket
Subsidiary codes
A1 Football
A2 Jogging
A3 Rugby
A4 Badminton
A5 Cricket
Exactly how one develops a coding scheme varies from researcher to researcher. What is
important is to use and develop a system that works for you and that you would be pre-
pared to explain to your supervisor. What your supervisor is looking for is that you have
approached the task of data analysis with rigour and thoroughness. Always remember
that the process of coding is simply a way of sorting your data for analysis, it is not the
analysis itself.
Coding is not always a continuous process in which you go from document 1 to 2 to 3 until
you reach the end. It is not uncommon to be reading a transcript and then remember one
you had read a while ago, so quite often you will find yourself dipping in and out of your
transcripts, adding new ideas and new codes, the important point is that you subject all
your material to a close reading.
Some people argue that you need to approach the data without preconceptions and allow
the themes to emerge from the data. This is not possible if the data you are using has been
gathered by you. If you have been interviewing people then you cannot help but begin
thinking about it from the moment you hear it. This is not a problem but you need to be
aware of it.
Finally, you will recall that we addressed the question about how many qualitative inter-
views should be conducted. In similar vein, a question often asked by MBA students
is ‘how many main codes should emerge from a research interview?’ This is a difficult
question on which to give specific guidance. It will depend on both the subject matter
of the interview and the ability of the researcher to keep the interviewee focused on key
issues. As a general guideline, an experienced researcher would expect 3−6 main codes
to emerge. These would then be consolidated into a similar number of themes by com-
paring the findings from all the interviews.
What do you judge would be your biggest challenge in conducting research inter-
views?
Topic summary
Rigorous qualitative research is challenging. Experienced researchers in this area:
2. Know the advantages and disadvantages of the main types of interview − indi-
vidual, group, internal and external.
5. Tease out key themes from the data by applying a systematic analytical framework
such as coding.
If you feel ready to attempt the End of Unit Progress Test for Topic 4, follow this link.
Learning outcomes
After completing the study of this topic you should be able to tailor your MBA project report
to meet the UWS requirements.
The prescribed reading for this topic is from the core text: Sekaran and Bougie (2010)
Research Methods for Business, Chapter 17.
Table of Contents
The Table of Contents will offer to the reader an understanding of the logical structure
of the report. The reader will be able to identify the main heading and subheading and
consequently the main topics of the report/dissertation. The example given in your core
text is shown below and contains useful advice.
Example
TiasNimbas Business School guidelines for the table of contents
The table of contents contains the headings and subheadings of the chapters and
sections of your research project, with the numbers of the pages on which these
chapters and sections begin. The outer cover page and management summary are
not entered in the table of contents and therefore the first item to be listed is the
preface.
The minimum content of the table of contents should be the preface, each chapter
or main division title, each appendix and the bibliography. All headings should cor-
respond exactly in wording, arrangement, punctuation, and capitalisation with the
headings as they appear in the body of the dissertation.
A main heading or chapter title is given entirely in capitals and begins at the left-
hand margin of the page. Main subheadings should be indented and typed in upper
and lower case. Subordinate subheadings should also be indented. Chapters, sec-
tions of chapters, and subsections, etc., are numbered using Arabic numerals in a
decimal sequence. Thus the third subsection of the second section of chapter three
is numbered 3.2.3.
The number of the page on which the division begins in the text of the manage-
ment project is given in the table of contents in Arabic numerals flush with the right-
hand margin of the page. Double-spacing is used except for overrun lines, which are
single-spaced.
1. Introduction (§1.1).
2. Reason for the research (problem indication) and the purpose of the research
(§1.2).
You will see from the above that the last section of your introduction should set out the
overall structure of your project. Here is an example of how one MBA student wrote this
short section − the project focused on customer satisfaction in the manufacturing of fast-
moving consumer goods.
This strategic project is set out in the following way. This introduction is followed by
a literature review chapter which appraises the main theoretical models and existing
literature in the area of customer satisfaction in the manufacturing of fast-moving
consumer goods. A description of the quantitative methodology employed to con-
duct the empirical research on customer satisfaction levels is then set out. Results
of the research are then reported followed by a chapter discussing the key findings
in relation to the existing literature. The project concludes by setting out a series of
recommendations for the company to consider in developing its future customer
satisfaction strategy.
b. a discussion of the theoretical perspectives which previous writers have used for
investigations in your chosen field;
c. a summary of the main empirical findings of previous research, together with data
from other sources, stressing those ideas and empirical findings which are import-
ant to your work and including those which you challenge and reject as well as
those that you have used for your own study;
e. a conclusion, which summarises the building blocks you have selected as a basis
for your own work, and which leads the reader into the following chapters.
Tip
Do not overuse direct quotes from articles and books in this chapter − in this way any
direct quotes that you do use can have an impact.
a. An introduction.
b. A brief outline of the research approach you selected and the reasons for your choice;
for example, justify why you selected a quantitative or qualitative approach, or a
combination of both.
c. A detailed account of how the data was collected. For example, was it by inter-
views/questionnaires? How many interviews? How many questionnaires distrib-
uted/returned?
f. Limitations of your methodological approach − every method has its strengths and
weaknesses. summarises the building blocks you have selected as a basis for your
own work, and which leads the reader into the following chapters.
