FACULTY OF LAW, JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA, NEW DELHI

STUDY MATERIAL – Prof. G.Yazdani, JMI (26th August, 2023)

We are reaching the next era in the evolution of the internet. The current golden age of information and
connectivity has so far been focused on the sharing of information betweenhumans using We are reaching the
next era in the evolution of the internet.

The current golden age of information and connectivity has so far been focused on the sharing of
information between humans using networks and computing power.

The software and devices managing this process are certainly complex, but for the most part these systems
have relied on humans to act on the information being transferred andprocessed to make changes in
the real world
The next significant step is the removal of the boundary between the physical world and the internet, to
enable machines to communicate with each other to achieve physical outcomes. This is a world where you
never run out of milk, because your fridge knows howmuch you have left, and can order you more- unless it
knows from your calendar that youare going on holiday.

This burgeoning technology is commonly (and somewhat clumsily) known as the "internetof things"
IOT or Machine-to-Machine (M2M) technology.

This world will require machines to communicate on an unprecedented scale. Most homes currently have a
handful of devices connected to the internet. In the new age, every single electrical item could have its own
software and network connection, sending and receivingdata and instructions to and
from the web.

Inroads are being made across a number of sectors including energy, telehealth and in theautomative industry
where progress has in part been driven by European proposals to make it mandatory from 2015 for all new
models of passenger cars to be fitted with "eCall"
- a system which automatically dials the emergency services if the car is involved in a serious accident.

Regulators are also waking up to the potential public benefits of the internet of things,from traffic control,
reductions in pollution, energy efficiency and costs savings.

However, to achieve the full potential of the internet of things, there are a number of challenges that will
have to be overcome.

Spectrum Availability
All of the devices required to communicate are unlikely to be hardwired to the internet, and will instead
rely on local or mobile wireless communications. The electromagneticspectrum usable for transmissions
is a limited resource, and unless we can find ways of doing more with less, the expansion in wireless
communications will reach capacity andgrind to a halt.

This risk has caught the attention of the European Commission and Ofcom. Ofcom has proposed that one
way we can do more with less is to make use of the "white space" in the spectrum between the licensed
bands. A trial of white space technology is due to commence this autumn in the UK.

Network Coverage

Mobile access is increasingly seen as the solution for consumers in remote locations where it is not
commercially viable to install physical connections, but there are many locations where there are
insufficient users to support even mobile connectivity.

As internet access has become ever more important to modern life, the UK government has increasingly
viewed connectivity in rural locations as a responsibility of government.

For example, the UK 4G spectrum auction earlier this year included specific coverage obligations on
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the bidders.

A two-tier system of those in the internet of things and those out of it would cause inefficiency and
inequality, and it is likely that universal access will remain on the legislative agenda, whether funded
centrally or paid for by network businesses (andtherefore indirectly by their subscribers).

Standards and Interoperability

As with almost all new technologies, the growth of the internet of things will be hampered if producers do
not adopt standards which enable devices to interoperate.

There is little point in a home network in which the shower cannot tell the coffee machineto switch on.

Most technology businesses understand the value to the whole industry of successful interoperability, and
we can expect standards to evolve naturally, particularly considering the legislative priority given to
interoperability in the EU.
Market Cooperation

The market for M2M communications is currently fragmented, and there are widely varying
predictions of the speed of growth in this sector. Vertical alliances and consolidation between the
different stages of production will improve efficiency and thepace of product development.

Privacy

The amount of personal information we share with online business is a concern of many consumers, and
further EU regulation is imminent in this area.

With huge amounts of data being generated, tracked and stored by the internet of things, businesses will have
an unprecedented insight into the lives of their customers.

As this industry develops and policies designed for the simple information age become less able to deal
with the practical challenges of the internet of things, we will need to reconsider the basis of our
approach to regulating for privacy.

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Concept of Information Technology

and Cyber Space: Interface of Technology and Law

Cyber law is the part of the overall legal system that deals with the Internet, cyberspace, and their
respective legal issues.

Cyber law cov ers a fairly broad area, encompassing several subtopics including freedom of expression,
access to and usage of the Internet, and online privacy. Generically, cyber law is referred to as the Law of
the Internet.

Why are cyber laws needed?

Like any law, a cyber law is created to help protect people and organizations on the Internet from
malicious people on the Internet and help maintain order.

If someone breaks a cyber law or rule, it allows another person or organization to take action against that
person or have them sentenced to a punishment.

Internet
Internet is one of the most wonderful inventions of the last century.
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Now, it has become integral part of our life and it is continuously making human life easier and simpler in
various ways.

From information accessing to money transfer, all kinds of tasks are performed using the internet. Today,
more and more people are relying on online banking and online shopping.

There are many networks that exist in the world, often with different hardware and software. People
connected to one network often want to communicate with people attached to a different one. This
requires connecting together different, and frequently incompatible networks, to make the connection and
provide the necessary translation, both in terms of hardware and software.

A collection of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or just internet. An internet work is

formed when distinct networks are connected together.

