TS eS Mathematics 1 The book is designed mainly for the courses: lbs uebiat ulbitesl tf LSS BS ibis pea NANETTE Addisa W/Meskel / Bizuneh Minda / Getaeheu Bitew Temesgen Alemu / Tilahun Esayiyas Pe CU CCT SCM ris iE) |University Mathematics II By Addisu W/Meskel Bizuneh Minda Getachew Bitew Temesgen Alemu Tilahun Esayiyas (M.Se.) (M.Se.) (M.Sc.) (M.Se.) (M.Sc.) January, 2017About The Authors The authors of this book have a minimum of Nine years of teaching experi- ence as lecturer in different Ethiopian universities. Currently, they have been working at Addis Ababa University, Department of Mathematics. Previous work: University Mathematics I Writers’ Address: university.math2015@yahoo.com Telephone Number: 0911-73938, 0911-553949, 0911-57052 Copyright ©2017, All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means; electronic or mechanical including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the writers.Preface In this book, University Mathematics II, we strongly encourage students to engage with the subject and to think along with the book, gaining a solid understanding of the underlying concepts. We take care of fully explain the concepts in a clear and highly accessible style. Without losing mathematical accuracy. we consistently opt to use intuitive arguments in place of rigorous proofs. In preparing this book, we have benefited from many valiable com- ments and suggestions from users of the first book, University mathematics I These enable us to work hard and produce a contemporary book that inspires the readers. We also seek to foster students’ conceptual understanding by making con- to the book "University Mathematics I” and subsequent material in the exposition, solved problems and exercises. We employ many interesting applications and applied examples to illustrate how calculus topics are con- nected to each other and to the real world. nections This material contains two parts Part I. Infinite Series Part II. Calculus of Functions of Several Variables. Part I is comprised of chapter 1 to 3. A thorough discussion of Sequence and Series is contained in chapter 1, Power Series in chapter 2, and Fourier Series in chapter 3. Part I] consists of four chapters; chapter 4, “Preliminaries” chapter 5. “Limits and Continuity,” chapter 6, "Partial Derivative and its Applications.” and chapter 7, "Multiple Integrals and their Applications.” The chapters are subdivided into relatively short sections. Each section ine cludes typical examples and problems illustrating the concepts, methods, and results with their applications that help students conceptualize the material by themselves The book provides concepts in sequence and series, power series, Fourieriii series, calculus of functions of several variables with some important ap- plications that are appropriate for engincers and scientists. The theory is presented in a rigorous way and the language, notations, illustrations, and examples have been carefully chosen so as to make the expositions as clear as possible Pbag January, 2017 University Mathematics I bag4 reer es te ge Contents Preface I Infinite Series 1 Sequences and Series 1.1 Definition of a Sequence . . 1.2 Convergence and Divergence of Sequences ....... 1.3. Convergence Properties of Sequences 14 Monotonic and Bounded Sequences. . . 1.4.1 Testing for Monotoncity 1.4.2 Bounded Sequences . ‘ 1.4.3 Monotone Convergent Theorem ....... 1.4.4 Convergence of Recursively Defined Sequences 1.5 Subsequences and Limit Points of a Sequence Solved Problems Exercises . : 1.6 Infinite Series 1.7 Convergence of a Series - 1.8 A Test for Divergence of a Series 1.9 Tests for Positive Series .......- 1.9.1 The Integral Test 1.9.2 The p-series Test 1.9.3 Comparisons of Series 1.9.4 The Ratio Test . 1.9.5 Then" Root Test 1.10 The Alternating Series Test... ....--+--- 1.11 Absolute Convergence sees 1.12 Generalized Convergence Tests Solved Problems... 00 seer eee Exercises - * beeeeeeContents 2. Power Series 2.1 Convergence of a Power Series 22. Representation of Functions by Power Series 2.3 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 2.3.1 Taylor's Polynomial 23.2 Convergence of the Taylor Series 2.4 Binomial Series . ; Solved Problems Exercises 3. Fourier Series 3.1 Prerequisities 3.1 Periodic Functions 3.1.2 Piecewise Continuous Functions 3.1.3 Inner Product 3.2 Fourier Series 3.2.1 Fourier Series of 24 Periodic Functions 3.2.2 Fourier Series of Functions with Arbitary Periods 3.2.3. Partial Sum of Fourier Series. . . . 3.3. Convergence of Fourier Scries of a Function 3.4 Fourier Series of Even and Odd Periodic Functions. 3.4.1. Even and Odd Functions. 3.4.2 Fourier Series of Even Periodic Functions 3.4.3 Fourier Series of Odd Periodic Functions 3.5 Fourier Series of Non-peroidic Functions Given at Finite Interval 187 3.6 Determination of Fourier Coefficients without Integration . . . 3.7 Parseval’s Identity 3.8 Fourier Integrals rae 3.8.1 Fourier Integrals of Even and Odd Functions 3.9 Fourier Transforms and Inverse Fourier Transforms 3.9.1 Fourier Cosine and Sine Transforms asus ae 3.9.2 Inverse Fourier Cosine and Sine Transforms Solved Problems s azanneeae Exercises II Calculus of Functions of Several Variables 4 Preliminaries 4.1 The Polar Coordinate System . . . 107 108 116 126 132 136 140 144 156 158 158 - » 160 : 164 165, . 168 168 172 176 177 181 181 . 183 186 195 198 200 - 203 204 206 207 208 212 215 217 217 University Mathematics IL Pbag~~. * —— we Contents w 411 Polar graphs... 000. eee 222 4.1.2 Finding Points where Polar Graphs Intersect . - 231 4.1.3. Slope and Tangent line of Polar Curves . . . 234 4.2. Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinate Systems eee . 235 4.3 Some Basic Definitions of a Set of Points in n-space ... . . - 245 Exercises a . 248 5 Limits and Continuity 250 5.1 Definition of Functions of Several Variables... . . - 250 5.2 Graphs, Level Curves and Level Surfaces . . . imaya es 368 5.3 Limits of functions of Several Variables". . o 274 5.3.1 Basic Limit Theorems ee ‘ . .. 279 5.3.2 Evaluating Limits by Simplification Dae 281 5.3.3 Evaluating Limits by Rationalization 283 5.3.4 Evaluating Limits by the Squeeze Theorem . 284 5.3.5 Evaluating Limits by Converting to other Coordinate System... 20. eee eee #6 ae 287 5.3.6 Non-existence of a limit . oe 291 5.4 Continuity of Functions of Several Vatinbieo. « « 299 Solved Problems wee am nee Ee BR 304 Exercises 309 6 Partial Derivative and its Applications 311 311 6.1 Partial Derivatives . - 6.1.1 Basic Derivative Rules for Computing F Partial Derivatives313 6.1.2 Tangent Line 315, 6.2 Higher Order Pastial Derivatives... 