MCAT Physics & Math 1.4. Units = Slunits: meters (m), kilograms (kg), seconds (s), etc 1.2, Vectors, Scalars Vector addition: add tip to tal ‘© Scalar vector multiplication ‘© Dot product: ‘© Cross product: for 3D Right-hand rule 1,3. Displacement, Velocity Distance (x, scalar), displacement (x, vector) Speed (v, scalar), velocity (v, vector) 1.4, Forces, Acceleration ‘© Force (F): pushipul, in newtons (N = kg-mis*) © Gravity: attractive force felt, exerted by all objects = F=GnMir, where G = universal gravitational constant Friction: opposes motion 1» Static friction (f): stationary object, depends on force being applied © 0=/=4N, where = coefficient of friction, "= normal force ‘© Object moves when force exceeds max static friction: Rolling wio slipping: roling object experiences instantaneous static, not kinetic, friction = Kinetic friction (f.): sliding object © Usually 1,2, ‘* Mass (m, object’ inertia, scalar), weight (w, gravity on object, vector) ° where g = acceleration due fo gravity © Sen = CMe! © Weight is applied to center of gravity: Sal=SWii/ Di, et. ‘© Acceleration (a): ate of change of v‘and reaction, F,.. 1.8. Motion w/ Constant Accelerat = Linear motion Free fall object falls w! constant acceleration (g) no air resistance © Terminal velocity: when gravitational force = drag force Projectile motion: free fall w! a, = 0, constant a= ¢ Inclined plane: spit forces into components perpendicular, parallel to plane q Teoma 8 mee sngle of incline Circular motion © Uniform circular motion: vis always tangent to path, centripetal force always points inward © Centripetal acceleration: = Centripetal force: F, = ma,= mir © Equilbrium: P= 0,5 =0 © Torque (0): in Nim (= kg:ms*) ° ‘where r = length from fulcrum to point of force ° CCWr>0,CWr<0) Deane Ki f les (J=N. mis?) * inet grey (0: neyo motion n joules (= Nm = kg 8 ‘© Potential energy (U): energy of positioniete © Gravitational: where f= heightGenera 0. ase MIM te rng constant. <= exer of sp ‘* Mechanical energy (A): total energy, conserved (st Law of Thermodynamics) © Energy can sill be “lost” as heat, etc. ‘© Conservation © Conservative forces: path-independent, conserves £ (e.g, gravitational, electrostatic) = AE=0 © Nonconservative forces: path-dependent, dissipates F as thermal/cherical energy (e.g, fiction, etc) AE Wye (2.2. Work © Work (17) transfer of mechanical energy, in J 1 Qayoreseriparal a dpacoment do work ‘© Gas compression: (+) work done on gas, (-) work done by gas ©. Gas expansion: (-) work done on gas, (+) work done by gas © Pressure (P), volume (¥) © P-V graphs: pressure vs. volume ‘Work = integral of curve © I= PIAP when process is isobaric (AP = 0) or aa te (=) 2.3. Mechanical Advantage ‘© Simple machines: incined plane, wedge (2 inclined planes), wheel + axle, lever, pulley, screw (rotating incined plane) © Apply less force over more distance —> work stays the same '= eg, to if load by load cistance using 3 pulleys (r 1), you need % as much effort, 3x as much effort distance ‘° Factor by which a simple machine multiplies input force ‘© Some work is wasted on nonconservative forces (e.g, friction)fiat acu 3.1, Zeroth Law © Oth Law of TD: thermal equiltrium between systems i transitive + Tempera) ag KE of peril, in Farvennet Fei CCoKehin 9 © Absolute zero (0K): no thermal energy + Heat (0) transfer of thermal energy from higher to lower temp © Thermal equilibrium: no net heat flow, equal temps + Thermal expansion: for most objects, temp t — size | © Solids: AL=aljAT, where L= length, a= coefcient of linear expansion f= "When temp changes, length changes aa (a,A1)" ©. Liquids: AP= IAA where I= volume, = coefieni of volumetric expansion = Fora given material, 3a (expands in 3 dimensions) 3.2. Systems © Types © Isolated: no exchange w/ surroundings = A intemal energy = 0 Closed: closed to matter, exchanges only energy w! surroundings ‘Open: exchanges both energy, matter w/ surroundings. ‘© State functions: path-independent (e.g., “PD TV HUGS": Bp, ZU, WU G9) ‘© Process functions: path-dependent (e.g., IV. 0) 3.3, First Law © Ist Law of TO: KUO, where U= internal energy © System gains U’from gaining heat, loses U from doing work ‘© Heat: energy transfers from higher- to lower-temp object, unt thermal equilibrium (2nd Law of TD) © Heat transfer ‘= Conduction: direct transfer thru molecular collisions (physical contact) ‘© Metals are best (e" sea = fast energy transfer), gases are worst (particles are far apart) = Convection: transfer by liquidigas flow over object = Radiation: transfer thru EM waves (only type that can transfer thru a vacuum) © Specific heat (c): heat needed to raise 1 g substance by 1 K © Cun 1 cal(g'k)= 4.184 (gk) © Heat of transformation (L)/latent heat = Phase change: heat transfer doesn't change temp unti all of substance is convertedAdd heat to substance at phase-transtion tomp —+ # microstates (degrees of freedom, S) 1, but avg. KE (temp) remains same = GIL, where L= heat of transformation Heat of fusion (4/,.):feezing/soliifcation, meltingtusion at meting point © Heat of vaporization (A,.):bolinglevaporation!vaporization, condensation at boing point + Thermodynamic processes ©. Isothermal: constant temp, AU’= 0 = fstLaw: Q= 1 © Adiabatic: no heat exchange, 0 0 = istLaw.AU=-1 ©. Isovolumeticisometricisochorc: constant volume, A=0 = istlaw: av=0 = Nowork possible: W”=0 © Isobari: constant pressure, i = = Par ‘2nd Law of TD: heat transfers from higher to lower-temp object, until thermal equilibrium © ie., energy spontaneously disperses ‘© Entropy (S): spontaneous energy dispersal at some temp ° ‘where Q,., = heat transferred in reversible process = Reversible process: takes infinite time, system is always in equilibrium, no energy is dissipated © Concentrating energy requires work © Entropy of universe is always increasing: ASiy, = AS,,* Sy. >0 Fluids: flow, conform to shapes of their containers Solids: rigid, withstand shear (tangential) forces Density: 4,000 kgim? ‘© Pressure (P): in pascals (Pa = Nim?) ° where = magnitude of normal force© atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 101.3 kPa © Absolute/hydrostatic pressure: total pressure exerted on object submerged in fluid . where P, = incidenvambient pressure (at surface), p = density of fui, auge pressure re 4.2. Hydrostatics + Fecal nde nincopreshle ls, pressure aptedequaly ol ars of Wk aris otaner depth Sita 0721 ote simle active = Force | — distance | o) erases ra ic coe rere nad © Object floats fav. Pinas Inks HF V8, Pgs AVE Phas © Objects sink only until. © Molecular forces © Cohesion: intramolecular attraction in liquid = Surface tension: thin, strong layer on surface © Adhesion: molecular attraction toward another substance f= Meniscus: curved surface up side of container ‘© Concave (adhesion > cohesion), convex (cohesion > adhesion) Wof displaced fluid ¢ Mlecoaty (7): ful’ resistance to tow, measured in Pass idl ule oct, Reonpwesebie Laminar fow: aoa, pratt > Poiseuile’s Law. O= (a APVICGHL), where Q = ow rate, r= tube radius, beeen 2 wre Tae «+ Tubulent tow rough, eels (ov usvaly downstream of object) Cal speed Se=t) TU, where Ny= Reyol number, d= tube dameter When rac 2 ina tow > troulert Now, except at boundary ayer (in ayer next io tube wal) «Flow ate (cans fr Gaga eatny Independent of cose sectoral arog > Continuity equation: D=ndcetwly where 1 = cross-sectional area 7 Fuss tow taster tu smal openings, slower tu lege openings ganar itso ona o: Stcenines pathways by moving fui pariles lube length, AP = pressure gradient‘© Bernoulli's Equation: Where P = absolute pressure, © Dynamic pressure: © Static pressure: © Energy for fluid movement t —> energy for static pressure | © Pitot tube: measures static pressure to find v © Venturi effect: 4 4 —> P | Continuity eq.: 4 | — » f —> dyn. pressure (% 0) © Inalveali, -=0 Renee nee 5.1, Charges ‘© Protons (p"), electrons (€*) © Opposite charges attract, ke charges repel ‘© Charge: in coulombs (C) © Charge of e"= 16 x 10°C ‘Insulators: charge is localized, can't transfer charge ‘© Conductors: charge distributed throughout surface, can transfer charge © Coulomb's Law: F=AG@P, where F = electrostatic force, q = charge, r= dstance © Coulomb's constant k= Ize) =9 x 10° NmIC® where «, = vacuum permitiviy © Electric field (£) pes by source charge (q), exerts electrostatic force on test charge (qi) © Field lines: from (+) to (-), never cross1» Field lines closer tagether = stronger E 5.3. Electric Potential Ener 3 Bece PE energy of charges flative poston fo anther °. Usikagie 7 0 Wrepe,U-<0 Hf atract o may = Work needed to bring q from w to some distance in electric field © Charges spontaneously mave from high to low electrical PE 5.4. Electric Potential ‘© Electric potential: © Potential cif. voltage: ‘work needed to move q, from ato b Wagar Derivation: 1”= Ed= Filig= Wig © (#) charges spontaneously move from high to low I"(AV"<0, Ws <0) © (©) charges spontaneously move from low to high F"(AV> 0, <0) © Equipotential lines: every point on equipatential ine has same potential ©. Electric field lines 1 equipotential lines # Electric aipoles: 2 equal opposite charges, separated by a distance © Dipole moment 1 Points (-) to (+) n physics © Potential at point far from dipole: SU SIR (@ ESHA, where p © Perpendicular bisector of cipole: equipotent ine bisects bipole = B=kpie.v-0 © Inelectic feld: =p =, = At6=0, +=0, min U (stable equilibrium) fw ALO= 22, max +r, U=0 ipole moment, r= dist from dipole to point= Ato = Ae 5.6. Magnetism Wagnete materia 2 biamagnetc; no unpaired eno net magnet eld, weak antimagnetic ©. Paramagnetic: unpaired e (gale! spins), randomly oriented maghelic dipoles = Weakly magnetized in ext. 8, but thermal energy makes dipoles reorient randomly ©. Fenomagnett: utpared song magnetized inex. Anigh fps © Magnetic field (B): formed by moving charge, in teslas (T = (N:s)/(C:m) = 10,000 gauss) © By along, straight we Bain where distance, yu = ar 10° Tm ©. By a oti oop ‘where + Magneie forces © Force by B on moving charge: Lorentz force: © Force by Bon current-carrying wire where 1 = length of wire in direction of current r= 0, max U (unstable equilibrium) 312, max -r, U=0 6.4. Current © Conductance = 1/R, in siemens (S = 1/0) © Metalic: free flow of e” across metallic bonds © Electrolytic: low of solutes, depends on [electrolytes] Curent fow of) charge, amperes (A= is © Direct (DC), alternating (AC) current © Electromotive force (emf, 6): voltage between 2 terminals of galvanic cell © Kirchhof's Laws © Junction rule: © Loop rue: ‘© Resistance (f): material opposes current, in ohms (0) ° here p = resistivity, = resistor length, 4 = resistor cross-sectional area L} +e" need to travel longer thru resistor —» R t = 4} more conduction pathways thru resistor — R |© Ohms Law: PIR © Intemnal resistance (r): intrinsic to non-superconducting batteries ©. Balers are galvanic cells when discharging, electrolytic cells when recharging # Power (P): rate of energy expenditurenvork S pemror © Rate of energy dissipation by resistor: P= =/FR= VR (substitute Ohm's Law) © Resistors = V’drops, 1 is constant 8 Ry> RR = drops, 1"is constant 6.3. Capacitance © Capacitance (Q): charges build up when 2 separated materials are connected to emt source, infarads (F = CIV) © For parale-pate capacitors: Call 1 Uniform electric field between plates: = ©. PE stored in capacitors: URC! + Dielectric: insulator between capacitor plates © C=KG;, where pacitance wio dielectric electric constant (x): 1 for vacuum, > 1 fr all else 2 Inisolated capacitors, ( is constant, so dielectric + ¥ | + CT © Incireut eapactos, 1's constant, so dielectie 7» C7 * Cepactor tld charge a! some votage ieee" = Q.drops, Vis constant 6.4. Meters © Ammeter: measures 1 (R ‘© Voltmeter: measures 1" (R= =) ‘© Ohmmeter: measures 2 (circult should be off7.4, Characteristics © Types © Transverse: direction of oscillation 1 propagation (e.g., EM waves) © Longitudinal: direction of oscillation || propagation (e.g. sound waves) © Waves © Wavelength (2): distance between crests © Frequency ():# cycles per second, in hertz (Hz = 1/s) = Propagation speed = Angular frequency: radls © Period (7): # seconds per cycle, © Amplitude (1): max height of displacement from equi ‘© Superposition: 4= 4, +4, © Constructive interference: waves in phase, 4's add © Partially constructive/destructive © Destructive interference: waves out of phase, 4's cancel out ‘© Resonance: vibrates at multiple natural frequencies (fundamental pitch + overtones) © Forced oscilation: periodically varying force applied to object f= Force frequency = natural frequency —> 4 t © Damping/attenuation: 4 | due to nonconservative force 7.2.Sound +" Sound: longitudinal wave thru oscillation of particles © Speed of sound: »= Bip), where B = bulk modulus (resistance to compression), p= density © Bass? = Fastest in low-density soli, slowest in dense gas Pitch: frequency of sound © Range of human hearing: 20-20,000 Hz = Infrasonic (< 20 Hz), ultrasonic (> 20 KHz). © Doppler effect sound waves infront of moving abject are compressed, behind object ae stretched = f=f(021)(0¥), where v, = speed of observer, v, = speed of source Use fop sign when observerlsource is moving foward the other {Use bottom sign when observerisource is moving away from the other 1 Shock waves: wave fronts build up infront of object moving at speed of sound Sonic boom: observer perceives very high pressure, then very low pressure «faster than speed of sound, wave fronts trail behind object, destructively interfere © Loudnessivolume: intensity () of sound, in Wn? rium position© FEPISA, where P SA = surface area of sound front = [<= I/F (distance from source), since SA o% 7° © [ias'flips, where f= frequency, 4 = amplitude, » = density of medium, © Sound tevel (): avaible inensies, in decibels (4B) f+ 1008. 1* 10 + Tareshold of hearing: dB = 10- Wim? Threshold of pain: 130 dB = 10 Win? © Perforate eardrum: 160 dB = 10,000 Win? = B= 100g lif, where |, = 0 dB = threshold of hearing So retay aca aie «Beat tequency sol * Senn wees teed waves ioe — statonary wevelom © Nodes (4/=0), antinodes (max 4) 2 Displacement (open ends), pressure (closed ends) nodes 1 Displacement nodes = pressure antinodes © Stringsfopen pipes: closediopen at both ends = 2 2L/n,f=rie/ 2, where n = harmonic number = For stings, n= # displacement antinodes = For open pipes,» = # displacement nodes © Closed pipes: closed at 1 end = 2=4Lin, fen] AL, where n = odd harmonic number speed of sound ERP 8.1. Electromagnetic Spectrum + Electromagnetic (EM) waves ©. Propagates in direction EB © EM spectrum: y rays, X-rays, uevilet (UV), visible (400 nnvvolet to 700 nmired), infrared (IR), microwaves, radio waves Speed of ight: = 7/= 3 « 10° mis in vacuum ‘© Rectlinear propagation: light travels linearly thru homogeneous medium Sign conventions: ‘0 Radius (K), focal length (/): same (+), opposite side as outgoing light (-) © Distance (5): same (+), opposite side as outgoing light (-)© Magnification: virtuallupright (+), reavinverted (-) © Reflection: #.