Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing

ISSN: 1054-8408 (Print) 1540-7306 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wttm20

Why Seniors use Mobile Devices: Applying an

Extended Model of Goal-Directed Behavior

Myung Ja Kim & Michael W. Preis

To cite this article: Myung Ja Kim & Michael W. Preis (2015): Why Seniors use Mobile Devices:
Applying an Extended Model of Goal-Directed Behavior, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing,
DOI: 10.1080/10548408.2015.1064058

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Published online: 24 Aug 2015.

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 Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 2015
© 2015 Taylor & Francis
ISSN: 1054-8408 print / 1540-7306 online
DOI: 10.1080/10548408.2015.1064058

WHY SENIORS USE MOBILE DEVICES: APPLYING

AN EXTENDED MODEL OF GOAL-DIRECTED
BEHAVIOR
Myung Ja Kim
Michael W. Preis

ABSTRACT. Seniors’ use of mobile devices for tourism-related purposes is an emerging social
Downloaded by [RMIT University] at 00:23 26 January 2016

trend, but there is little theoretically based research on the topic. This study examines seniors’ usage of
mobile devices for tourism-related purposes, applying the extended model of goal-directed behavior.
Usefulness and enjoyment are shown to have significant effects on seniors’ use of mobile devices for
tourism purposes and prior knowledge of information technology has a significant impact on seniors’
desire and behavioral intention to use mobile devices for tourism-related purposes. This study offers
theoretical and practical contributions to tourism academics and practitioners.

KEYWORDS. Mobile device, senior, extended model of goal-directed behavior, motivation, prior
knowledge, tourism

INTRODUCTION percentage is expected to reach 31.4% by

Two of the major challenges in today’s
society are the information and communication
technology revolution and the demographic
shift caused by an aging population (Martinez-
Pecino, Lera, & Martinez-Pecino, 2012).
Developed countries are experiencing rapid
increases in the populations of seniors (Chen
& Shoemaker, 2014; Kim, Lee, Kim, & Kim,
2013). People aged 55 years and older in the
Republic of Korea (hereafter Korea) represented
24.0% of the population in 2013 and that
2020 (Statistics Korea, 2014). Since Korea has
a population of 50 million people, seniors repre-
sent a substantial market. Almost half (46.8%)
of Korean seniors were smartphone owners in
2012 (Chun, 2013), while only 7.1% of the
seniors owned smartphones in 2011(Korea
Communication Commission, 2012), demon-
strating that this segment is quickly becoming
“tech-savvy” and mainstream.
Seniors have often been slow to adopt new
technologies but are rapidly embracing the use
of mobile devices such as smartphones and

Myung Ja Kim, PhD, is Assistant Professor, College of Hotel and Tourism Management, Kyung Hee
University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 130-701, Republic of Korea
(E‑mail: silver@khu.ac.kr).
Michael W. Preis, PhD, is Retired Clinical Professor, College of Business, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, 350 Wohlers Hall, 1206 South Sixth St., Champaign, IL 61820, USA
(E‑mail: mpreis@gmail.com).
The authors greatly appreciate the editor and anonymous reviewers for insightful comments and sugges-
tions.
Address correspondence to: Michael W. Preis, College of Business, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign, 350 Wohlers Hall, 1206 South Sixth St., Champaign, IL 61820, USA
(E‑mail: mpreis@gmail.com).
1
 2 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING
tablets (Pew Research Center, 2014). The ease
with which smartphones and computers can be
used for online shopping, paying bills, and con-
necting to family, friends, and the broader com-
munity is of great benefit to seniors (Australian
Associated Press, 2013). With many applica-
tions offering everything from entertainment to
healthcare organizers, seniors stand to benefit
from smartphone applications just as much as
younger people do (Shelton, 2012). Besides
that, seniors like mobile devices that have intui-
tive and fun-looking touch screen-type user
interfaces and that provide convenience and
enjoyment (Furuki & Kikuchi, 2013).
A large proportion of the population is reach-
ing the age of 55 and is willing to spend their
Downloaded by [RMIT University] at 00:23 26 January 2016
money and time on online shopping and tour-
ism activities; increasingly, those who are
55 years old or over are using smartphones
and tablets for tourism-related activities (Park,
2013). As this trend accelerates, it will be
increasingly important for marketers to under-
stand how best to reach and satisfy this market.
Therefore, researching seniors’ usage of mobile
devices for tourism-related purposes is very
timely and potentially valuable.
Many recent studies have shown the impor-
tance of mobile applications for making hotel
reservations, arranging tours, and providing
tourism information (see for example Hsu &
Lee, 2011; Noguera, Barranco, Segura, &
Martínez, 2012; Rodriguez-Sanchez, Martinez-
Romo, Borromeo, & Hernandez-Tamames,
2013; Wang & Wang, 2010). A growing num-
ber of seniors is using mobile devices, and the
widespread usage of mobile devices enriches
seniors’ lives (Wan et al., 2013), generating
opportunities and challenges for businesses
and those interested in serving seniors. One
example of this is an increasing number of
tourism applications for mobile devices
(Rodriguez-Sanchez et al., 2013). The benefits
that can be provided by mobile devices are
likely to have an increasing impact on seniors’
lives.
The above trends indicate that mobile
devices will become ever more important to
the growing numbers of seniors and that the
devices will be used for tourism-related activ-
ities. Consequently researchers are interested in
seniors’ use of mobile devices and specifically
their use of mobile devices for tourism-related
activities (Prayag, 2012; Sangpikul, 2008;
Sellick, 2004). Nevertheless, little research on
senior’s usage of mobile devices for tourism-
related activities has been conducted so far.
Accordingly, the purpose of this study is to fill
this gap. We believe that the starting place for
such research should be seniors’ motivations for
using the technology.
Decision-making patterns can be explained
by the theory of planned behavior (TPB)
(Benjamin, Edwards, & Bharti, 2005) and
Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, and Davis (2003)
apply the TPB to user acceptance of informa-
tion technology. Usefulness and enjoyment are
key motivations that have significant effects on
attitudes toward information technology
(Purnawirawan, De Pelsmacker, & Dens, 2012;
Teo & Noyes, 2011), and attitudes, in turn,
influence intention to use information technol-
ogy (Bhattacherjee & Sanford, 2006). In online
environments, usefulness of the technology is
considered an extrinsic motivation that influ-
ences attitudes toward technology usage
(Bhattacherjee & Sanford, 2006; Huang,
Huang, Huang, & Lin, 2012; Purnawirawan
et al., 2012) while enjoyment derived from
using the technology is considered an intrinsic
motivation and is a forecaster of users’ attitudes
toward information systems (Davis, Bagozzi, &
Warshaw, 1992; Teo & Noyes, 2011).
Additionally, users’ intentions to use informa-
tion technology and behaviors while using
information technology are influenced by prior
knowledge of how to use information technol-
ogy (Calisir & Gurel, 2003). Research shows
that the extended model of goal-directed beha-
vior (EMGB) improves predictions of beha-
vioral intentions over predictions made using
the TPB in general (Perugini & Bagozzi,
2004; Perugini & Conner, 2000), and in tourism
situations in particular (see for example Lee,
Song, Bendle, Kim, & Han, 2012; Song, Lee,
Norman, & Han, 2012). Therefore, starting with
motivations and prior knowledge and applying