00000 319 6.3. Differentiability ae . + 323 323 6.3.1 Continuity and ‘Partial Derivatives : 6.3.2 Differentiability and Continuous Partial Derivatives =» 323, 6.4 The Chain Rule ae we seamen em 329 6.5 Implicit Partial Differentiation sa 342 66 Directional derivatives and Gradients... :..--- 346 6.6.1 Directional derivatives = . . 346 6.6.2 The Gradient - » 348 6.7 Tangent Planes and Tangent Plane appricmadon 361 6.71 Tangent Planes Lee 361 6.7.2 Tangent Plane Approximation * 368 6.8 Total Differential and approximation by Differentials 374 6.8.1 Total Differential = z 374 Pbag University Mathematics IlContents vii 6.8.2 Approximation by Differentials 375 6.9 Extreme Values of Functons of Several Variables . 376 6.9.1 Relative Extrema of Functions of two variables. . . . . 376 6.9.2 Extreme Values of a function on a given set. . 386 6.9.3 Extreme Values under Constraints: Lagrange Nultipirs00 Solved Problems < 422 Exeteleteagees oe gg ee easeasa 435 7 Multiple Integrals and their Applications 440 7.1 Double Integrals... .....-- - 440 7.1.1 Double hitegrals over Rectangular Regions se. 440 7.1.2 Iterated Double Integrals over Rectangular Regions . . 448 7.1.3 Double Integrals over General Regions . 453 7.1.4 Iterated Double Integrals over General Regions 453 7.1.5 Properties of Double Integrals . . cee ss 462 7.1.6 Reversing the Order of Integration 466 7.1.7 Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates... ....... 470 7.1.8 Applications of Double Integrals 2 484 Exercises . sree . 523 7.2 Triple Integrals ..... . : 525 7.2.1 Triple Integrals over Rectangular ‘Boxes. . - 525 722 Evaluating Triple Integrals over Rectangular Boxes . . 526 7.23 Evaluating Triple Integrals over General Regions . 528 7.2.4 Triple Integrals in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates538 7.2.5 Applications of Triple Integrals en 548 Exercises . see ve 570 73 Change of Variables; Jacobian’s 571 7.3.1 Change of Variables in a Double Integral . 571 7.3.2 Change of Variables in a Tele Integral . . . 589 Exercises . GES gO cs ow cmentcrmRTEN Ho 9 e 2. 504 Solved Problems .......-----> . 594 Sample Examinations 619 Examination-1 -- 619 Examination-2 ©... 0... 22-2 eee . » 624 Examination-3 ........0.-- es || 627 Examination-d ©. .....-% . es .. . 634 Bibliography 642 Pag University Mathematics II— “SS”. ae Part I Infinite Series( ~ SOE a em Chapter 1 Sequences and Series 1.1 Definition of a Sequence ‘ In mathematics, the word sequence is used in much the same way as in ordinary English. To say that a collection of objects or events is in sequence usually means that the collection is ordered so that it has an identified first member, second member, third member, and so on. If the sequence stops after a finite number of terms it is called a finite sequence; otherwise it is an infinite sequence. In what follows, we shall be concerned with infinite sequences and to avoid repetition we may not mention the word infinite. Definition 1.1.1. A sequence is a function from the set of integers greater than or equals to some integer mo( usually 0 or 1) into a nonempty set X. Remark 1.1.1. If the range of the sequence is subset of real numbers R, then it is called sequence of real numbers. If the range of the sequence is subset of set of complex numbers C or subset of set of functions, then the sequence is called respectively sequence of complex numbers or sequence of functions. However, in this chapter we restrict ourselves to sequence of real numbers, and for simplicity refer to them as sequences. For a sequence we write a, in place of a(n). a, is named as general term or the n‘* term of the sequence. The numbers a;,0,@3,-+* ,@n,"++ are called terms of the sequence. If the n* term is a(n) = ap for all natural numbers, then the sequence is the set of ordered pairs of the form {(1, a1); (2,42); (3, @n), ++ 5 (”,@n), +++} (1) We write simply {a0 09,2" 90ay--"}s {oo} br {on} in stead of (1.1).1.1. Definition of u Sequence Description of Sequences. Sequences can be described 1. by listing only the first few terms of the sequence. If a sequence has a pattern, we can write the first few terms of the se- quence and assume that the pattern continues (to indicate this put three dot after the listed terms) and let the reader figure out the subsequent terms. Like a sequence {2, 4,6,8,---} The pattern is identified from elements listed as a, = 2n where n 1,2,3. 2. by giving defining formula for the general term a, of the se- quence. A more satisfactory method to describe a sequence is to specify a for- mula for the general term a, of the sequence. In this case, if the starting point is not specified, we use the smallest value of n which will work. For instance The smallest value of n is not specified. So, we take n = 2 as starting point. Caution! you can not take n = 1 as starting point because when n = 1, the given formula is undefined. (3) by recursive definition. In some cases it is not easy, or even possible, to give an explicit formula for ay. In such cases, it may be possible to determine a particular term in the sequence in terms of some of the preceding terms. This relation is often referred to as a recurrence. For instance, let us consider the following sequences a. The sequence of positive odd numbers may be defined by ay=1 and any: =a) +2, Ya>1 b. The Fibonacci Sequence 1,1,2,3,5,8, 13,21,34,---, where each term is the sum of the two preceding terms. This can be recursively defined by setting a) =a, =1 and aqy2 = Any) +n, Vn > 2 This sequence arose when the 13¢*-century Italian mathematician known as Fibonacci solved a problem concerning the breeding of Rabbits. University Mathematics IIEr, EE oo ~~ er =e ~~ pes, — rr t ! Lt. Definition of a Sequence 4 verbally if there is no obvious formula or pattern that we can use to express the sequence. For instance, the sequence of prime numbers. Example 1.1. List the first five terms of the following sequences (a) aq =2, aa lta, vn tb) {Dhauc2+ Amy} "i nal Solution. 1 1 205 (@)a@=l+o=1+5, aa=l+oal+p=3 5_ 13 ers a,=24+1=3 2 ap = J o(2 + 2k) = ((2 +2) + (2 +4)) = 10 tet 3 a3 = )o(2 + 3k) = (548411) =24 ta 4 a, = S7(2 + 4k) = (6 + 10+ 14 + 18) = 48 tt as = )0(2 + 5k) = (7+ 12+ 17 + 22 + 27) = 85 kat Definition 1.1.2. (a) A sequence {a} is called stationary if an = ans, for all natural nat number n. (b) Tro sequences {an} and {5} are equal if an = by for all natural 1 1 number n. Example 1.2. The twosequences {a} {cw} = {-1,1,-1,---} nel net wa {o.