=6, © Real image (s’> 0): rays converge at image, inverted (m <0) © Virtual image (s' <0): rays only appear to converge at image, upright (m1> 0) © Plane mirrors: virtual upright image behind mirror Distances: = Lateral magnification: m © Spherical mirrors = Types. ‘© Concavelconverging: center of curvature isin front of mirror (R> 0) * Convexidiverging: center of curvature is behind miror (R'< 0) 1» Focal point: where parallel rays intersect after reflection © Focal length: © Object at focal point («= fall reflected rays are parallel, x’ (no image) © Object at center of curvature (s = 2/= R): real image at same point (= s) = Distances: = Lateral magnification: © Principal rays = Thru focal point -» reflected parallel to axis, Parallel to axis — reflected thru focal point = Thru center of curvature ~> reflected normally back along incident path ‘To vertex — reflected symmetrically (0,= 0.) © Refraction © Index of refraction: where e = speed of ight in vacuum © Total internal reflection: no refraction when 0, > 0. = Critical angle: = implies n, >, = When 0,~ 0, refracted ray is 90° w/ normal ‘© Lenses: twice refracted, assumed to be negligibly thin © Types. = Convexiconverging: thickest in middle, treat hyperopia (i> 0) 1 Goncavelverging tcket a ends, teat myopia (<0) © Lensmaker’s equation: INE Kili la). where r= rads of cuvature © Power: Pll in diopters © Multiple lenses© Spherical aberration: blurring at image's periphery = Mirrorsilenses: not enough reflection/refraction of parallel rays at edges © Eye: comea (most refraction) —> lens (variable f) — vitreous humor, retinal tissue -> photoreceptors = 52-60 diopters ‘© Dispersion: diff. wavelengths travel thru medium at dif. speeds At nt more refraction ‘Chromatic aberration: natural light splits by color = Violet light is refracted most = Corrected in visual lenses raction Single sit smaller opening > difraction 1 Single si-lens system Dark fringes/minima: A102, where «= st with Double sit difracted waves interfere w/ each other © Double si-iens system 1 Dark fringes/minima: #8 W=GTEIAIA. where d= distance between sits © X-ray difraction Polarization ‘* Plane-/linearly polarized light: electric fields are parallel! Natural ight thru polarizer > /is halved © Malus’ Law: where /, = intensity of incident light, ¢ = angle between polarizing axes ‘© Circulary polarized light ingle between center of lens and axis, » = minimum # EWC eae) 9.4, Photoelectric Effect ‘© Photoelectric effect: incident ight on metal in vacuum —+ metal ejects e” © It more e ejected © ft KE { of ejected e ‘© Threshold frequency (f): min fof light needed to eject e-© Energy of photon: =f, where © Work function: KE of ejected e° © fff, then excess energy is converted into ejected e's KE anck’s constant ‘Absorbs photon of correct f+ &~ jumps to higher energy level € falls to lower energy level -+ emits photon of corresponding IR spectroscopy, UV-Vis spectroscopy, fluorescence Mass defect: actual nuclear mass < expected mass © Nucleons p* n) attract each other thru strong nuclear force © Nuclear binding is exergonic, diff. is radiated as binding energy (E= ie) ‘9.4, Nuclear Reactions Isotopic notation: “x Fusion: smaller nuclei fuse into larger nucle Fission: large nucleus spits into smaller nuclei © Triggered by absorbing low-energy n° Radioactive decay © adecay: emits a particle (2 p* + 2 n®, identical to *,He*) from nucleus 8X MY tho © Badecay: emits B particle (high-energy e'),interconverts p* and n° (while conserving net charge) mB decay: 4X 45.7 + © np +B 18 BY decayle” emission: 4X —» 42.¥ +B" © pons Be © y decay: emits vray from high-energy state of nucleus axe ey © €* capture: captures inner e°, converts p" to n® (reverse B decay) BEE ALY © pte on © Halt (7): time needed for half of sample to decay = Exponential decay: where n, = amt. sample at 1=0 © Decay constant: