Chapter –I: Systems concepts

SYSTEM APPROACH TO PROBLEM SOLVING:

Systems approach is widely used in problem solving in the field of science and technology and
Business problems can also be analyzed and solved using this approach.

The approach stands on the assumption that breaking down of a complex concept into simple
easy to understand units helps in better understanding of the complexity

System:

A system is an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a

plan to achieve a specific objective.

The study of system concepts has three basic implications:

1. A system must be designed to achieve a predetermined objective.

2. Interrelationships and interdependence must exist among the components.

3. The objectives of the organization as a whole have a higher priority than the objectives of

its subsystems.

The following steps are required for this:

Defining the Problem

This is the step when the problem has to be defined. Sometimes one may confuse the symptoms
or the exhibition of a behavior to be a problem but actually it may only be a symptom of a larger
malaise.

One must appreciate that this in the initial stage of problem solving and if the problem itself is
not correctly diagnosed then the solution will obviously be wrong.

Systems approach is therefore used to understand the problem in granular detail to establish
requirement and objectives in-depth.

By using the systems approach the problem will be analyzed in its totality with inherent elements
and their interrelationships and therefore this detailed analysis will bring out the actual problem
and separate out the symptom from it.
Developing Alternative Solutions

In this stage alternative solutions are generated.

This requires creativity and innovation.

The outline of solutions is generated rather than the actual solutions.

Selecting a Solution

The solution that suits the requirement and objectives in the most comprehensive manner is
selected as the 'best' solution.

This is done after evaluating all the possible solutions and then comparing the possible set of
solutions to find the most suitable solution

Designing the Solution

Once the most appropriate solution is chosen, it is then made into a design document to give it
the shape of an actionable solution.

At this stage the details of the solution are worked out to create the blueprint for the solution.
Several design diagrams are used to prepare the design document.

Implementing the Solution

The solution that has been designed is implemented as per the specifications -laid down in the
design document.

During implementation care is taken to ensure that there are no deviations from the design.

Reviewing the Solution

This is the final step in the problem solving process where the review of the impact of the
solution is noted.

This is a stage for finding out if the desired result has been achieved that was set out.

A Systems Approach Example

Let us assume that A is the coach of the Ethiopian football team. Let us also assume that the
objective that A has been entrusted with is to secure a win over the touring Spain football team.
The coach uses a systems approach to attain this objective. He starts by
gathering information about his own team.

Through systems approach he views his own team as a system whose environment would include
the other team in the competition, umpires, regulators, crowd and media.

His system, i.e., team itself maybe conceptualized as having two subsystems, i.e., players and
supporting staff for players.

Each subsystem would have its own set of components/entities like the player subsystem will
have goalkeeper, defense, midfield and striker., etc. The supporting staff subsystem would
include coach, keeping coach, physiotherapist, psychologist, etc. All these entities would indeed
have a bearing on the actual outcome of the game. The coach adopts a systems approach to
determine the playing strategy that he will adopt to ensure that the Ethiopian side wins. He
analyses the issue in a stepwise manner as given below:

Step 1: Defining the problem-In this stage the coach tries to understand the past performance of
his team and that of the other team in the competition. His objective is to defeat the competing
team. He realizes that the problem he faces is that of losing the game. This is his main problem.

Step 2: Collecting data-The coach employs his supporting staff to gather data on the skills and
physical condition of the players in the competing team by analyzing past performance data,
viewing television footage of previous games, making psychological profiles of each player. The
support staff analyses the data and comes up with the following observations:

Both teams use an aggressive strategy during the play. The competing Spain team uses the
striking players to spearhead this attack. The game is being played in Addis Ababa and the local
crowd support is estimated to be of some value. Also the crowd has come to watch the Ethiopian
team win. A loss here would cost the team in terms of morale.

The umpires are neutral and are not intimidated by large crowd support but are lenient towards
sledging.

Step 3: Identifying alternatives-Based on the collected data the coach generates the following
alternate strategies:

Play upon the minds of the striking players of the competitors by highlighting their personal
differences using sledging alone.
Employ defensive tactics during first half of the play when the strikers are most aggressive and
not using sledging.

Step 4: Evaluating alternatives-After having generated different alternatives, the coach has to
select only one. The first alternative may lead to loss of concentration on the part of strikers and
result in breakthroughs.

Step 5: Selecting the best alternative-The coach selects the second alternative as it provides him
with the opportunity of neutralizing the aggressive playing strategy of the strikers as well as
increases the chances of getting goals

Step 6: Implementing and monitoring-The coach communicates his strategy to his players and
support staff, instructs support staff to organize mock sessions and tactics to be employed to
make the strategy a success. The players and support staff performance is monitored by the
coach on a regular basis to ensure that the strategy is employed perfectly.