the EMGB is expected to be useful in explain-
ing seniors’ behaviors while using mobile tech-
nology in the tourism context. While studies on
seniors’ usage of mobile devices have been
 Myung Ja Kim and Michael W. Preis
conducted in terms of social connections, learn-
ing the use of smartphones, and texting (Hardill
& Olphert, 2012; Mori & Harada, 2010; Wan
et al., 2013), little research has been focused on
seniors’ use of mobile devices for tourism-
related purposes. Because of seniors’ increasing
use of mobile devices and increased tourism
activities as described above, the objective of
the present study is to examine the effects of
extrinsic and intrinsic motivations and prior
knowledge on seniors’ usage of mobile devices
for tourism-related activities while applying the
EMGB.
Extensive research has been conducted
investigating seniors’ use of mobile devices
including access to electronic health services
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(see for example Boontarig, Chutimaskul,
Chongsuphajaisiddhi, & Papasratorn, 2012),
making social connections (see for example
Hardill & Olphert, 2012; Martinez-Pecino
et al., 2012), reading e-books (Pew Research
Center, 2014), and communications (see for
example Mori & Harada, 2010; Wan et al.,
2013). However, these previous studies focus
on demographic variables and environmental
factors rather than motivations (e.g. extrinsic,
intrinsic) and personal elements (e.g. prior
knowledge). Since motivations (see for example
Purnawirawan et al., 2012; Teo & Noyes, 2011)
have been shown to influence attitudes toward
information technology and prior knowledge
influences intentions to use information technol-
ogy (Calisir & Gurel, 2003), we expect these
factors to help explain seniors’ usage of infor-
mation technology for tourism-related activities.
Dijst, Farag, and Schwanen (2008) and
Tillema, Schwanen, and Dijst (2009) have
applied the EMGB to travelers’ decision-
making processes using mobile devices. While
Dijst et al. (2008) and Tillema et al. (2009) explain
behavioral intention to use mobile devices while
traveling, they made no attempt to apply the the-
ory to tourism products and services. Thus, this
research focuses on seniors’ use of mobile devices
for tourism-related purposes.
In light of the existing research on smart-
phone usage associated with seniors, and in
consideration of the growing importance of the
senior market in the travel and tourism industry,
this study proposes three research questions.
3
Firstly, how do intrinsic and extrinsic motiva-
tions influence seniors’ usage of mobile devices
for tourism-related purposes? Secondly, how
does prior knowledge influence seniors’ desires
and behavioral intentions to use smartphones or
tablets in the context of tourism products and
services?. Thirdly, is the EMGB useful in mod-
eling seniors’ decision-making processes when
using mobile devices for tourism-related pur-
poses?. In order to answer these research ques-
tions this study develops and tests, using the
EMGB, a conceptual research model of seniors’
usage of mobile devices for tourism-related
activities (Figure 1).
LITERATURE REVIEW
EMGB
The theory of reasoned action (TRA) has
been used extensively in a variety of fields of
study to better understand what influences
human actions and the TRA has been a main-
stay in social science for many years in terms of
attitude theory (Leone, Perugini, & Ercolani,
2004; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001). In order to
improve the predictive power of the TRA, inde-
pendent variables are added in the TPB, as
parallel predictors of the dependent variables
(Ajzen, 1991; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001). The
TPB adds “non-volitional factors, such as
opportunities and resources required for per-
forming a behavior”, demonstrating that per-
ceived behavioral control adds predictive
power to the TRA (Kim, Lee, Lee, & Song,
2012, p. 511). Perugini and Bagozzi (2001, p.
80) expand and deepen the TPB by introducing
new constructs (e.g. anticipated emotion, desire,
habit) which “have been shown to play impor-
tant roles in decision making”, resulting in a
model of goal-directed behavior (MGB) as an
alternative to the TPB.
The MGB describes “the theoretical mechan-
isms of the decision-making process and incor-
porates three important, new theoretical areas
(affective, motivational, and automatic pro-
cesses) that are overlooked by the TPB”
(Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004, p. 19), while retain-
ing all the variables suggested by the TPB. The
 4 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING
FIGURE 1. Conceptual Framework of Seniors’ Usage of Mobile Devices for Tourism-Related
Purposes
Usefulness
(Extrinsic
motivation)
Attitude
Enjoyment
(I t i i
(Intrinsic
motivation)
Subjective
norm
Anticipated
emotions
Perceived
behavioral
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control
Notes. The shaded rectangles denote extended constructs.
MGB is “conceived as an integration of goal
and behavioral criteria, as implied by the focus
of anticipated affective reactions on goals
