In crystalline solids, the atoms are “assembled” in a periodical arrangement, in such a way as to minimize the energy of the system... Example: NaCl crystal (ionic bound) ‘Poental ney £17). VAioe-par) => In the solid, the separation between ‘ © the constituting atoms is comparable to the atomic size, so the properties of the individual atoms are altered by the presence of neighbouring atoms.The permitted energies that an electron can occupy in the isolated atoms are split into energy t bands as the atoms get i closer to each other. This can also be visualized in terms of an overlap of the electron wave functions (Streetman section 3.1.2). Since the solid is made of a very large number of atoms (N), these bands are actually constituted by N levels of energies (almost a continuum!). The position of upper and lower extreme of each band is however independent of N (depends only on the materials).Mathematically, it means solving the time-independent Schrédinger’s equation: 5” + u6)|v4) = Ev) where U(r) is the periodic effective potential energy that describes the arrangement of atoms in the crystal. ath, e.g. a 1-D crystal could for aimee ANA = the following manner: . seotu-raem } ‘ates non Raby, & Rech, Qnty JU LI LL == fmacescer ed vam es e+ xsoThe solution to the equation is usually given in the form of a “band diagram” E vs k. For device description a much more simple and practical representation is typically used:" Direct band gap semiconductors (e.g. GaAs, InP, InAs, GaSb) The minimum of the conduction band occurs at the same k Value as the valence band maximum.“Tndirect band gap semiconductors (e.g. Si, Ge, AlAs, GaP, AlSb) (orem ML, rho 1, Seon Sense ad (hoc! Proper of sorcnivcs Soe, 1388 The minimum of the conduction band does not occur at the same k value as the valence band maximum. An electron promoted to the conduction band requires a change of its momentum to make the transition to the valence band (typ. occurs via lattice vibrations).* Phosphides: GaP, AIP, InP + Antimonides: GaSb, AlSb, InSb © Nitrides: GaN, AIN, InN TUL, Maer, 1M, Flaran LC, Secret fe) scons fy arlene ard nator ser,Why III-V's for devices? = Very low effective mass compared to Si (e.g. m*,,, = 0.98M,, M* cons = 0.067Mg, M*p,1nsy = O.014M,) = This translates into very high electron mobilities for high-speed electronic applications. = Awide variety of these materials have a direct band gap: = Photon emission is most efficient during recombination processes, 0 very suitable for light sources (lasers, LED's), but also detectors. = Possibility to create alloys consisting of the different elements: = The properties of the device (e.g. emission wavelenath of a light source) can be tailored to suit the needs (“band gap engineering”)., Ternary III-V Alloys (1) ; The group III lattice sites are 1 Mmm) occupied by a fraction xof 1) Ht, Hl ,V atoms III? and a fraction (1-x) of atoms III, Arsenides: e.g. InGaAs (used in the active regions of high-speed electronic devices, IR lasers, and long-wavelength quantum cascade lasers) Phosphides: e.g. InGaP (GaAs-based quantum well devices such as red diode lasers) Antimonides: e.g. AlGaSb (employed in high-speed electronic and infrared optoelectronic devices) Nitrides: e.g. InGaN (key constituent in the active regions of blue diode lasers and LED's)ks Ternary III-V Alloys (2) The group V lattice sites are ly? occupied by a fraction y of 2) HIV, Vy atoms V! and a fraction (1-)) of atoms V2, Arsenides Antimonides: e.g. InAsSb (smallest band gap of all III-V's, very important material for mid-infrared optoelectronic devices) Arsenides Phosphides: e.g. GaAsP (often used for red LED's) Phosphides Antimonides: e.g. GaPSbLanes 4) (A) - (ety coal otme/e apc Bantuan wiryveersonngedrom eT Banga ecg a! ae conat of ara EY semicon a 08 Aegean Te, 198).Ternary III-V Alloys (3) Band Gap Engineering: Nitrides Lattice parameter © v Bandgap for setect Nard tearies an Ey xBe™ (OIE YA) HE) -mt1096 1207 am AlygG8,NOm1Why? Provide even greater flexibility in device design... However: ‘* More elements —+ more fabrication issues!!! (e.g. composition control requires tedious calibration growths) + Range of stable compositions is limited due to the fact that in thermal equilibrium the components of the alloy often tend to segregate into inhomogeneous mixture of binaries and ternaries...Most practical devices consists in heterostructures, i.e. layered thin film structures made of dissimilar materials deposited on top of each other (e.g. quantum well). Based on the device requirements, the designer will select the proper alloy, while keeping in mind that typical substrates consist in binary compound (such as GaAs, InP, InP, GaSb) in order to minimize the effects of lattice mismatch. The misfit is defined as: a, : lattice constant of the substrate material a, ; lattice constant of the film a f materiala Lattice-matched structure Fu ‘SUBSTRATE ae MATCHED ‘hr Me Maes See Tin By definition, f = @, i.e. both the substrate material and the film material have the same lattice constant. A misfit |f| < 5 x 10+ is generally considered very good, and for practical purposes is assumed lattice-matched (e.g. AlGaAs/GaAs structures)Z Strained Structures Fut =f SUBSTRATE STRAINED hi Mh, he haa Soe of Min Fn, f < 0: compressive strain f > 0: tensile strain For relatively thin film thicknesses, cubic crystals will distort (strain develops within the layer) to achieve the same in-plane lattice constant. Such a layer is referred to as morphic.4 Relaxed Structure Beyond a certain critical thickness h,, it is energetically more favourable for the film to “relax”, i.e. achieve a state where its lattice constant tends towards its unstrained value. Burgers vector: atomic displacement. needed to generate the dislocation ~ > In the process, defects known as misfit dislocations form at the interface... Tap Mayr, Flan, LC, Ene eo or Festa ia Om mer eref Critical Thickness (1) Eno = Brain + Euis h, is obtained by minimizing &,,. with respect to the strain. This results in a transcendent equation: ‘oor "| where v is the Poisson’s ratio of the film material.4 Critical Thickness (2) if oN