“Internet” refers to the global formation system that –

(i) is logically linked together by a globally unique address space based on the Internet Protocol
(IP) or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons;

(ii) is able to support communications using the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) suits or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons, and/or other IP-compatible protocols;
and

(iii) provides, uses or makes accessible, either publicly or privately, high level services layered on the
communications and related infrastructure described herein.

New communication systems and digital technology have made dramatic changes in the way we live and
the means to transact our daily business.

Businessmen are increasingly using computers to create, transmit and store information in electronic form
instead of traditional paper documents. It is cheaper, easier to store and retrieve speedier to communicate.
The latest threat to privacy, property and peace of individuals all over the world is from abuse of
technology relating to computers, their network or hardware devices, where the computer or device may
be agent of crime, the facilitator of the crime or the target of crime.
However, the rapid evolution of Internet has also raised numerous legal issues and questions. As the
scenario continues to be still not clear, countries throughout the world are resorting to different
approaches towards controlling, regulating and facilitating electronic communication and commerce.

Cyber Space

The New Shorter Oxford Dictionary explains the expressions „Cyber Space‟ as „notional environment
within which electronic communication occurs especially when represented as the inside of a computer
system, space perceived as such by an observer, but generated by a computer system and having no real
existence, the space of virtual reality‟.

Internet is a network of networks, what that means is that it is a global network that is creating by linking
smaller networks of computers and servers. Cyber-space is nothing more than a symbolic and figurative
space that exists within the scope of Internet. It can be said that anything that is done via the use of
Internet, occurs within the confines of the cyber-space, whether that is sending an e-mail, a website, or
playing a game, all of these things exist within the cyber-space.

Definitions of Cyber Crime

The Information Technology Act, 2000 (I.T. Act) does not define the term cyber crime.
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.
An act or omission, which is punishable under the law in force, is known as crime. The same explanation is
also applicable to cyber crime. But, there is no legal definition for cyber crime. The purpose of adding the
word cyber with crime is only to indicate that the computer has been used to commit an illegal act and to
caution the users for safeguarding the digital evidence, which is of fragile in nature. In short, cyber crime
can be known as digital crime. In literal sense, cyber was a word coined by William Gibson in his 1984
fictional novel „Neuromancer‟. Cyber is the prefix relating to the worldwide field of electronic
communication. Crimes involving stealing, fabricating, leaking or circulating forbidden digital
information is collectively branched under the umbrella term cyber crime.

Cyber crimes can be broken down into two types through the Information Technology Act does not make
such a distinction.

The first type of cyber crimes are actually pranks in which the intention of the perpetrator is merely to
create a nuisance. Thus, he may hack into a website and deface it, or break into one‟s email account and
read private mail, or post obscene material. This type of offender is generally a computer buff who is
essentially trying to show off his prowess such people get a kick by doing things which are arcane to most
people. They may not really intend to derive any criminal, financial or sexual benefit out of their
activities.
The second type of cyber crime is real crime in the sense that the offender intends to derive pecuniary or
sexual benefit by it. Thus, he may indulge in credit card or bank fraud, selling of secret commercial or
security information obtained by hacking or helps in transmission of criminal information. Whether he is a
prankster or a real criminal, the offender is necessarily a person who has a great deal of knowledge of
computer, networks, security system and the Internet. It can be safely presumed that he knows a great deal
more than perhaps the best investigators and can easily take them for a ride. Cyber crime may be said to be
those species of the conventional crime and there, either the computer is an object or subject of the conduct
constituting crime.
Cyber crimes share three elements:

1. Tools and techniques to perpetrate a crime.

2. Approach or methodology for executing the criminal plan – known as vector.

3. Crime itself that is the end of those plans and activities (a cyber crime is the ultimate objective of the
criminal‟s activities).

Cyber crimes are committed mostly by persons who are said to be learned and hence, it is called as white
collar crime. Cyber crimes are very serious threat in the modern era and for the times to come and pose
one of the most difficult challenges before the law enforcement machinery, especially to investigate,
collect evidence, and to penalize. In the information age, the rapid development of computers,
telecommunications and other technologies has led to the evolution of new forms of transnational crimes
known as “cyber crimes”. Cyber crimes have virtually no boundaries and may affect any country in the
world. A generalized definition of cyber crime may be “Unlawful acts where in the computer is either a
tool or target or both”. Most cyber crimes do not involve violence, but rather greed, pride or play on some
character weakness of the victims. Although it is difficult to identify the culprit, as the Net can be a
vicious web of deceit and can be accessed from any part of the globe. The damage caused are almost an
unrealizable, expect for certain financial damage which runs in billions every year and shall create
irreplaceable loss to the individuals and corporate. A cyber crime is generally a domestic issue, which
may have international consequences in most of the instances.

What is Information Technology Law?

Information technology law provides the legal framework for collecting, storing, and disseminating
electronic information in the global marketplace. Attorneys practicing in this area of the law represent
individuals and businesses from all different industries. They help structure information technology
transactions in a way that maximizes the client's economic benefit while ensuring regulatory compliance.
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A great deal of emphasis is also placed on anticipating potential sources of dispute between the parties to
a transaction, and crafting agreements that address these concerns, thereby reducing the risk of litigation.