instead of behaviors” (Perugini & Bagozzi,
2004, p. 19). In particular, the main construct
in the MGB is behavioral desire (Perugini &
Bagozzi, 2004). Since the MGB includes “addi-
tional constructs to the TPB and comprises the
roles played by attitudes, subjective norms, and
perceived behavioral control, the MGB is a
powerful explanation for behavioral intentions”
(Kim et al., 2012, p. 512). Building on the
MGB, Perugini and Conner (2000) proposed
the EMGB.
The EMGB, by incorporating additional con-
structs into the MGB (Perugini & Bagozzi,
2004), is a better predictor of tourists’ intentions
to engage in international tourism than earlier
models (Lee et al., 2012) and has been shown to
be useful in predicting travelers’ actions. For
example, the EMGB has been used to explain
travelers’ use of mobile phones (Dijst et al.,
2008) and mobile phone usage (for conversa-
tion and/or texting) while traveling (Tillema
et al., 2009). Applying the EMGB, Farag and
Lyons (2010) explain using travel information
for trip planning. Song, Lee, Norman, et al.
(2012, p. 512) use the EMGB to predict the
behavioral intentions of casino visitors, finding
Prior
k l d
knowledge
Desire
D i Behavioral
intention
Frequency of
past behavior
that desire has “the strongest relationship with
casino visitors’ intentions to gamble”. Song,
Lee, Kang, and Boo (2012) show that beha-
vioral intentions of attendees at a mud festival
are well predicted by the EMGB. Furthermore,
the EMGB is an appropriate framework for
predicting Oriental medicine festival visitors’
intentions to attend (Song, You, Reisinger,
Lee, & Lee, 2014). Of the four models, TRA,
TPB, MGB, and EMGB, the EMGB is the most
powerful in predicting both desire and beha-
vioral intention (Richetin, Perugini, Adjali, &
Hurling, 2008). Because of this demonstrated
empirical power, this study utilizes the EMGB
and incorporates two new constructs, motiva-
tions (usefulness and enjoyment) and prior
knowledge, both of which are overlooked by
the EMGB.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations
Motivations can be classified as either intrin-
sic or extrinsic in nature (Finkelstien, 2009;
Ryan & Deci, 2000). Intrinsically motivated
behaviors refer to actions undertaken because
people are interested in or in some way satisfied
by something (Finkelstien, 2009). Based on
Ryan and Deci (2000, p. 70), intrinsically
 Myung Ja Kim and Michael W. Preis
motivated people have an “inherent tendency to
seek out novelty and challenges, to extend and
exercise [their] capacities, to explore, and to
learn”. Extrinsic motivations involve rewards
or are undertaken to avoid punishments or
penalties (Chantal, Vallerand, & Vallières,
1995). According to Chantal et al. (1995) and
Ryan and Deci (2000), extrinsic motivations can
encourage or induce behaviors or actions that
make possible attainment of outcomes that
might not be attained from the intrinsic motiva-
tion associated with the action itself. In the
context of information technology, intrinsic
(enjoyment) and extrinsic (usefulness) motiva-
tions are strongly related to use of mobile
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devices (i.e. smart green devices) for reducing
electricity consumption (Koo, Chung, & Nam,
2015). Based on Finkelstien (2009), Koo et al.
(2015) and Ryan and Deci (2000), usefulness is
an extrinsic motivation and enjoyment is an
intrinsic motivation.
There is considerable research evidence that
extrinsic and intrinsic motivations offer signifi-
cant explanatory power for seniors’ behaviors.
For example, according to Lin and Lu (2011),
extrinsic and intrinsic motivation theory helps
to explain individuals’ acceptance of informa-
tion technology. Based on Dacey, Baltzell, and
Zaichkowsky (2008), seniors’ extrinsic motiva-
tion for physical activity may be to boost their
egos (e.g. older men desire to show younger
colleagues they can still do push-ups), whereas
their intrinsic motivations to engage in regular
physical activities may be to increase lifespan or
enjoyment. Health concerns motivate seniors to
search the Internet for health information, to
improve online health literacy, and to increase
knowledge that might encourage more healthful
behaviors (Sheng & Simpson, 2013). Based
upon this demonstrated research evidence, this
study considers extrinsic and intrinsic motiva-
tions as important factors in seniors’ usage of
smartphones and tablets for tourism-related
purposes.
Prior Knowledge
Prior knowledge is “accumulated through
familiarity, expertise, and past experience”
5
(Kerstetter & Cho, 2004, p. 963). Prior knowl-
edge mitigates the effects of age on learning and
is particularly important for seniors who are
acquiring new health information (Soederberg
Miller, Gibson, Applegate, & De Dios, 2011).
In the tourism context, since prior knowledge
influences online search behaviors for informa-
tion on resort-based vacations (Kerstetter &
Cho, 2004), we reason that prior knowledge is
likely to be important to seniors more broadly in
mobile tourism applications. Prior knowledge
(technical, functional, strategy, and self knowl-