Simplifying a System or Applying Systems Approach for Problem Solving

The easiest way to simplify a system for better understanding is to follow a two-stage approach.

Partitioning the System into Black Boxes

This is the first stage of the simplification process, in this stage the system is partitioned into
black boxes. Black boxes need limited knowledge to be constructed. To construct a black box
one needs to know the input that goes into it, the output that comes out of it and its function. The
knowledge of how the functionality is achieved is not required for constructing a black box.
Black box partitioning helps in the comprehension of the system, as the entire system gets
broken down into granular functionalities of a set of black boxes.

Organizing the Black Boxes into Hierarchies

This is the second stage of the simplification process, in this stage the black boxes constructed in
the earlier phase are organized into hierarchies so that the relationships among the black boxes is
easily established. Once, a hierarchy of the black boxes is established, the system becomes easier
to understand as the internal working of the system becomes clearer.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SYSTEMS

1. Organization:

It implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that helps to achieve
objectives.

2. Interaction:

It refers to the manner in which each component functions with other components of the system.

3. Interdependence:

It means that parts of the organization or computer system depend on one another. They are
coordinated and linked together according to a plan. One subsystem depends on the output of
another subsystem for proper functioning.

4. Integration:

It refers to the holism of systems. It is concerned with how a system is tied together.

5. Central Objective:

A system should have a central objective. Objectives may be real or stated. Although a stated
objective may be the real objective, it is not uncommon for an organization to state one objective
and operate to achieve another. The important point is that users must know the central objective
of a computer application early in the analysis for a successful design and conversion.

STATE OF THE SYSTEM

• State of a system: Collection of variables and their values necessary to describe the
system at that time
– Might depend on desired objectives, output performance measures
– Bank model: Could include number of busy tellers, time of arrival of each
customer, etc.
State of a system: It is the minimal collection of information with which the system future
behavior can be predicted. For the Jet aircraft, the state of the system can be determined by
Speed, Direction of travel, weather conditions, number of passengers, and amount of remaining
fuel.
An Activity: It is the process or Event which changes the system state.

System Boundaries and environment

Systems of any practical relevance are open as they interact with the environment. Therefore, to
understand the system it has to be differentiated from the environment, i.e., the boundary of the
system has to be clearly defined along with its interaction with the environment from within this
boundary.

To model a system, it is necessary to understand the concept of a system and the system
constraints. We define a system as a group of objects that are joined together in some interaction
or interdependence toward the accomplishment of some purpose. An example is a production
system manufacturing automobiles. The machines, component parts, and workers operate jointly
along an assembly line to produce a high-quality vehicle.
A system is often affected by changes occurring outside the system. Such changes are said to
occur in the system environment.

The external components which interact with the system and produce necessary changes are said
to constitute the system environment. In modeling systems, it is necessary to decide on the
boundary between the system and its environment. This decision may depend on the purpose of
the study.

Ex: In a factory system, the factors controlling arrival of orders may be considered to be outside

the factory but yet a part of the system environment. When, we consider the demand and supply

of goods, there is certainly a relationship between the factory output and arrival of orders. This

relationship is considered as an activity of the system.

Endogenous System

The term endogenous is used to describe activities and events occurring within a system.

Ex: Drawing cash in a bank.

Exogenous System

The term exogenous is used to describe activities and events in the environment that affect the
system. Ex: Arrival of customers.

Closed System

A system for which there is no exogenous activity and event is said to be a closed. Ex: Water in
an insulated flask.

Open system

A system for which there is exogenous activity and event is said to be a open. Ex: Bank system.

One of the challenging aspects of systems is knowing where the boundary lies that separates the
system from its environment.

For example, The Open University has its headquarters in Addis Ababa. This campus is certainly
part of the system, as are its two hundred thousand students and staff located across the Ethiopia
and worldwide.

The Open University specializes in distance education, and does much of its teaching using the
internet. Is the internet part of the Open University system? or is the internet part of the
environment?

Assuming that a system of interest has a purpose, the following definitions will be used on this
course:
The entities inside the system are all those necessary for it to fulfill its purpose and that can be
controlled by the system owners or managers

The entities in the environment are all those things that affect the system but cannot be controlled
by the system owners or managers

Anything not in the system and not in the environment has no effect on the system’s behavior.

By this definition, the internet is not part of the Open University but is part of its environment.

MODELING AND SIMULATION:

• Simulation: Imitate the operations of a facility or process, usually via computer

Computer simulation is a powerful methodology for design and analysis and complex
systems. The overall approach in computer simulation is to represent the dynamic
characteristics of a real world system in a computer model.