} a {iu} = {1,-1,1,---} are not equal because a, # a nee ‘at University Mathematics I Poag1.2. Convergence and Diveryenee of Sequences Graph of a Sequence A sequence fou} can be pictured cither by plotting its graph on the coordinate plane; however, since the domain of any sequence is a subset of of isolated points with coordinates, set of integers, then its graph consi: (M0, ng), (M15 us (M225 Ong), °° a -1)" For instance, the graph of the sequence a, = 2.—" is plotted here under. 1.2 Convergence and Divergence of Sequences In this section, we need to distinguish sequences whose elements approach a single point as n increases (in this case we say that they converge) from those sequences whose elements do not. For instance, {a} approaches 0 as n gets larger and larger. {(—1)"} doesn't approach a single point as n gets larger and larger. Let us now state the formal definition of convergence of a sequence. Definition 1.2.1. A sequence {a,} has the limit L if for every € > 0, there exists a positive integer N ( which depend on €) such that every n>N => lan —LlN. This picture must be valid no matter how small ¢ is chosen. but usually a smaller © requires a larger V Gy! ' Alternative Notation. } lim a, = L can also be written as a, 9 L as n> 00. lima, =L, or a, 9 L Example 1.3. Show that any sequence {+} where k is any constant, oa converges to & itself Solution. Let a number ¢ > 0 be given We want to find a positive integer V which depend on ¢ such that klN>|k University Mathematies I Plag TR1.2 Convergence and Divergence of Sequences Since |k — k| = 0 < € is true for any positive =, any positive integer can be chosen for N. Therefore, lim k = Example 1.4. Show that for any positive rational number r, the sequence 1 mt 0 7 Solution. Let a number ¢ > 0 be given. We want to find a positive integer N such that every 22> ‘A way to choose such V 1 |Z] tons (Z)", vn >N ro z z 1 Choose N > ("7 Verification \ vn2W> (2) an >le é é J 0. We need to find a positive integer N’ depend on € such that 2n+3 every nSN> A way to find such N 2n+3 1-7 Then University Mathematics II bag1.2. Convergence and Divenyence of Sequences 9 Now, choose N > 1 + Verification Wn >N>1423n-1>25 é € |2n+3 ll=n > + >| 0, then {at} converges to 1 using the not definition. Solution. Let a number ¢ > 0 be given. We need to find a positive integer N which depend on ¢ such that 1 every n>N> an af ce A way to choose such NV we consider two cases Case I: When 0 1— 29 log” < logit en >; - Be 1 T= Ba Case II: When a > 1 Choose Ny > 1 1 jn -af=an a 1 1 7 an —11 +2 => logt” < logit’ n> logs 1 log," Finally, by taking, N = max{N, Ny}, we arrive at the desired result. Choose Nz > University Mathematics IT Pag1.2. Convergence and Divergence of Sequences wo Example 1.7. Show that {3(—1)"} is divergent. Solution. Assume that lin 3(-1)" = L for some LER Let 0 <¢ <1. Then there exist a positive natural number N such that vin every n>N=> [a-w" - 1 < [x-o -3(-1)" [s-ra - | 6 6= ja-oe - a(-0"| [ane -L+L-3(-1)" < fac-nye = | + |o-a-0"| Jeg aeet 272 This is contradiction since 6 is not less than 1. Therefore, the given sequence is divergent Types of divergent sequences. Divergent sequences may be classified into three types as follows: (a) Diverges to infinity, (b) Diverges to negative infinity or (c) Oscillating sequences. Definition 1.2.2. Let {a,} be @ sequence. Then (a) lim ay, = 00 +> for every real number M > 0 there exists a positive integer N which depend on M such that every n>N=>a,>M In this case we say {an} diverges to 00, or tends to oo. (b) lim a, = —00 € for every real number m > 0 there ezists a positive integer N which depend on m such that every n>N=>a,N>2">M A way to choose NV 2" > M = log?” > M > n > logy’ Now, choose N > log}! Verification every n> N => 2" > 2% > 2'8! = Therefore, the given sequence diverges to +00. Oscillating Sequences Some divergent sequences are neither diverge to +00 nor diverge to ~2o. they oscillate. Definition 1.2.3. (Oscillating Sequence) If the sequence {a,} of real num- bers diverges but doesn't diverge to +00, we say that {a,} oscillates. Remark 1.2.1. ”Oscillate” doesn't mean ” the terms go up and down” ayy= For instance, converges to zero, and its terms go up and down, but 1 it is not oscillating sequence. Oscillate is a term applied to certain divergent sequences. Definition 1.2.4. A sequence {a,} that converges to zero is called a null sequence. ‘Theorem 1.2.1. Suppose that f is a real-valued function defined for all x > no and {a,}™,, is @ sequence such that f(n) = ay for alln > no. Then lim f(z) = L > lim ay = L Remark 1.2.2. a. The converse of theorem 1.2.1 need not be true. This means that lim a, = lim f(x) = Lb For instance, { costarn)} = {i} Thus, lim cos(27n) = 1, how- pel n=l Soe ever, lim f(x) = lim cos(2xz) doesn't exist, where no. L'Hopital’s Rule to determine convergence of a sequence it 2 is differentiable function such thar 9 = ay for ell n > 1 and 0 oo ¢ forms > or (refer University math- Ox f(z) ematies 1 for details), then we can apply L’hopital’s rule on Hea pay ~ iat a) lim is in one of the indeter 4x g(x) »£2 1, then provided this limit exists. Finally, we apply Theorem 1.2.1 Example 1.9. Evaluate (2) lim 5; (b) lim, va vir +1 - J) (©) jim n§ 7 arctan) Solution. 2 (a) Let an = + and Ax) = 57-5 50 that h(n) = dy for every positive integer. . lim = is indeterminate form = Applying L’Hopital’s twice pro- duce = lim 2 = im —2, * pus 2?In2 2-4 27(In 2)? Consequently, (b) ) = VivT - Viv =Vnttn—n, Yn=1,2,3, University Mathematics IT Phayrer ae 1.2. Convergence and Diveryence of Sequences x2> 1 such that s(n) =a, Let us define f(r) = VF Fa —2, VPaE-r=( Jie n( Get) ieee app Ye) rate T fittei z 1 1 = 5. Therefore, Thus, fim fx) = fig, ———— . yl+-41 r lim vi( Vir vi) = 3 > — arctana (c) Let us define f(x) = “G ): x > 1 such that f(n) = a, Wed 7 ss : _ 37 arctan a\ 5 ~ arctanz ) = “—;—— zr = : 5 7 arctan r 2 0 hm 4— T is indeterminate of the form a So, we apply L'Hopital’s rule to find its mit as follows d(x 5 ~arctanz = (§ = arctan.) 