edge) is the most common attribute for success
of seniors’ everyday technology interactions
(O’Brien, Rogers, & Fisk, 2012). Drawing on
the literature review above, this study regards
prior knowledge as a significant construct that is
related to seniors’ usage of mobile devices for
tourism-related purposes.
Hypothetical Relationships
Relationships Between Motivations and
Attitude
Usefulness is defined as the degree to which
a person believes that using a particular technol-
ogy will enhance his or her performance (Teo &
Noyes, 2011) and people tend to use new tech-
nologies to the extent they believe the new
technologies will help them perform their jobs
better (Davis, 1989). For example, usefulness
influences attitudes toward the technology
acceptance of learning systems (Huang et al.,
2012). When online reviews are perceived as
relatively useful, the review information affects
attitudes toward online usage (Purnawirawan
et al., 2012). Usefulness is positively correlated
with attitude since users tend to develop posi-
tive affect toward a system if they expect the
system to benefit their task performance
(Bhattacherjee & Sanford, 2006).
Enjoyment can be defined as the fun or plea-
sure derived from performing activities either
actively or passively, regardless of “the quality
of the performance attained” (Waterman, 1993,
p. 690). People tend to engage in activities they
find enjoyable (Ha, Yoon, & Choi, 2007), and
enjoyment is a predictor of users’ attitudes
 6 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING
toward technology usage (Teo & Noyes, 2011).
Of particular interest here is the enjoyment
derived from using the technology of mobile
devices. Thus, enjoyment may influence
seniors’ attitude toward use of mobile technol-
ogy, which in turn is a predictor of seniors’
behavioral intentions (Venkatesh, Thong, &
Xu, 2012).
Attitude toward technology is often defined
as an individual’s positive or negative feelings
about performing a target behavior (e.g. using
technology) or using an object (e.g. computer)
within the technology acceptance model frame-
work (Teo & Noyes, 2011). Attitude in informa-
tion technology acceptance research refers to a
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dimension of affect (Bhattacherjee & Sanford,
2006). Based on Ajzen and Fishbein (1977, p.
888), “a person’s attitude toward an object influ-
ences the overall pattern of his responses to the
object, but that it need not predict any given
action”. Accordingly, this study considers
seniors’ attitudes toward the usage of mobile
devices for tourism-related activities as an
important construct.
Based on the above literature review, useful-
ness and enjoyment are hypothesized to have
effects on seniors’ attitudes toward using
mobile devices for tourism and the following
hypotheses (Hs) are proposed:
H1: Usefulness of mobile devices has a posi-
tive influence on seniors’ attitudes
toward usage of mobile devices for tour-
ism-related activities.
H2: Enjoyment of mobile devices has a posi-
tive influence on seniors’ attitudes
toward usage of mobile devices for tour-
ism-related activities.
Relationships Between Attitude, Subjective
Norm, and Desire
Attitudes are significant because they corre-
spond to patterns of behavior when “attitudinal
predictors and behavioral criteria” are considered
(Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977, p. 888). For example,
strong positive and negative attitudes toward
volunteering for tourism events predict “higher
and lower levels of behavioral dependability
respectively” (Cuskelly, Auld, Harrington, &
Coleman, 2004, p. 85). In the context of tourism,
residents’ attitudes (both positive and negative)
impact perceptions in host populations (Lyons,
Hanley, Wearing, & Neil, 2012). Therefore, this
study examines the role of seniors’ attitudes toward
use of mobile devices for tourism-related purposes.
In addition to the role of attitudes, subjec-
tive norms play a role in influencing behaviors
(Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001). Subjective norms
are defined as perceived social pressures to
perform or not perform certain behaviors that
influence desire (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004).
Subjective norms may create feelings of perso-
nal obligation to perform in a certain manner
and suggest what one should do, based on
perceptions of what others expect one to do
(Lokhorst & Staats, 2006). Because subjective
norms often influence individuals’ actions
(Perugini & Conner, 2000), this study exam-
ines the role of subjective norms in seniors’
use of mobile devices for tourism-related
activities.
Desire refers to the motivational impetus to
influence intentions (Bagozzi, 1992). Desire is
“the motivational state of mind” that arouses a
person to act in a goal-directed manner and is
an integrative function of the antecedents of
attitude and subjective norm (Perugini &
Bagozzi, 2001, p. 84). According to Kim et al.
(2012), attitude and subjective norm have sig-
nificant and positive effects on behavioral
desire, and studies in tourism utilizing the
EMGB (see for example Lee et al., 2012;