Need of studying models

• Model: Mathematical representation of the system

– Models are a fundamental tool of science, engineering, business, etc.
– Abstraction of reality
– Models always have limits of credibility
• A model construct a conceptual framework that describes a system
• The behavior of a system that evolves over time is studied by developing a simulation
model.
• A model can be used to investigate a wide verity of “what if” questions about real-world
system.
• Potential changes to the system can be simulated and predicate their impact on the
system.
• Find adequate parameters before implementation
• Simulation can be used as - Analysis tool for predicating the effect of changes
• Design tool to predicate the performance of new system

• It is better to do simulation before Implementation.

TYPE OF MODELS

Physical : (Scale models, prototype plants,…)

Mathematical : (Analytical models, simulation)

Classification of simulation models

• Static vs. dynamic

• Deterministic vs. stochastic
• Continuous vs. discrete

Static vs. dynamic

A static simulation is one that is not based on time. It often involves drawing random samples to
generate a statistical outcome, so it is sometimes called Monte Carlo simulation.
Dynamic simulation includes the passage of time. It looks at state changes as they occur over
time. A clock mechanism moves forward in time and state variables are updated as time
advances. Dynamic simulation is well suited for analyzing manufacturing and service systems
since they operate over time.
Deterministic vs. stochastic
Simulations in which one or more input variables are random are referred to as stochastic or
probabilistic simulations. A stochastic simulation produces output that is itself random and
therefore gives only one data point of how the system might behave.
Simulations having no input components that are random are said to be deterministic.
Deterministic simulation models are built the same way as stochastic models except that they
contain no randomness. In a deterministic simulation, all future states are determined once the
input data and initial state have been defined.
Continuous vs. discrete
A discrete-event simulation is one in which state changes occur at discrete points in time as
triggered by events. State changes in a model occur when some event happens. State variables in
a discrete-event simulation are referred to as discrete change state variables. A restaurant
simulation is an example of a discrete-event simulation because all of the state variables in the
model, such as the number of customers in the restaurant, are discrete-change state variables
In continuous simulation, state variables change continuously with respect to time and are
therefore referred to as continuous-change state variables. An example of a continuous-change
state variable is the level of oil in an oil tanker that is being either loaded or unloaded

Most operational models are dynamic, stochastic, and discrete – will be called discrete-
event simulation models

Principles and Nature of Computer Modeling and Simulation

• To study system, often make assumptions/approximations, both logical and

mathematical, about how it works. These assumptions form a model of the system
• If model structure is simple enough, could use mathematical methods to get exact
information on questions of interest — analytical solution

• New policies, operating procedures, information flows and so on can be explored

without disrupting ongoing operation of the real system.
 • New hardware designs, physical layouts, transportation systems and … can be tested
without committing resources for their acquisition.
• Time can be compressed or expanded to allow for a speedup or slow-down of the
phenomenon (clock is self-control).
• Insight can be obtained about interaction of variables and important variables to the
performance.
• Bottleneck analysis can be performed to discover where work in process, the system
is delayed.
• A simulation study can help in understanding how the system operates.
• “What if” questions can be answered.
• It permits controlled experimentation.
• It permits sensitivity analysis by manipulation of input variables.
• It causes no disturbance of the real system.
• It constitutes an effective training tool.

WHEN TO USE SIMULATION

a) If the experimentation on the real-world system is not feasible or not possible:

• Too expensive
• Too risky (atomic problems),
• Too complex,
• Not existing system,

b) Simulation is the best (may be the only) technique available under conditions of
uncertainty due to stochastic (random) variables, or nonlinearity. Mathematical treatment of
such systems is frequently not possible.

• Simulation enable the study of internal interaction of a subsystem with complex

system. Informational, organizational and environmental changes can be simulated
and find their effects.

• A simulation model helps us to gain knowledge about improvement of system.

• Finding important input parameters with changing simulation inputs.

 • Simulation can be used with new design and policies before implementation.

• Simulating different capabilities for a machine can help determine the requirement.
Simulation models designed for training make learning possible without the cost
disruption

• A plan can be visualized with animated simulation

• The modern system (factory, wafer fabrication plant, service organization) is too
complex that its internal interaction can be treated only by simulation

LIMITATIONS OF SIMULATION

• Model building requires special training.

• Simulation results can be difficult to interpret.
• Simulation modeling and analysis can be time consuming.
• Stochastic simulations produce only estimates
• Simulation models can be expensive to develop
• Simulations usually produce large volumes of output – need to summarize, statistically
analyze appropriately