When disputes arise in the field of information technology that cannot be resolved outside of the court
system, a lawyer specializing in these types of cases can prove a powerful advocate compared to a general
legal practitioner. Information technology law firms tend to hire lawyers with practical experience
working in the industry prior to entering the legal profession. With such a background, a lawyer is more
effective at explaining technical concepts to a judge or jury, and he or she will likely have contacts within
the industry that make finding consultants and expert witnesses less difficult. Clearly, information
technology law is a niche practice. Those looking to hire an attorney should bear this in mind.
Cyber Laws yields legal recognition to electronic documents and a structure to support e-filing and e-
commerce transactions and also provides a legal structure to reduce, check cyber crimes.

Functions of cyber crime legislation

1. Setting clear standards of behaviour for the use of computer devices.

2. Deterring perpetrators and protecting citizens.
3. Enabling law enforcement investigations while protecting individual privacy.
4. Providing fair and effective criminal justice procedures.
5. Requiring minimum protection standards in areas such as data handling and retention.
6. Enabling co-operation between countries in criminal matters involving cyber crime and
electronic evidence.

The History of Information Technology: Past, Present, Future

When we think of information technology (IT), we think of computers and the internet. Right? Even kids
can´t imagine that there was a time without computers, cell phones and other mobile devices. We use it
everyday and we feel that we can´t live without it. We communicate with others using cell phones, chat
rooms, forums and email. We use the internet for research, entertainment, communication, work and
school. In today‟s modern time, kids don‟t have to go to the library to find information and to do their
homework. They conveniently have constant access to the internet in their own homes. Likewise,
businesses use computers and the internet not only for research purposes but also for gathering and storing
information. They no longer have to rely on paperwork,cabinets and books. However, there was a time
when these modern technologies didn´t exist and society used other forms of what was the latest
technology at that time. In fact, information technology has been around for a long time and without the
evolution of IT throughout history, it wouldn‟t be where it is today and provide us with the modern
technologies that are readily available to us.

Let‟s go back through history and take a look at the different stages of IT development:

1. Pre Mechanical Age

2. Mechanical Age
3. Electromechanical Age
4. Electronic Age

The Pre Mechanical Age (3000 B.C. and 1450 A.D)

The earliest age of technology has been dated back to the pre mechanical age (between 3000 B.C.
and 1450 A.D.). Human beings at that time primarily communicated with each other using simple
picture drawings called petroglyphs.

They created these drawings on rock. This form of language was used to tell a story, to keep
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record of how many animals one owned and to mark their territory.
This eventually led to the arrival of the first writing system known as ¨cuniform¨. (cuneiform was
first created between 3500 and 3000 BCE by ancient Sumerians, who were a people who inhabited
the Mesopotamian region) Instead of using pictures to express words, signs were composed to
correspond with spoken sounds. Afterwards, the Phoenician alphabet (The Phoenician
[3]
alphabet is an alphabet (more specifically, an abjad) known in modern times from the
Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions found across the Mediterranean region. The name comes
from the Phoenician civilization)
Phoenicia was an ancient thalassocratic civilization originating in the Levant region of the eastern
Mediterranean, primarily located in modern Lebanon.

was created which consisted of a more simplified writing technique using symbols to express single syllables
and consonants. Later on, vowels were added and names were given to the letters to create the alphabet that we
use today.

As the alphabets and the writing systems became more popular and common, there was more and more
recorded information. This resulted in finding better ways to communicate and keep recordof information.

The first writing material was simply a pen like object to create markings in wet clay.
This led to more useful forms of writing materials from writing on bark, leaves, leather to writing
on the papyrus plant to making paper with rags to the making of modern-day paperwe use today.
However, as more and more people used these new early technologies, they had to confront a new
problem.
How could they safely store all of this information for a long period of time? This resulted in
different methods for record keeping such as clay tablets and scrolls which led to books and
libraries.

The numbering systems and the abacus, (The abacus (plural abaci or abacuses), also called a
counting frame, is a calculating tool which has been used since ancient times. It was used in the ancient
Near East, Europe, China, and Russia, centuries before the adoption of the Hindu- Arabic numeral
system.[1] The exact origin of the abacus has not yet emerged. It consists of rows of movable beads, or
similar objects, strung on a wire. They represent digits). the first calculator, were also invented during this
period.
The Mechanical Age (1450 and 1840 AD)

During the mechanical age (between 1450 and 1840) many extraordinary inventions took place.
This is where we can see similarities between our modern-day technologies and the rising
technologies back then.

Due to many new technological inventions, there was a great interest in computation and
information.
There were several machines that were invented, one of them being the printing press. Withthis new
movable, metal-type printing machine, the process of composing pages took only a few, short
minutes which made written technology easily accessible to the public. This led to other useful
techniques such as the development of book indexes and the use of page numbers. These methods
of organizing information paved the way of the development of files and databases.
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Other major machine inventions were the following:

 The slide rule (1600 ADs)- an analog computer that allowed users to multiply and divide.
 The Pascaline (around 1642 AD) – a mechanical computer that allowed users to add,
subtract, multiply and divide two numbers.
 The Leibniz‟s machine (1670 ADs) – a machine that was an improvement of the Pascaline that
included additional components that made it easier for users to multiply and divide.
 The difference engine (1820 ADs) – a machine creation that could calculate numbers and print
the results.