Song, Lee, Kang, et al., 2012; Song, Lee,
Norman, et al., 2012) have similar findings.
Based on the literature review above, one
hypothesis about the relationship between atti-
tude and desire is proposed, as is another
hypothesis about subjective norm and desire,
as follows:
H3: Attitude toward using mobile devices
has a positive influence on seniors’
desire to use mobile devices for tour-
ism-related activities.
H4: Subjective norm about the use of mobile
devices has a positive influence on
seniors’ desire to use mobile devices
for tourism-related activities.
 Myung Ja Kim and Michael W. Preis
Relationships Between Positive and
Negative Anticipated Emotions and Desire
Previous research has shown that positive and
negative emotions have different outcomes and
that people do not respond as if positive and
negative emotions were opposites of a single
construct (Farag & Lyons, 2010). Anticipated
emotions associated with goal success (i.e. posi-
tive anticipated emotion) and anticipated emo-
tions associated with goal failure (i.e. negative
anticipated emotion) are additional predictors of
desire and “defined in respect to goal achieve-
ment and failure, thereby considering goal-
related variables alongside behavior-related vari-
ables” (Perugini & Conner, 2000, p. 707). In the
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MGB, “the introduction of positive and negative
anticipated emotions broadens the TPB by
including new decision criteria with respect to a
person’s goals” (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001, p.
80). People are motivated to make choices pro-
moting positive affects (e.g. gladness, satisfac-
tion, happiness, pride) (Perugini & Bagozzi,
2004). Similarly, people are motivated to make
choices avoiding negative affects, for example,
feeling “angry, frustrated, guilty, ashamed, sad,
disappointed, depressed, worried, uncomfortable,
fearful” (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001, p. 86). Thus,
the tendency is to approach positive emotions
and avoid negative emotions resulting in the
necessity to treat positive and negative emotions
differently (Leone et al., 2004). Also, “the range
of negative anticipated emotions (e.g. shame,
disappointment, anger, guilt, sadness) potentially
affecting one’s intention to perform a given beha-
vior is much greater” than can be hypothesized
for positive emotions (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004,
p. 11). Positive and negative anticipated emo-
tions are forms “of forward-looking counterfac-
tual and prefectural thinking with respect to
goals” (Taylor, 2007, p. 740). Several studies in
tourism (see for example Kim et al., 2012; Lee
et al., 2012; Song, Lee, Norman, et al., 2012)
show that positive and negative anticipated emo-
tions have significant effects on desire. As posi-
tive and negative anticipated emotions have been
shown to influence desire in the tourism area but
have not been studied specifically with respect to
desire of seniors to use mobile devices for tour-
ism-related purposes, we hypothesize as follows:
7
H5: Positive anticipated emotion has a positive
influence on seniors’ desire to use mobile
devices for tourism-related activities.
Furthermore, we hypothesize that seniors
will seek to avoid negative anticipated emotion
that they might experience from failing to
achieve the goal of using mobile devices for
tourism-related activities:
H6: Negative anticipated emotion has a
positive influence on seniors’ desire
to use mobile devices for tourism-
related activities.
Relationships Between Perceived
Behavioral Control, Desire, and Behavioral
Intention
Perceived behavioral control is defined as “an
actor’s belief that he or she can perform an
intended behavior” (Bagozzi, 1992, p. 182).
Perceived behavioral control has a direct influence
on the desire to engage in a behavior (Kim et al.,
2012). Perceived behavioral control may be parti-
cularly unrealistic “when a person has relatively
little information about the intended behavior,
when requirements or available resources have
changed, or when new and unfamiliar elements
have entered into the situation” (Ajzen, 1991, pp.
184–185). Leone et al. (2004), Perugini and
Bagozzi (2001), and Perugini and Conner (2000)
show that perceived behavioral control has a sig-
nificant effect on desire. Lee et al. (2012), Song,
Lee, Kang, et al. (2012) and Song, Lee, Norman,
et al. (2012) indicate that perceived behavioral
control influences behavioral intentions. When
seniors have relatively little information, or are
engaging in an unfamiliar activity or visiting an
unfamiliar site, they are likely to seek more infor-
mation from tourism-related websites in order to
regain perceived behavioral control. Thus we pro-
pose the following hypotheses:
H7: Perceived behavioral control has a posi-
tive influence on seniors’ desire to use
mobile devices for tourism-related
activities.
 8 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING
H8: Perceived behavioral control has a posi-
tive influence on seniors’ behavioral
intentions to use mobile devices for tour-
ism-related activities.