7 20) r dz\z = lim 241 _ zt Spe 1 ~ Aas = ‘Therefore, lim n G ~ arctan 2) =1 Example 1.10. Find the limit of cach of the following sequence{a,}. " 4n? @ ay = (L+> bi m= SF University Mathematics IT Phag1.2. Convergence and Divergence of Sequences Solution. a. Let f(r) = (: +1) z We fin) = (: + +) =a, AF lim f(z) = lim (: oe 2) =e Hi, im(i+; Finally, we get lim (: + 3) =e by theorem 1.2.1 4a? b. Let f(@) = 55 Tq Such that f(n) = a, for every positive integer n. Then 4x? dim sorcy = Map = B= = 2 by theorem 1.2.1 ant Therefore, lim Theorem 1.2.2. (Convergence of geometric sequences) The sequence {cr”} convergent if -1 1 such that f(n) =a,, n= 1,2,--- 4 (1+a7)2 = —In( +a’) r : 1 Jim (10°) = tim =n. +a”) = jim > = 1 Therefore, lim (1+a")” = 1 1 Ag Example 1.13. Find the limit of the sequence {($+z) mh : ci Solution. tw 3)" 2" +3" 3 (5) University Mathematics 11 % Pag13 Convergence Properties of Sequences epyiniry Example 1.14. Show that a sequence (¢ e converges to an+d wa) k(b — d) © @ , af0 Example 1.15. Find the limit of each of the sequence Ey aye. n=l Solution. (a) witha = 5, b= 8, d= -2, and k = 10. Then apply Examplel.14 We get 10(8 + 2) om lim (#35) ze 5 =e a (b) we first rewrite it as follows LY (Sette mt 73n ps5 3n41 “Van +1 ~\3n+1 Then, we can apply Example1.14 as follows havinga =3, 6 1, and k = 2 We get 1.3 Convergence Properties of Sequences 25-1) There are limit theorems for sequences that are analogous to limit theorems for functions. Theorem 1.3.1. (Basic Limit Theorem for sequences) If {a,} and {b,} are convergent sequences and k is any real constant, then (a) lim (Kan) K( lim an) () iy (en bo) = (Jy on) + (i br) €©) iy (abo) = Giga nim bs) University Mathematics I Pagae Se ee - -—— 1.3. Convergence Properties of Sequences _ "7 lim ay (4) im, e Tr j, Provided that im by #0 The proofs of these results follow in the same way as for limits of real- valued functions of one variabl " } converge? repectively, then to what value does a sequence ep + ay Solution. lim ayb,, = (5)(3) = 15 by Basic Limit Theorem (c) Thus, lim (a,b, ~¢;) = 15 — 2 = 13 by Basic Limit Theorem (b) Similarly, lim (26, + a») = 2(2) +5 =9 Finally, lim (=) = 2 by Basic Limit Theorem (d) 13 Therefore, the given sequence converges to <> Example 1.17. Determine the convergence or divergence of cach of the fol- 3 n n? n? +z} ow {5-35} lowing sequence. (a) Solution. (a) Lot a, such that f(n) =a, Wn>1 lim f(r) = Jim ay, Again, let b, = = and g(x) = = such that o(n) = by, Vn >1 a Direct substitution leads jim NF to indeterminate of the form 22 oo By L’ Hopital’s rule, we get n 0. This implies that lim 2 = 0 lim = = lim wit pe = Fu Therefore, since lim (a, + 6,) = —3+0 = —3, the given sequence con- verges to -3. Pbag University Mathematics I13 Convergence Properties 18 (b) Both lim ee py Hence” it i indeterminate of the form oc — 90 However, reo ne n-3 nt4 (n—3)(n+4) nP+n-12 te Let f(z) = =~ SQ) = Bye * 2 Ses lim se = 7 and f(n) = wo vn 2 5, we ob- ain 1 Tn? 7 mk nen— 1 Therefore, the given sequence converges to 7. We also observe that even if the limit of the individual sequences {—~—} and —*—} don’t n-3 n+4 exist, the limit of their difference exists and equal to 7. Note 1.3.2. The limit of a sequence (whenever it exists) doesn’t change if we change or drop finitely many terms of the sequence. For instance, the two sequences {an}, = {amy Amary @me2, oo} and {amgks Qmsryeks Aimerieks 7} {ance} are the same except for the first k terms. If the sequence {on} converges, then lim a, = lim ane i On = eta Example 1.18. Assume that the sequence given recursively by 1 a= 2, ans = 5(an +6), Yn is convergent. Then, find its limit Solution. Let hm a, = lim angi = L 1 Tifti’tnas lite le +6) = 3( im an +6) 3 L=5(L+0) >L=6 Therefore, the given sequence converges to 6 University Mathentaties 1 Pbag§ ( Ls. ryence Properties of Sequences 19 Theorem 1.3.2. Let {a,} and {by} be sequences such that a, = ent + cai" + + cin + eq and b, = dyn ty in™ 1+. + din tdg be se- quences unth cx # 0 # dn. where km, n are positwe integers, then R ; fonF (2) in FE = i () dn Se sin FE (6) Jin SE = iy Ye Example 1.19. Find the limit of the sequence {a, 3n54 _n+2 Vint +n? =1 a) ay = b) a, = oe (a) a Sn pn? +1 i ) a V-8nb +n? 42 Solution. ani 3 G) Emo. ly 2 nat = 5 nt T Sint (b) im ay = lim Soe = ein 2 =i == = V=8nb en +2 ne Van 2 We can also find the limit of a sequence by comparing the given sequence with some other sequences whose limits are known. The Sandwich (‘The Squeezing)Theorem for Sequences serve us in this regard. Before we move onto The Squeezing Theorem, let us first look at the following theorem. Theorem 1.3.3. If {a,} and {bn} are convergent sequences and a, < by for alln EN, then lim a, < lim by Note 1.3.3. This result, of course, remains valid if the inequality ay < by holds only for all sufficient large n. Warning! Limits need not preserve strict inequalities. For instance, take L {=} for allne N n o<}, vn n Since lim 4 = 0. We arrive at 0 < 0. Which is a contradiction. nen Theorem 1.3.4. (The Squeezing Theorem for sequences) Let {an}, {bn}, {en} be sequences of real numbers If lim ay = L = lim by, where L 1s real number, and there exists an integer N'such that aq N, then Jim ey = L University Mathematics Il Pbag1.3. Convergence Properties of Sequences 20 Proof. Let a + L and 6, -> L We need to show ¢, > L By the assumption of the theorem, we have ay —LScy,-LSby-L, Yn>N On the other hand, for cach © > o,there exist natural number N, and N2 such that lan -L| L—-eL—eN2 Now, choose V = max{.N,, No} so that all the above inequalities hold true Therefore L-2 N 2 L-eN Therefore, lim cy = It is essential here that @,, and b,, have the same limit. For instance, if a, = —Land b, = 1, and c, =(-1)"*!, Yn EN, then Ay Sey S by, YN EN Moreover, ay, + —1 and by + 1 as n — 00, but ¢ doesn’t converge at all Example 1.20. If for all n greater than or equal to some integer V, |bn| < cn and lim c, = 0, then show that lim 6, Solution. Ibn] Sen, Wn > N => ey Sb Sen, WN DN and aig ~e4) = ~ lien (en) = 0 Therefore, by applying The Squeezing Theorem, we obtain limb, = 0 Example 1.21. Determine the convergence of cach of the following sequence. o{aoo}, wo {SP} n=l {eh aor University Mathematics IT bag1.3._Convemence Properties of Sequences : 2 Soiution. > 1, and 1 lim S—"____ = tim 4 = tim + =0 nox n? + 3n+1 ane n? nomen Therefore, by Examplel.20, we obtain that the given sequence converges to 0. (b) Recall that -1 1 cos 2n 1 Dividing through by n? gives us Observe that =1 lim S =0= lim = rite We mre a By the Squeezing Theorem, we have that 2 lim SS" _ 9 noe ne Z nt)* (c) First, notice that we have no means of computing { =} Er : nei Notice that the general term of the sequence satisfies 1 gig tg W288 ¢ 2 mea nv Annan n 1 lim — =0= limo aR ne Thus, by the Squeezing Theorem, we get that () Va = yr Therefore, 1 Example 1.22. Show that if 0 < a < b, then the sequence { (a+) " nom converges to b. University Mathematics 1 Phagof Sequences ees 1d. Convergence Properti Solution. br 1 A Pood + (bn < (« ve)" < (2°); abs ( 1 v") " 0 Let W be a positive integer such that ar = 0 by case I 7 al lim 2 = 0 = lim = =0 by theorem 1.3.6 o nn HL 7 Example 1.24. Evaluate tim on i Solution. Loo” Inn 100") (inn nin ~ n! n lim ue = 0 by Example!.3.7. \ \ To find lim —, we define f(z) = se > 1 such that f(r) = an for University Mathematics IT Pag1.3. Convergence Properties of Sequences I 1 n=1,2,-- lim = = lim — = 0 by L'Hopital’s rule =e rie E Asa result, tim 2 — 9, aux Tn 1008 " Therefore, tim 227" © (jim BP) (tim 12%) — 6 noe nin nt! nom on nite The following theorem can be applied to certain types of sequences Theorem 1.3.8. ( Ratio Test for Sequences) Let{a,} be a sequence and L is real number. If lim oust] = L such that me | ay | L <1, then lim am =0 Proof. We need to show that lim a, = any Given lim || = Land L < 1 From the definition of limit of a sequence, we have that for cach ¢ > 0, there exists a positive integer N depend on ¢ such that Ong1 —L)N |ansi| <(L+e)|a,|, Wn >N el Lee, Wn >N a, Let 0 <¢ <1—Z this is possible because from the hypothesis 0 < L < 1, we obtain 1 — L is positive. ay ox) ( ) (2 Qy_2 “Wa |) nt = (leel)( y3 <(L+e)(L+e)(L+e)..(L +e), Wn =(L+e)"%, Wn >N Thus 0 < |a,| <(L+e)"-Nayl, Yn >N ON => lim(L+<2)""¥=0, Wa>N University Mathematics II Pag1.3. Convergence Properties of Sequences 26 and observe that |ay/| is a fixed number. So, jim (L +6)" ‘ax|=0, Wa>N By applying the Sequeezing Theorem on the inequality, O< lal <(L+e)"*|ay|, va >N we get lim an|=0, Vn >. Which implies im a,=0,, Yn>N 0 Note 1. In theorem 1.3.8 if L > 1, then the sequence {an} is diverges, and if L = 1 no conclusion can be drawn from the test. Theorem 1.3.8 is more useful if factorial of nonnegative integer is involved in the general term of the sequence. Example 1.25. Determine the convergence of of Oe. Cn)! ¥ Solution. _ ni(2n)!, (2) a, = ay _ (@F1!Qn +2)! _ (n+ L.nl.(Qn+2)(2n + 1).(2n)! Quel = “B+ 3) (Gn + 3)(3n + 2)(3n + 1)(3n)! Thus, = in S822 = tim MEE H (n+ 2)(2n +1) (n)(2nj(an) 4 mito dq nse (Sn + 3)(3n + 2)(n +1) — me (3n)(3n)(Bn) 27 Therefore, jim. = 0 by Theorem1.3.8 n2" (n+1)2"*! — (n+1)2".2 (B) an = “yp and Qnas = Ses = eg 2 sin F(i42 *) = 3 < On Therefore, the given sequence converges to 0 by ratio test. Theorem 1.3.9. (Root Test for Sequences) Let {aq} be a sequence and L is a real number. If lim ET 1.3. Convergence Properties of Sequences Note 1.3.5. In ratio test, if L > 1, then the sequence {a,} is diverges and if L = 1 no conclusion can be drawn The root test is more useful if the general term a, of the sequence is written as a power of n. Example 1.26. Show that cach of the following sequence converges omy) olcres)). an-1) Say Solution. (@) «= (vi-va=T)" E= jim fam pn (==) = (= m1) = lim (vi- va=7) Therefore, lim ay = 0 an +2 tb) av = (arte) b= fn fae = if Theorem 1.3.10. /f {an} 1s a sequence of real numbers, then tim. Vi@n| = lim if the limit on the right exists Therefore, lim a, = 0 Proof. By definition of limit of a sequence and from the hypothesis, we have that, for cach ¢ > 0 there exists a positive integer N depend on ¢ such that <é, WW>N => Jans] - Lan!) < clay], Yn > NV = ~Elaa| < [angi] - Llan| N => (L=e)\an < lanai] <(L+e)|an|, Yn >N 3 (L—e)lay <|ansi] and jays| <(L+e)\a,|, Va > N University Mathematics IL Pagce Properties of Sequences 28 Case I: When ager] <(L+s)|an], Vn > N => amet) Lee, Vn>N (12) | an Using inequality (1.2) above, we have ) vn > =) (es) C)-( <(Lte\(Lt+e\(b+e) (E+), Ww 2N =(L+e)"%, Wn 2>N | Ay at aye 2 ( ay Hence, Jan] < (L +¢)"-Nlan|, Wa >N Taking the n" root of both sides of the inequality, we get Vian < (L +8) Letting n + oo, we arrive at lim Yan L-e, Wn=N (13) (L=6)|an| <|ansal, Ya 2 > Using inequality (1.3) above, we have l= (ez) (2) (2d): > (L-e)(L—-s)(L-€).(L—-), Wn 2 =(L-6)"™%, Wn2N Hence, |an| > (L+£)""“Jay, Yn 2N Taking the nt root of both sides of the inequality, we obtain Viaal > (L-2)""Slayl, Yn 2 N Letting n > 00, we arrive at lim Vian) > L-e Since ¢ is arbitrary, we get lim ¢/Ja,] 2 L Finally, by combining results obtained from the two lim Yan] = L= kim cases, we arrive at Qnt1 4: an University Mathematics II Poag1.4. Monotonic and Bounded Sequences. 29 Show that the existence of the limit of the right hand side in this theorem is a necessary condition. For instance, consider the sequence {o}. = faseem}. _ 1 1 Thus. gnste (ays nse (=Iy |=2teer This implies that lim doesn’t exist; however, by the root test, we obtain 1 1 n pee Jim. Vian| = lim ¥ i 1 ~ quae \ 222 (-1)" =} mil " ) ay} Hence, the give sequence is convergent by root test. Observe that in this example the limit in the ratio test fails, where as the root test remain valid. 1.4 Monotonic and Bounded Sequences. Our primary objective under this subsection is to identify some convergent or divergent sequences with out even looking at their limit. First, let us discuss ‘on bounded and monotonic sequences Monotonic Sequences Definition 1.4.1. A sequence {on} 1s said to be nat (a) increasing if an Sans1, Yn EN (b) strictly increasing if an an, Yn EN (d) strictly decreasing if ay >an41, Wn EN University Mathematics I bag1.4 Monotonic andl Bounded Sequences. x0 A sequence that 1s either mcreasmg or decreasing ws smd to be monotonic sequence (monotone). A sequence that 1s either strictly increasing or strictly decreasing is said to be strictly monotonic sequence ( strictly monotone) 1.4.1 Testing for Monotoncity It is not always evident whether a sequence is monotonic. Here, we illustrate three ways of demonstrating monotoncity. First Derivative Test for Moriotoncity If f(a) is differentiable function such that f(n) = (a) increasing if f'(z)>0 We >1 (b) decreasing if f(z) <0, Yr >1 in. Wn € N, then the (c) strictly increasing if f(z) > 0, Vz >1 (d) strictly decreasing if f(z) <0, Vz >1 Example 1.27. Show that cach of the following sequence is monotonic (aaah, () {ne}, (©) {arctan 2}, n+lInn Solution. (a) Let f(a) = > for all x > 1 Feng Clearly, f is differentiable function in its domain. V(z+Inz) L L e+ I(x +Inzy in)? 