Even though these machine inventions were not as effective as the latest technologies we use today,they play
a big role in the evolution process of information technology.

The Electromechanical Age (between 1840 and 1940)

During the time of the electromechanical age (between 1840 and 1940), the beginning of
telecommunication emerged. Many revolutionary technologies were invented in this stage that led
to modern information technology systems.
First, a new method of communicating information was discovered with the voltaic battery.
This discovery was the first electrical battery that created and stored electricity. Afterwards, the
telegraph was invented to communicate with others over great distances through the use of
electricity.
This led to the development of Morse Code. (Morse code is a method used in
telecommunication to encode text characters as standardized sequences of two different
signal durations, called dots and dashes, or dits and dahs. Morse code is named after Samuel
Morse, one of the inventors of the telegraph)
This was a system built to communicate with others by breaking down the alphabet into dots and
dashes, transformed into electrical impulses and transmitted over a wire. This was very similar to
today´s digital technologies that break down information. Shortly afterwards, the telephone and
radio were invented. Later on, the first digital computer was created. It consisted of
electromechanical computing components, data and program readers, automatic typewriters and
input/output and control readers. It was different from our modern computers but it resulted an
interest to explore other ways to make the systemsmaller and to operate more effectively.

The Electronic Age (from 1940 to present day)

The electronic age (from 1940 to present day) is the stage of information technology that we currently live in.
It first started when electronic equipment including computers began to take place. At the
beginning of this stage, it was realized that electronic vacuum tubes could be used instead of
electromechanical parts.
The first high-speed digital computer was the ENIAC, Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer. (ENIAC, in full Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, the first
programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer, built during World War II by the
United States.
American physicist John Mauchly, American engineer J. Presper Eckert, Jr., and their colleagues
at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania led a
government-funded project to build an all-electronic computer. )
It was able to solve a large class of numerical problems through reprogramming. It was also one
thousand times faster than that of electro-mechanical machines from the previousage.
However, the problem with the ENIAC was that it didn‟t have the capacity to store program
instructions in its memory. Then, the EDSAC, Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator
was created and was recognized as the first stored-program computer. Afterwards, the world‟s
first commercial computer was invented known as LEO (Lyons Electronic Office).
The evolution of information technology and the development of computers have been grouped
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into five different stages or generations. They are:

1. The First Generation (roughly from 1940-1956)

2. The Second Generation (roughly from 1956-1963)
3. The Third Generation (roughly from 1964-1971)
4. The Fourth Generation (roughly from 1971-Present)
5. The Fifth Generation (Present to Future)

The First Generation (1940-1956)

During the first generation, computer systems used vacuum tubes. The machines were huge and
took up entire rooms.
They consumed a large amount of electricity and therefore, were expensive to operate. They also
generated a lot of heat which resulted in malfunctions.
These first generation computers relied on machine language and could only solve one problem at
a time. It also took a long, complicated process to set up a new problem onto the machine.
Punched cards and paper tape were used for input and printouts were used to display output. The
ENIAC was an example of a first generation computer but it was programmed by plugboard and
switches.

The Second Generation ( 1956-1963)

In the second generation, vacuum tubes were replaced with transistors. This was a major
improvement, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, reliable and more energy-
efficient.
They were also becoming more accessible since high-level programming languages were being
developed such as COBOL and FORTRAN.
Second generation computers leaned away from cryptic, binary machine language to
symbolic, assembly languages which programmed written instruction.
Magnetic core technology was also used instead of magnetic drum which made it possible for
computers to store their instructions in their memory.
Little by little, magnetic tape and disks took the place of punched cards.

The Third Generation (1964-1971)

By the time the third generation arrived, there was an increase in the speed and the efficiency of
computers due to the development of integrated circuits.
Transistors were made smaller and installed on silicon chips. Punched cards and printouts became
obsolete since operating systems, keyboards and monitors were created.
This allowed computers to operate many different applications at one time with one main
program to monitor and store information. Programming languages were developed that made
programming easier to do.
BASIC was one of those languages. For the first time in history, society as a whole had access to
computers.

The Fourth Generation (1971-Present)

Fourth generation computers upscaled to integrated circuits that contained a numerous amount of
transistors on one, small chip.
Microprocessors contained memory, logic and control circuits (central processing unit) ona single
chip. Computer systems went from enormous vacuum tubes that filled an entire room to a tiny
chip that could fit in your hand. Computers like IBM and Apple PC (personal computer) were
created for both personal and business purposes. Language software products such as Word for
Windows and Access were also introduced which enabled people to use computers without the
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necessity of any technical knowledge. As these fourthgeneration small computers became popular
and spread worldwide, networks, handheld devices and finally the internet were developed.

The Fifth Generation ( Present to future)

We are currently in the fifth generation. A lot of today´s research focuses on artificial
intelligence, the creation of intelligent machines that function and behave like humans.
Speech recognition, learning, planning and problem solving are some of the activities that are
being tested and performed.
Even though artificial intelligence is still in development, there are some applications that are
being used such as voice recognition.
Overall, the main goal is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and that are
capable of learning.
In conclusion, information technology has been in existence for thousands of years and has been
evolving since the beginning of time – and it is still evolving.
Human beings have been collecting information in different ways and have discovered different
forms to communicate through the use of technologies.
Information technology has been essential to our lives and has made a huge impact throughout
history. Without it, we wouldn‟t be here today with the latest, advanced technologies.

Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise

The Islamic Empire consisted of a society that was multicultural in terms of languages, customs,
traditions and religion.
As Muslims went forth from Arabia to conquer the countries surrounding them, they
encompassed vast lands with peoples of different faiths and cultures.
Thus the Islamic Empire not only consisted of Muslims from three continents, Arabs, Persians,
Turks, Africans, Indians and other Asians, but also Jews, Christians and other faiths.
Therefore scholars from all faiths worked under the umbrella of Islam to produce a unique culture
of knowledge and learning.
In the paragraphs that follow each major known field of science is considered and
examined for the contributions made by scholars from the Islamic world.

Mathematical Sciences

Modern technology would be unthinkable without mathematics. The relationship is reciprocal,

since mathematics also needs technology.
In Computer Science and Information Technology, discrete mathematics plays a criticalrole.
The study of advanced counting techniques (combinatorics, etc.), logic, relations, graph theory,
and analysis of algorithms are included in this branch of mathematics.
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The mathematical sciences as practised in the Islamic world during this period consisted of
mathematics, algebra, and geometry as well as mathematical geography, astronomy andoptics.

Muslims derived their theory of numbers („ilm al-a„dad) in arithmetic from translations of the
Greeks sources such as Books VΙΙ through to ΙX of Euclid‟s Elements and the Introduction to the
Science of Numbers by Nicomachus of Gerasa (Berggren, 1997).

Moreover, they acquired numerals from India (Hindu) and possibly China and made their use
widespread.

Mohammad Bin Ahmed in the tenth century invented the concept of zero or sifr. Thus replacing
the cumbersome Roman numerals and creating a revolution in mathematics (Badawi, 2002).

This led to advances in the prediction of the movement of the planets and advances in the fields of
astronomy and geography.

Muslim mathematics had inherited both the Babylonian sexagecimal system and the Indian(Hindu)
decimal system, and this provided the basis for numerical techniques in mathematic (Folkerts,
2001; Rajagopal, 1993).

Muslims built mathematical models using the decimal system, expressing all numbers by means
of ten symbols, and each symbol accorded the value of position as well as absolute value (Kettani,
1976).

Many creative methods of doing multiplications were developed by Muslims; methods of

checking by casting out nines, and decimal fractions (Anawati, 1976).

Thus Muslim scholars contributed and laid the foundations of modern mathematics and the use of
mathematics in the fields of science and engineering (Høyrup, 1987).

Thabit bin Qurrah not only translated Greek works but also argued against and elaborated on the
widely accepted views of Aristotle.

In arithmetic there emerged the concept of irrational numbers with Islamic mathematicians starting
from a non-Euclidean concept.

Both Umar Khayyam (1048- 1131) and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-1274) contributed to research
on this concept which did not have its origins in Greek mathematics.
Eastern Muslims derived numerals from Sanskrit-٨„٧„٦„٥„٤„٣„٢„١ and ٩, and they were the first
to develop the use of the zero (sifr), written as 0 by the Western Muslims and „·‟ by Eastern
Muslims (Kettani, 1976, p.137).

Whereas these Eastern Muslims had initially used the Arabic alphabets as numerals, by the ninth
century Western Muslims had invented and replaced them with “al-arqam al- gubariyah-
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9-based on a number of angles equal to the weight of each symbol”
(Kettani,1976, p.137).

Thus the zero with the numerals made it possible for the simple expressions for numbers to have
infinite values, thereby helping solve particular problems.

Translations of mathematical treatise in Spain subsequently transferred this knowledge toEurope.

Al-Khwarizmi(Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi) ( 780-850 AD) was an

Islamic mathematician who wrote on Hindu-Arabic numerals. The word algorithm
derives from his name. His algebra treatise Hisab al-jabr w'al- muqabala gives us the word
algebra and can be considered as the first book to be written on algebra. the word „algebra‟
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transliterates into the term aljabr.

Al-jabr represents the two basic operations used by al-Khwarizmi in solving quadratic equations.

Algebra is used in computer science in the development of algorithms and software for working
with mathematical objects. It is also used to design formulas that are used in numerical programs
and for complete scientific computations.

The development and analysis of algorithms is fundamental to all aspects of computer science:
artificial intelligence, databases, graphics, networking, operating systems, security, and so on

In the latter half of the twelfth century, the first part of al-Khwarizmi‟s Kitab al-Jabr wa al-
Muqabalah was translated and made available in Europe (Kettani, 1976; Sarton, 1927).

Another famous contributor to this field was Umar Khayyam, who studied cubic equations and
algebra came to be regarded as a science in its own right.

Subsequently in later centuries Italians took over his methods and extended them (Anawati,

1976).

Thus the Muslims not only developed the methods of solving quadratic equations they also
produced tables containing sine, cosine, cotangent and other trigonometrical values.

Al-Battani (d.929) systematically developed trigonometry and extended it to spherical

trigonometry (Kettani, 1976; Sarton, 1927), with important consequences for astronomy,
geography and exploration beyond the known world, thus making the construction of better maps
and the reconceptualisation of the structure of the planet Earth.

Arabic geometry absorbed not only materials and methods of Euclid‟s Elements but also the
works of Apollonius and Archimedes.

The book, On the Measurements of Planes and Spherical Figures, written on Archimedean
problems by the three sons of Musa bin Shakir in the ninth century became known in the West
through the translation by Gerard of Cremona.

In seventeenth century Europe the problems formulated by Ibn al-Haytham (965-1041 AD) became
known as “Alhazen‟s problem”. Again his work that was translated into Latin made Europeans
aware of al Haytham‟s remarkable achievements in the field of Optics (Kitab al-Manazir)
(Meyers, 1964, p.32).

Among his works were included a theory of vision and a theory of light, and was called by his
successors of the twelfth century “Ptolemy the Second”.

Furthermore by promoting the use of experiments in scientific research, al-Haytham played an

important role in setting the scene in modern science (Rashed, 2002, p.773)

Al-Haytham‟s contributions to geometry and number theory went well beyond the Archimedean
tradition. Al-Haytham also worked on analytical geometry and the beginnings of the link between
algebra and geometry.

Subsequently, this work led in pure mathematics to the harmonious fusion of algebra and
geometry that was epitomised by Descartes in geometric analysis and by Newton in the calculus.

Al-Haytham was a scientist who made major contributions to the fields of mathematics, physics
and astronomy during the latter half of the tenth century.
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John Peckham in the late-thirteenth century used al-Haytham‟s Kitab al-Manazir and

Witelo‟s Optics too has echoes of Kitab al-Manazir. Witelo work was used by JohannesKepler.

Roger Bacon, the founder of experimental science, probably used the original Arabic works of al-
Haytham as well as Latin translations (Meyers, 1964).

Much work was under-taken by Islamic mathematicians regarding the theory of parallels. This
theory consisted of a group of theorems whose proofs depended on Euclidean postulates.

The Islamic mathematicians continued their research for over 500 years on these postulatesin order
to obtain proofs and not just the acceptance of them.

However, after these problems were transmitted to Europe in the twelfth century, little further
research was done until the sixteenth century.

Muslim scholars contributed not only to the use of logic in the development of mathematical
ideas and relationships, but also to a workable system of numeration that included zero and led to
the solution of equations.

Muslims had thus begun the work that led on to mathematical modelling and its application for the
purpose of testing their theories. This knowledge and approach was slowly transferred to Europe
through Spain and Sicily.

History of Information Technology In India

In 1965, immigration laws in USA were modified and the restrictions on immigrants werereduced
considerably.
As a result a lot of Indian professionals migrated for research opportunities in USA.
The IT revolution in USA and the much fancied Silicon Valley in the US during the 80sand 90s
could not have been possible without the work of these migrated Indians.
What this migration did for the Indian IT industry was creating innumerable opportunities in the
USA in the IT sector.
Due to the fast growing IT sector in USA, there was a need for IT professionals outsideUSA.
India had a huge number of educated people and the education in India being in English, there
was a large population of English speaking technically strong people in India.
Hence outsourcing of work started gaining momentum and this led to the huge boom in the IT
sector in India, whose most of the work is exporting software and software services to the US and
other overseas clients.
Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) was started by the TATA group for software
development services in India in 1968.
TCS started the software services by developing punched card facilities for TATA steel
employees (TSICO).
The first overseas client for TCS was Burroughs Corporation, United States.
The job of TCS was to write software code for the Burroughs machines in 1974. With word of
mouth, TCS grabbed a number of projects, small and big during the following years andtoday TCS
is India's top IT company with a turnover of more than $10 billion.
In 1966, Azim Premji became the chairmen of the large company WIPRO and the focus ofWIPRO
was concentrated on the IT services sector.
Patni Computer Systems started developing software and providing services since the beginning
of the company in 1972 (At that time it was named Data Conversion Inc).
In 1981, Infosys was founded by Narayan Murthy and his colleagues. Infosys was completely
committed towards providing quality software services and also developed an IT business model
which was later followed by most of the IT companies in India.
Hailed as the 'Father of Information Technology and Telecom Revolution of India', Rajiv Gandhi
left an indelible mark on Indian society and politics.
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It was under his rule that the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) was established in
August 1984 to develop state-of-the-art telecommunication technology and meet the needs of the
Indian telecommunication network.
He was also the reason behind the PCO (public call office) revolution. PCO booths helped to
connect even the rural areas to the world outside.
Because of his efforts, MTNL (Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited) was established which
helped in the spread of telephone network in 1984.

The Indian economy during this period was completely controlled by the Indian Government and
there were strict restrictions and regulations for private business entities in India.
Hence there was no major growth in the IT sector in India till 1991.