Note: This chapter of an MBA project would normally contain references on research
methods, particularly in relation to the choice of research approach and the methods
used to collect and analyse the data. Such references would usually cite key books on
research methods that you have consulted during your MBA project. As a rule, a good
MBA project would cite about 3−6 sources.
You should give careful consideration as to how you will present your findings. You will
have a range and volume of data, which you need to summarise and present and you
may use a variety of methods, including tables, charts, diagrams, verbatim quotes etc.
You will also need to contextualise the data and point out any weaknesses/ omissions
in your material. Also, remember that this chapter also needs a short introduction and
conclusion.
Note: you would usually cite any references in this chapter of your project − your focus
is on presenting your results.
Tip
If you have used interview questions, remember to include some actual quotations that
support the points you are making.
Tip
Imagine that your MBA project is about how to develop an effective recruitment strategy.
If, for example, your literature review has led you to suggest that there appear to be, say, 6
key factors to consider when developing a recruitment strategy, you may wish to consider
using these 6 factors things as sub-headings as a framework for presenting your findings.
If there are additional factors that you have found in your research these should also be
noted here, as these lead on to your Analysis and Conclusions chapter.
Please note that on occasions this chapter is split into two: analysis and conclusions.
Tip
To follow on from the last tip given on the results chapter, you should highlight in this
chapter what can be added to existing theory or our general academic knowledge in the
light of your investigation. For example, the literature might suggest 6 key factors, but
your investigations may have led you to suggest a few more or that only four mattered.
References
Full details of any references cited in your project should be set out in a reference list.
There is no need to set a bibliography of any texts or articles not referenced in your pro-
ject.
Appendices
Appendices are placed at the end of your project after your References and do not count
towards the overall word count of your MBA project. This is where to put material that
is not crucial to your project but which provides support for, or background to, your
research. This is a way of getting bulk material out of the main body but it is not a dump-
ing ground.
• survey data
Tip
Big does not mean better. Expecting an examiner to search through pages of data is unpro-
fessional.
Finally, experience of supervising MBA students over a number of years suggests 7 key
writing tips which will help you approach the MBA project professionally.
1. Good writers continually revise and rewrite until they are satisfied with the final
result. Don’t underestimate how long this can take.
2. Always keep in mind your original research aims and research questions and remind
the reader of these at regular intervals.
3. Start writing early. Do not try writing the report all at once. Give yourself plenty
of time for revision, correcting and for formatting the document − this can be very
time-consuming. Discuss and agree with your supervisor arrangements for send-
ing and returning completed text to each other.
4. ‘Write with your ear’. A sentence may look correct on paper, but often sounds
jumbled or rambling if read aloud. Listen to your sentences in your head as you
write.
5. ‘Write for the eye’. Make your project report visually appealing, (see the guidelines
on line spacing and type font in your MBA project handbook).
6. Make your writing clear and simple. Avoid long, convoluted sentences. Don’t use
twenty words, if ten will do. Be ruthless by editing out redundant words and sen-
tences.
7. If you are concerned about your spelling and grammar, have your chapters proof
read before you hand them to your supervisor. A good proof reader will point out
any spelling or grammatical errors − but leave you to decide whether to make the
corrections or not. Do not expect your supervisor to act as a proof reader.
Topic summary
Three key points should always be kept in mind:
1. We expect you MBA project to be between 10−15,000 words. Make every one count.
2. Keep to the structure suggested − only depart from it with the agreement of your
supervisor.
3. Follow the writing advice given in this chapter − it has worked for other students
and, therefore, is likely to work for you.
See Appendix 5.1 for the MBA marking scheme, this should provide an overview of the
structure for your project as well as the questions you need to ask as you draft each sec-
tion.
If you feel ready to attempt the End of Unit Progress Test for Topic 5, follow this link.
I. Introduction
i. Does the introduction set out the overall aim and reasons for the study?
iii. Are organisational considerations given? Do they add to the reasons for the
study? Are other pertinent issues discussed?
iv. Does this review suggest research approaches, strategies and data-collection
methods?
III. Methods
ii. Is there a link to the literature review and the theory and approaches discussed
there?
iv. Does the candidate demonstrate capacity for application and accurate, appro-
priate use of techniques?
ii. Is a distinction maintained between what was discovered and the judgements
made on the basis of discoveries?
iii. Are findings presented clearly and cogently? You might consider whether there
is a relationship between objectives and/or themes and order of presentation
of findings.
v. Does the candidate demonstrate a capacity for synthesis of results, theory and
the work of others when discussing the findings?
V. Conclusions
ii. Are conclusions and recommendations valid? That is, have they been reached
logically? Does the evidence support them?
ii. Is the document appropriately structured? Does it conform with the Guidelines
on the MBAOW site?
iii. Do you have an overall sense that the student has considered a flow of activity
involving the broad questions:
What is the question? What is its answer? What evidence led to the answer?
vi. Are the conclusions germane? Are the ideas in the introduction and conclu-
sion appropriately linked?