7 f= 1 )* Thus, f(z) < 0, Wr > 1 Which implies (am), is strictly decreasing by first derivative test for monotoncity. Similarly, we can do the remaining questions. Note that if the related function f(.r) is easily differentiable, it is advisable to use first derivative test University Mathematics 1 Poag Mn)14. Monotonic and Bounded Scquenees. a1 (b) Let us define f(r) = re? such that f(n) = ne Since f is casily differentiable, we use First Derivat S (2) = 2’ 4+ of *) (1 = 2r)e"* Thus, f(r) > 0, Vr <1 which implies f is strictly decreasing, There- fore, The given sequence is strictly decreasing, (c) Let f(x) = arctan, 2 > 1 such that f(n) =arctann =a), Vn >I 1 +1 S'(r) >0, Yr>1 ‘This implies that f is strictly increasing, Therefore, the given sequence is also strictly increasing. Ratio Test for Monotoncity (a) increasing if “+ >1, Wn EN. a (b) strictly increasing if “4 > 1, Wn EN (c) decreasing if out <1, WEN (d) strictly decreasing if = <1, wneN Example 1.28. Show that the each of the following sequence is monotonic. 1.3.5---(2n-1))* n" _ _ _2n (a) (eee hal (b) {5 a (c) a2 =3, Quy = Tanim Vn 22 Solution. 135--n=1) agg. 2 18S-Gn— n+) (8) @ = Sap Gay and anes = Thus, the ratio Anst 1.3.5: (2n “a, \24.6--- (2n)(2n + 2) 2.4.6 (2n)(2n + 2) <1 Wn>N Dans) (Bas ie) ) ant 5 135° (@n—1) This implies that the sequence is strictly decreasing. Unversity Mathematics IT bag14 Monotonic and Bounded Sequences. a2 n" (n+ htt (n +1)" 7 (b) ay = TF and dun = “a = Gy Hence, the ratio Bot HW? Yo vn ay nl n! n 6 (c) a7 = 3, a3 = 3a = 6, 3 5 It seems increasing. Now let us apply ratio test 2n nt 2n Any. = dy, Wn > 2 => Sth >1, vn>2 ltr a, ln Hence, the given sequence is strictly increasing The Difference Test for Monotoncity The sequence {on} is nl (a) increasing if a,.1-@, >0, WneN (b) strictly increasing if @n4;-—a@, >0, Vn eN (c) decreasing if any1 ay <0 , WnEN (d) strictly decreasing if an41—@, <0, Wa eN Example 1.29. Determine whether cach of the following is monotonic or not. of 3}. Solution. (e) {n— 20 and An+1) _ mn+2 = and ayy = =e tt) te (a) an = 1=On+1)+3 In+5 ee ee 6 so aus On = 45 In+3 (n+ 5\Qn+3) i Therefore, the given sequence is strictly increasing by the difference test 2 (b) ana = (+1) —(n +1)? = -n? —n anda, =n—n Qn41 — Ay = (—n? ~n) — (n—n*) = -2n <0, Yn Therefore, the given sequence is strictly decreasing by the difference test: University Mathematics IT Pag1.4. Monotome and Bounded Sequences . 33 Eventually Monotonic Sequences Definition 1.4.2. If a given sequence is monotonic except for finitely many terms from the beginning, then it ts said to be eventually monotonic. Example 1.30. Show that the sequence {an} is eventually decreasing. well iw 1 ist 10 Solubion.ieniars = andiogay = se ier olution. an = Hoy and anes = Gael ~ Nee 1).Onyl Thus, Onan 1o"10, 10" = 5 <1, Wn>4 @, 2(n +1)(2n)! (Qn)! n+l Since the sequence is decreasing except for the first 4 terms, we say that it is eventually decreasing. 1.4.2 Bounded Sequences Definition 1.4.3. (a) A sequence {a,} is bounded above if there is a real number M such that @y M Clearly, for any number AM € R there exists infinitely many terms of the sequence satisfying the inequality in definition 1.4.5. If it were not true, the sequence would be bounded Geometrical interpertation for boundedness From the geometric point of view, a sequence {ay} is bounded above (below) if there exists a horizontal line y = M such that all the points (n,a,) are repectively below(above) this line. A sequence {a,} is bounded if there exists a horizontal lines y = M and y = —M such that all the points (n,q,,) are between these lines. Example 1.31. Show that each of the following sequence is bounded. 3-2n|* sin 2n + 3ncosn | * o {iri}, w {ear} Vio aT ~ ———S——_ d) ¢3+2(-1)" © {yates { +2 a Solution. (a) an = 32", Yn > 2. We use the fact that 3-2n <0, Yn > 2, to < an+4 ge 3n 3 Hence, it is bounded. We can also say that the sequence is bounded Yn > 2 below by 3 and bounded above by 3 sin 2n + 3ncosn a= Yn >1 (b) a, =" 1 j - [Sm2at Sr cosm 3ncosn lanl = ntl n+l sin2n| | [3087] 5. angle incqualit 0 <4 |) by gle inequality [sin Qn], _3n 1 3n = lsin2nl | 8 cosa < att tae el saa tal : 1 a= mth tl gy leg wn21 nel n University Mathematics If Pbagdl Sequences Hence, the sequence is bounded by 4 Vi6nt nn (©) a, = ow awn 27n} +5n +3 Sn +30. Asa result, we have ViGnt nen < Vibnt and Y2In + bn 43 > VII Hence, Vn > 1, Foralln > 1 nw +n <0 and Yn >1 VIGNE FH ViGne V2in® + 5n +3] Y27n3 Hence, the given sequence is bounded. la, (d) a, = 3+ 2(-1)" — cos3n lan 13+2(-1)"—cos 3n| < |3|+|2(—1)"|+|—cos 3n] <34+241=6, Vn >1 The axiom of completeness Every nonempty set of real numbers that has a lower bound has a greatest, lower bound. Also, every nonempty set of real numbers that has an upper bound has a least upper bound. Theorem 1.4.1. (Convergent Sequence is Bounded) If {an} converges, then tt 1s bounded. The converse need not be true. Proof. Let L = lim ay. Then there exists a number positive integer N > 0 such that la,-Li Let ¢ = 1. Then fa, -L) <1, Wn>N lanl —|L| S lan — Li) <1, Yn >N lan <|L]+1, Va>N Choose M = max{lai|, aa}, lasl,--+ ,Jay|,|Z]+1} Hence, Jan] |b,| 0 be given. We want to find a positive integer which depend on ¢ such that every n> N = |anbn| <€ Choose N > a since |anbn| = [anllbnl < () (M). It is easy to verify- ing that our choice of N works, so it is left for the reader. (b) 0 In ( ar) is not defined at n = 1, so let us consider when n = 4 8 na 2,3,4, n 2 (-1)" 3 . Thus, |In (1 +") < m5, vn 2 2 and therefore it is bounded 2n+(-1)" Finally, by applying part (a), we get that lim a =0 sinn + 3ncos2n _ sinn + 3ncos2n'_ (1 \ (sinn + 3ncos2n Bae" pe” ——~—San e”——s\e” 3n+1 in (3) - University Mathematics IT Pag14. Monotome and Bounded Sequences a7 sinn + 3ncos2n Next, we remain to show 3n+1 ) is bounded sinn | ae + {ae {GrsT | x s 2 + elgeatl converges to its l.u.b. (b) A decreasing sequence which is bounded below converges to its 9.1.5. Bounded below + Decreasing => converges to its 9.l.b (c) The bounded monotonic convergence theorem also holds true for eventu- ally monotonic sequence. This means that Bounded + Eventually Monotonic > convergence Bounded below + Eventually Decreasing = converges to its 9.!.b. Bounded above + Eventually Increasing = converges to its .u.b. Example 1.33. Show that the following sequences are convergent. 1.3.5---(2n —1)|* b {ey {Sata ha OTS vt Solution. 3.5--(2n=1)Qn+1) 4 135 (a) @ne1 = S46 -(anyan +2) M8" = 946---(an) Thus, the ratio tet = (ES ena tee 2) ( 2.4.6---(2n) )-Fha Yn Q, 24.6 ---(2n)(2n + 2) 1.3.5---(Qn-1))” n+2 University Mathematics I Phag14 Monotone and Bounded Sequences _ 38 This implies that the sequence is strictly decreasing, and it is bounded below by 0. Therefore, it 1s convergent by MCT (b) Let f(z) = ME ve > 1 and s(n) = aq.