Economic reforms in 1991 and development of IT sector in India

The Indian government had strict control over the private business entities in India before
liberalisation of economy in 1991.
Moreover, the wide area networks and internet lines were completely controlled by the central
government.
As a result, the Indian IT sector was totally held back due to these restraints on the
functioning of the software services providers.
The first major IT reform by the Indian Government was the creation of corporation called Software
Technology Parks of India (STPI) from 1991 onwards.
This corporation provided satellite links to major IT developers enabling them to transmit the
work done in India directly abroad.
This reduced the costs incurred to the Indian IT companies as well as helped the clients inUS trust
Indian industries and go for outsourcing.
Finance minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh, introduced the major economic reforms in 1991 to solve
the debt problem created during that time.
As per these economic reforms the internation integration became possible. The huge restrictions
on overseas business were lifted and foreign investments were welcomed.
As a result, the IT industry in India became free and the business of outsourcing would finally
gain momentum with more and more clients and enterprises going for outsourcingof IT.
Also, the inception of Windows and other user friendly operating services made the PC
experience even more simple and less time consuming.
Coupled with development of high level programming languages like Basic, C and others, the
Indian IT brains had the perfect platform to rise in the global arena.
The Indian IT sector boomed and growed at gain of nearly 50% every year.
Another major event for Indian IT industry post the 1991 reforms was the Y2K bug. Fear of a
complete breakdown of computer services, the US corporations outsourced all the equipment and
upgrading work to Indians.
The task of rectifying the Y2K bug was thrown to the Indians and as a result the
modification of all the codes and softwares, which were initially designed till a date of 1999 was
to be edited and huge work was outsourced to the Indian IT industries.
The Indian IT industry has helped provide a national GDP of more than 6% since these economic
reforms took place 20 years ago and today, India is known as the IT hub of the world.

National Task Force, NTP and IT Act, 2000 helped IT sector grow in India

The NDA(National Democratic Alliance) government, under the leadership of prime minister
Atal Bihari Vajpayee, included the development of IT as the top priority in their long term
agenda.
Indian National Task Force was formed for this purpose which overtook the development of IT
services in large and small IT enterprises in India.
The National Task Force, within 3 months, provided a detailed report on the Indian IT and
technological industries with more than 100 recommendations which would help improve the IT
services in India.
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A swift action plan by the Central Government towards IT services growth was executed and all
the recommendations were acted upon sooner than later.
The result of these efforts from the Indian Government bore fruit with the IT exports

touching more than $50 billion. Indian economy was no longer that of a developing nation, but at
par with those of the developed nations in the world.
The New Telecommunications Policy, 1999 (NTP 1999) helped free the telecommunications
sector in India. This helped availability of the infrastructure for the telecommunication.
The satellites, towers and other telecom related businesses were no longer owned by the Central
Government.
The entry of private sector in these departments helped the telecom sector grow rapidly resulting
the boom in IT sector in India eventually.
The growth of IT is totally dependent on the innovation and development of telecom industry.
The Information Technology Act 2000 provided legal recognition of the electronic documents,
digital signatures, offences and contraventions.
This helped a long way in striking deals with US clients as no longer the person to person meeting
was required for finalisation of business deals.
Why are cyber laws needed?
Like any law, a cyber law is created to help protect people and organizations on the Internet from
malicious people on the Internet and help maintain order.

If someone breaks a cyber law or rule, it allows another person or organization to take action against that
person or have them sentenced to a punishment.

Internet
Internet is one of the most wonderful inventions of the last century.

Now, it has become integral part of our life and it is continuously making human life easier and simpler in
various ways.

From information accessing to money transfer, all kinds of tasks are performed using the internet. Today,
more and more people are relying on online banking and online shopping.

There are many networks that exist in the world, often with different hardware and software. People
connected to one network often want to communicate with people attached to a different one. This
requires connecting together different, and frequently incompatible networks, to make the connection and
provide the necessary translation, both in terms of hardware and software.

A collection of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or just internet. An internet work is

formed when distinct networks are connected together.

“Internet” refers to the global formation system that –

(i) is logically linked together by a globally unique address space based on the Internet Protocol
(IP) or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons;

(ii) is able to support communications using the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Protocol (TCP/IP) suits or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons, and/or other IP- compatible
protocols; and

(iii) provides, uses or makes accessible, either publicly or privately, high level services layered on the
communications and related infrastructure described herein.

New communication systems and digital technology have made dramatic changes in the way we live and
FACULTY OF LAW, JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA, NEW DELHI

the means to transact our daily business.

Businessmen are increasingly using computers to create, transmit and store information inelectronic form
instead of traditional paper documents. It is cheaper, easier to store and retrieve speedier to communicate.
The latest threat to privacy, property and peace of individuals all over the world is from abuse of
technology relating to computers, their network or hardware devices, where the computer or device may be
agent of crime, the facilitator of the crime or the target of crime.
However, the rapid evolution of Internet has also raised numerous legal issues and questions. As the
scenario continues to be still not clear, countries throughout the world are resorting to different approaches
towards controlling, regulating and facilitating electronic communication and commerce.

Cyber Space

The New Shorter Oxford Dictionary explains the expressions „Cyber Space‟ as „notional
environment within which electronic communication occurs especially when represented as the
inside of a computer system, space perceived as such by an observer, but generated by a computer
system and having no real existence, the space of virtual reality‟.