¥n. Then f(x) VF To find the critical point solve s’(a) = 0 = 7389 is the critical point and f'(x) > 0 for x < 7.389 and roe@x J'(2) <0 for 1 > 7.389 Thus., the sequence is decreasing except for the f that it is eventually decreasing and bounded below. Therefore, it is 8 terms. This means. convergent 1.4.4 Convergence of Recursively Defined Sequences To show convergence of sequences defined recursively, it is advisable to follow the following procedures. I: Show monotoncity of that sequence using mathematical induction TI: show that it is bounded. If the sequence is increasing, it is bounded below by first term If the sequence is decreasing, it is bounded above by the first term Then we claim that all terms less than some real number M if the se- quence is increasing and greater than Some real number m. Again, we argue by mathematical induction. Then, apply that a bounded mono- tonic sequence is convergent + If the sequence converges, we can apply the limit on both sides of the recurrence relation. In this case, we set L= lim ay. = lim ay nite ne Finally, solve for L. A positive term sequence take only the positive yalue of L and, likewise, for negative term sequence. Example 1.34. Verify that {vie +1 - vi} is decreasing and bounded n=l below. Does lim a, exists? Solution. Let f(r) = Vr #1 —- VF, Vr > 0so that f(n) = an, Yn To show that {vert - vat is decreasing, we use first derivative test. 1 . Pag University Mathematics IL14 40 =o - = <0, vrs 0 2vrt1 ovr Thus, f is decreasing Consequently, the given sequence is decreasing For every n, Vn + 1 — Yn > 0. Thus, m = 0 is the lower bound which implies the sequence is bounded below. hm f(e) = jim (VEFT vai( Yee ve) = him aE 0 Hence, lim a, = lim f(r) =0 Example 1,35. Show that the sequence {a,} defined recursively by a, = 1 and ane = V2 44,1, Vn > 2 is converges 2 Solution, Step I: To show monotoncity a =1, a1 = VIFG,, Yn =1,2,3, a = 24a =V3>1=aq Suppose ai > ary 24a, >2+ai—> V2aq > Vrain Say. >a Thus, @y4; >a, Yn = 1,2,3,--- by Mathematical induction Therefore, it is increasing sequence. Step IL: To show boundedness, we apply mathematical induction as follows: a =1<2 Assume ay < 2. 24 ag <242=4 => VPHq; <2 a4. <2 Thus, a, <2, Yn =1,2,3,--- by mathematical induction Thus, faq| < 2,¥n = 1,2,3,-++ because every term is positive. There- fore, it is a bounded sequence. Finally, we conclude that the give sequence is bounded by monotonic convergent theorem. University Mathematics IT Poag1.5. Subsequences and Limit Ponts of a Sequence _40 Step ILL: To find the the limit of the sequence. Let lim a, =! lima; = hm ay, Vn > N, where N is some positive integer. ‘This holds true the given sequence is convergent. Now, assume lim ay =! ys, = V2FG, +> lim any, = \/2 4 lima, l= V241 P-l-2s03l=2l=-1 But, | £ —1 since all terms of this sequence are positive. Therefore, the given sequence converges to | = 1.5 Subsequences and Limit Points of a Sequence Subsequences of a sequence Definition 1.8.1. A subsequence of a sequence {a,} ts @ sequence of the form {ay,} , where {nx} is strictly increasing sequence of natural numbers Remark 1.5.1. {@n,,@ny5@n;4n,s4n5;°**} is not a subsequence of {ap }y1 where {ng} is strictly increasing because the term a, shouldn't come before a, For instance, {2,4,6,--- .2n,---} is a subsequence of {1,2,3,---}, but {4,2,3,5,6,--} is not a subsequence of {1,2,3,-+-} Theorem 1.5.1. Ifa sequence {an} converges to L, then every sub sequence of the sequence also converges to L. Corollary 1.5.1. If {an} is a sequence that either has a subsequence that diverges or two convergent subsequences with different limits, then {an} ts divergent. Example 1.36. Determine whether each of the following sequence conver- gent or divergent. ta) {14 cu tw {-r(1+2) yo to {sn ey Solution. (a) {reco} = {0,2,0,2,---} Let us consider two subsequences {0,0,0,---} and {2,2,2,---} of the given sequence. ‘The first convegres to 0 while the sccond converges to 2 Since the subsequences converges to different. values, the given sequence is divergent by corollary 1.5.1 University Mathematies {I bag | | | | |1.5. Subsequences and Limit Points of a Sequence al x 1)= x -1)* (b) {oa} = {ug} and {ens} 4 {-1+5 ay are two subsequences of the given sequence. The first subsequence converges to 1 and the second converges to -1. The given sequence is divergent since two of its subsequences converge to two different values. (©) {sine = {1,-1,1,-1,---} is a subsequence of the given ko - sequence which is obviously diverge. Therefore. the given sequence is divergent by Corollary 1.5.1 Li it point of a Sequence Definition 1.5.2. We say a point | is a limit point of a sequence {an} when- ever every open interval about | contains an infinite terms of the given se- quence. Remark 1.5.2. Limit of a sequence is a limit point, but a limit point of a sequence need not be a limit since even divergent sequences may have limit points. A sequence that have two or more limit points is a divergent. Example 1.37. Find the limit points the following sequences (a) {er} wo) {2+ oo n=l Solution. (a) Both -1 and 1 are limit points of the given sequence. Since the terms 1,1,1,-+- of the sequence are contained in any open interval about 1 and Similarly, the terms —1,—1,—1,-+- of the given sequence are contained in any open interva] about -1 —1)"|* 1515 (b) 42+ iu } = (R353. - By similar explanation as for part oa, or 2'nh2 (a), this sequence has two limit points namely 3 and 3 Solved Problems (nl 1 tl == usi 1. Show that lim 7 = 5 using formal definition. Solution. Let a number < > 0 be I We want to find a positive nt 1 integer \V such that every n > N > au ger N such that every n > N= | s|No > wen = ayia (1+ ant ') Choose N > n!, The verification part is left for the reader 2. Evaluate lim rn “went Yat yn Solution. By “an numerator and denominator by y/7, we have hin 1 3. Determine whether the sequence { f"*! e~""dx}= , converges or diverges. Solution. recall that for each x >1, x? 22-2? < -2 Then Ose 1 net lim e7dr= lim ( — ey +e") Hence, lim fr'te-#dr = 0 by the Sequeezing Theorem. 4. Determine the convergence of the following sequences using the Sequeez- ing Theorem. : 1 = (2"+3" n (b) ay = (n+ 10" n (+) (ern) Solution. (a) ay University Mathematics IL bag1.5. Subsequences and Limit Posnts of a Sequence 43 (a) 3" <2"43" <3" 43") Yn >1 1 1 > (2")* < (2 +3")* < ("+")? Yn 21 1 as (2+3")" <(23)" Yn >1 - >3< (x +3") S223, Va>1 Since lim 28.3 = 3, we get that 1 im, (= + x) ” = 3 by the Sequeezing Theorem (b) 10" 1 1 , 10 (n+10")" < (210)*, Wn >1 1 =>10< (n+10)" $24.10, Yn>1 Since lim 24.10 = 10, we get that 1 7 = : lim (» + 10") ” = 10 by the Sequeezing Theorem. 5. Evaluate the following limits of the following sequences. Cinemas (b) = A. (= 2A" 2) On = ne Sal "en ” e Solution. a (@) lim an = lim Sry gal 7 University Mathematics IT bag15. 2 x Subsequences and Lirmat Points of a Sequence 4 2n” 2n" I in = Mi = iceman (b) ten a= Nn Sl ( zy 2 145 n° (c) lim + = 0 and |2 + (—1)"| $3, Wn = 1,2,3,--- Thus, {2 + (-1)"} notes e' is bounded. Therefore, by applying Example 1.32, we obtain that o4(-1)" Ving SEE m9 od * Show that the sequence a, = (@ rd) , n> lis strictly increasing. Solution. For any number a # 0, we have that a? > 0 This implies that (1 + a)? = 1 + 2a + a? > 1+ 2a. Consequently, ie (a+0) >(1+2a)", Va = (1 +a)?" > (1 420)", vn Now, replace a by oat Yn. Then, we get 1 1\" l+om >(ita) > Yn The last step shows that @n41 >@n, Wn as desired. oe Let a sequence{aq} be defined recursively by 1 a1 = 2, dyer = 5(dn +10), Wa >I ‘Then (a) Show that the sequence is monotonic. (b) Prove that it is bounded. (c) Find its limit. Solution. (a) to show monotonically, we begin by computing the first few terms. 1 a,=2, a= 3(2 + 10) =4, a3= g(4 + 10) =F a= ee 10) = 4.44. The sequence seems increasing. To confirm that the sequence is increasing we use mathematical induction. University Mathematics II Pag5. Subsequences and Limit Points of a Sequence 45 Step I: Checking forn = 1, a) =2<4 =a Step II: Assume it is true for n = k ic. ay S anes Claim: ays, < aes2 Oe S apy, ap t+ 10 < ary +10 1 1 a glu +10) < glee +10) > apar < anse Hence, the inequality is true for all n. Therefore, it is increasing (b) To verify that the sequence is bounded. It is already bounded below by first term a; = 2. From a, we have that a, < a,+1, Wn. L On S Ana) An S glen +10), Vn = 3ay Sa, +10, Yn > 2a,< 10a, <5, Yn Thus, 2 L Exercises 1. Find an integer N such that (a) every n>N=> |: -d < 0.001 2n+5 1 1 b) 2N wll eb Ghee n2N le 0 for all n, and any, < ka, with 0 1 University Mathematics I Phage 4 ee eee ee ee ee ae ee 1.6. Infinite Series 47 (a) Prove that a, <4, Yn (b) Show that {a,} is increasing (c) Find its limit if it exists. 9. Show that the sequence {a,,} defined by a, = V2 andan4; = /2a,, Wn = 1,2,3,--- converges to 2 10. If ay = lang1 = V7n, Vn = 1,2,-+-, show that {a,} is convergent. To what value does it converge? 11. A sequence that diverges to infinity needs to be unbounded. The converse is not true. Consider a sequence {a,} defined by o,-{%. 7» ts odd un, n is even Show that this sequence is unbounded but doesn’t diverges to oo. 1.6 Infinite Series Consider a uniform motion that precceds along the z— aris from zero to one with unit velocity. If a man walks half the distance, from ¢ = 0 to z = > 1 3 then half again the remaining distance from x = } tox = 3, and half of the - remaining distance and so forth. Then the total distance hé traveled will be an infinite sum aelylybydy.. ping =1 478" 16 2 Infinite series are a way to make sense of such types of infinitely long sums. Moreover, infinite series provide two conceptual insights into the nature of the basic functions(rational functions, trigonometric and inverse trigonomet- ric functions, exponential and logarithmic functions). First of all, these func- tions can be expressed in terms of infinite series, and in this way all these functions can be approximated by polynomials, which are the simplest kinds of functions. The second insight we will have using infinite series is the close relationship between functions which seem at first to be quite different, such as exponential and trigonometric functions. The idea of infinite series is also familier from decimal expansions. For in- stance, we can obtain an approximate value of * = 3.14159265358979 --- using an infinite series expansion. University Mathematics 11 Poag1.6._Infinite Serres 48 Definition 1.6.1. Let {a,}%.,, be a sequence of real numbers. Then the Sum of infinite terms of the sequence Amn + Amey + Am+2 + Ames + -°* + Aman to-~ is called an infinite series, denoted by 35 ay Example 1.38. )> an infinite series. Remark 1.6.1. In a series $5 ay, ay is called the n! term, n is called the index of summation or simply index, and m is the initial index of the series. We often use > a, to represent an infinite series when the initial index is not important and also clear from the context. The Partial Sums 2 Definition 1.6.2. The sum of the first n terms of the series }> a is called the n" partial sum, denoted by Sy The sequence of partial sums of the series $< a, is {S,} such that Si = am S2= Om + Omsi S3 = Gm + Omi + Ome Sj = Gm + Amer + Om42 + Ams3 +o + Ome j—1 Hence, the general term of the sequence of the n" partial sum is Sn = Om + Ams. + Oms2 + Oms3 + °° + Om4n—1 Example 1.39. Find the n™ partial sum and the sequence of partial sums of the following series @en =wE (OG) En ws (4) 10 Solution. 2 University Mathematics 1 Pbagee LO LS SD EP SS. CP a eo 1.6._lnfimte Senes (a) The n" term of the series is @ =n, where n = 1,2,3,---. Thus, the partial sums Sv=a=1 Sys a, +a2=14+2 Sy =a, +a) +0; =14243 Therefore, the n"™ partial sum of the series is +1 Sy = a +n + ay 4... 40, =142434 tna Bs), and the sequence of partial sum of the series is given by (b) The n!* term of the series is an = (3) , where n = 0,1,2,--». Thus, the partial sums 3 1 Sam-1-3(i-!) 2 3 Therefore, the n' partial sum of the series is loa 1 n= FOQ+ +O y= 1H Sto Heg Sy = a9 +0, +02 Ont g¢pt z and the sequence of partial sum of the series is given by {Sn} = G0 : yk University Mathematics IT Pag1.6._Infimte Series 50 (c) The n' terin of the series is a, = n?, where n = 1,2,3,---. Thus, the partial sums Sy 1 = 1? Sy =a, +a, = 1° +2 Sy = ay +42 + a3 = 1” +2437 Therefore, the n'* partial sum of the series is 2 _ mnt 1)(Qn +1) Sp = a, +02 +03 +4---+ay = 1742743? 4+---4n z and the sequence of partial sum of the seri {So} = (ne* 1)(2n + ay" 6 (a) Then" term of the series is ay = +-— n n+2 the partial sums S,=a,=1-1 1 1 1 smereahad) (2-3) Syeatartar=( Therefore, the n‘" partial sum of the series Sp =A +424 03+... +4, = 1+ is is given by n=1 . where n = 1,2,3,---. Thus, 1 2 n+l n+2 and the sequence of partial sum of the series is given by (oleae {145 - a5 12 n+ 2S ne University Mathematics IT Pbag