Internet is a network of networks, what that means is that it is a global network that is
creating by linking smaller networks of computers and servers. Cyber-space is nothing more than a
symbolic and figurative space that exists within the scope of Internet. It can be said that anything
that is done via the use of Internet, occurs within the confines of the cyber- space, whether that is
sending an e-mail, a website, or playing a game, all of these things exist within the cyber-space.
Definitions of Cyber Crime

The Information Technology Act, 2000 (I.T. Act) does not define the term cyber
crime.
.
An act or omission, which is punishable under the law in force, is known as crime.

The same explanation is also applicable to cyber crime. But, there is no legal definition for
cyber crime. The purpose of adding the word cyber with crime is only to indicate that the
computer has been used to commit an illegal act and to caution the users for safeguarding
the digital evidence, which is of fragile in nature. In short, cyber crime can be known as
digital crime. In literal sense, cyber was a word coined by William Gibson in his 1984
fictional novel „Neuromancer‟. Cyber is the prefix relating to the worldwide field of
electronic communication. Crimes involving stealing, fabricating, leaking or circulating
forbidden digital information is collectively branched under the umbrella term cyber crime.
Cyber crimes can be broken down into two types through the Information Technology Act
does not make such a distinction.
FACULTY OF LAW, JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA, NEW DELHI

The first type of cyber crimes are actually pranks in which the intention of the
perpetrator is merely to create a nuisance. Thus, he may hack into a website and deface it, or
break into one‟s email account and read private mail, or post obscene material. This type of
offender is generally a computer buff who is essentially trying to show off his prowess such
people get a kick by doing things which are arcane to most people. They may not really intend to
derive any criminal, financial or sexual benefit out of their activities.
The second type of cyber crime is real crime in the sense that the offender intends to
derive pecuniary or sexual benefit by it. Thus, he may indulge in credit card or bank fraud, selling
of secret commercial or security information obtained by hacking or helps in transmission of
criminal information. Whether he is a prankster or a real criminal, the offender is necessarily a
person who has a great deal of knowledge of computer, networks, security system and the Internet.
It can be safely presumed that he knows a great deal more than perhaps the best investigators and
can easily take them for a ride. Cyber crime may be said to be those species of the conventional
crime and there, either the computer is an object or subject of the conduct constituting crime.
Cyber crimes share three elements:

1. Tools and techniques to perpetrate a crime.

2. Approach or methodology for executing the criminal plan – known as

vector.
3. Crime itself that is the end of those plans and activities (a cyber crime is the
ultimate objective of the criminal‟s activities).

Cyber crimes are committed mostly by persons who are said to be learned and hence, it is
called as white collar crime. Cyber crimes are very serious threat in the modern era and for the
times to come and pose one of the most difficult challenges before the law enforcement
machinery, especially to investigate, collect evidence, and to penalize. In the information age, the
rapid development of computers, telecommunications and other technologies has led to the
evolution of new forms of transnational crimes known as “cyber crimes”. Cyber crimes have
virtually no boundaries and may affect any country in the world. A generalized definition of cyber
crime may be “Unlawful acts where in the computer is either a tool or target or both”. Most cyber
crimes do not involve violence, but rather greed, pride or play on some character weakness of
the victims. Although itis difficult to identify the culprit, as the Net can be a vicious web of deceit
and can be accessed from any part of the globe. The damage caused are almost an unrealizable,
expect for certain financial damage which runs in billions every year and shall create irreplaceable
loss to the individuals and corporate. A cyber crime is generally a domestic issue, which may have
international consequences in most of the instances.

What is Information Technology Law?

Information technology law provides the legal framework for collecting, storing, anddisseminating
electronic information in the global marketplace. Attorneys practicing in this area of the law
represent individuals and businesses from all different industries. They help structure information
technology transactions in a way that maximizes the client's economic benefit while ensuring
regulatory compliance. A great deal of emphasis is also placed on anticipating potential sources of
dispute between the parties to a transaction, and crafting agreements that address these
concerns, thereby reducing the risk of litigation.

When disputes arise in the field of information technology that cannot be resolved outside of the
court system, a lawyer specializing in these types of cases can prove a powerful advocate
compared to a general legal practitioner. Information technology law firms tend tohire lawyers with
practical experience working in the industry prior to entering the legal profession. With such a
background, a lawyer is more effective at explaining technical concepts to a judge or jury, and he
 FACULTY OF LAW, JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA, NEW DELHI

or she will likely have contacts within the industry that make finding consultants and expert
witnesses less difficult. Clearly, information technology law is a niche practice. Those looking to
hire an attorney should bear this in mind.
Cyber Laws yields legal recognition to electronic documents and a structure to

support e-filing and e-commerce transactions and also provides a legal structure to reduce,check cyber crimes.

Functions of cyber crime legislation

1. Setting clear standards of behaviour for the use of computer devices.

2. Deterring perpetrators and protecting citizens.
3. Enabling law enforcement investigations while protecting individual privacy.
4. Providing fair and effective criminal justice procedures.
5. Requiring minimum protection standards in areas such as data handling and retention.
6. Enabling co-operation between countries in criminal matters involving cyber crime and electronic
evidence.