Relationships Between Prior Knowledge,
Desire, and Behavioral Intention
Prior knowledge is a very important factor in
teaching and learning, and in general, tests are used
to assess students’ prior knowledge (Lin & Huang,
2013). Learners are influenced differently by read-
ing comprehension, online browsing, and per-
ceived control depending on their levels of prior
knowledge (Calisir & Gurel, 2003). According to
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Park and Lessig (1981), prior knowledge includes
evaluating products and services and has a critical
role in consumer behavior decision-making pro-
cesses. For this study, prior knowledge may be
thought of as knowledge of ways and methods to
us mobile devices for tourism-related purposes.
Thus, based on previous studies referred to above,
this study posits two hypotheses that prior knowl-
edge about using mobile devices will have positive
and significant effects on desire and behavioral
intentions of seniors, as follows:
H9: Prior knowledge has a positive influ-
ence on seniors’ desire to use mobile
devices for tourism-related activities.
H10: Prior knowledge has a positive influ-
ence on seniors’ behavioral intentions
to use mobile devices for tourism-
related activities.
Relationships Between Frequency of Past
Behavior, Desire, and Behavioral Intention
Considering past behavior as an independent
predictor of both intentions and future behaviors,
past behavior is considered a theoretical factor and
mechanism which can influence behavioral desire
and intentions (Conner & Armitage, 1998) and
shows substantial impacts on both (Perugini &
Conner, 2000). “When a behavior is well-learned
and practiced in a non-changing environment,
frequency of past behavior reflects habit strengths
and therefore shows a direct effect on future
behavior” (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004, p. 8).
However, “when a behavior is novel or performed
in non-stable contexts, frequency of past behavior
influences intentions on the grounds that people
like to do things that they have done in the past”
(Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004, p. 8). Song, Lee,
Kang, et al. (2012) and Song, Lee, Norman, et
al. (2012) show that the more frequently a beha-
vior has been practiced, the greater the desire to
engage in the behavior again. Similarly, Kim et al.
(2012) and Lee et al. (2012) show that the more
frequently a behavior has been practiced, the more
likely a person is to have the intent to engage in
the behavior again. Thus, this study proposes that
frequency of past behavior affects both desire and
behavioral intention of seniors’ usage of mobile
devices for tourism as follows:
H11: Frequency of past usage of mobile
devices has a positive influence on
seniors’ desire to use mobile devices
for tourism-related activities.
H12: Frequency of past usage of mobile devices
has a positive influence on seniors’ beha-
vioral intention to use mobile devices for
tourism-related activities.
Relationship Between Desire and
Behavioral Intention
Desire is a function of attitude, subjective
norm, anticipated emotion, perceived behavioral
control, and frequency of past behavior, and
provides an impetus for intention formation
(Perugini & Conner, 2000). Previous research
utilizing the EMGB (see for example Lee et al.,
2012; Song, Lee, Kang, et al., 2012; Song, Lee,
Norman, et al., 2012) shows that desire is a
strong predictor of behavioral intentions in tour-
ism environments. For this study, therefore, we
hypothesize that desire affects behavioral inten-
tion to use mobile devices for tourism as
follows:
H13: Desire has a positive influence on
seniors’ behavioral intention to use
mobile devices for tourism-related
activities.
 Myung Ja Kim and Michael W. Preis
FIGURE 2. Proposed Research Model
Usefulness
motivation H1
Attitude
H2
Enjoyment
motivation Subjective
norm
Positive
anticipated
emotion
Negative
anticipate
emotion
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Perceived
behavioral
control
Notes. The shaded boxes indicate extended constructs.
Based on the hypotheses above, the
research model, based on the EMGB and
shown in Figure 2, is proposed. This model
examines relationships between usefulness,
enjoyment, attitude, subjective norm, positive
and negative anticipated emotion, perceived
behavioral control, prior knowledge, fre-
quency of past behavior, desire, and beha-
vioral intention.
METHODS
Measurements
Using multiple indicators can enhance valid-
ity by considering multiple facets of the con-
struct being examined (Churchill, 1979).
Accordingly, in this study, multiple items are
used to measure all theoretical constructs. A
preliminary list of measurement items for this
study was compiled after an extensive literature
review. On the preliminary list “usefulness” was
measured with four items adapted from
Bhattacherjee and Sanford (2006) and
Venkatesh et al. (2003); “enjoyment” was mea-
sured with four items adapted from Kim,
Chung, Lee, and Preis (2015) and Venkatesh
9
Prior
knowledge
H3
H4 H9 H10
H5 H13 Behavioral
Desire
intention
H6 H11
H12
H7
H8 Frequency of
past behavior
et al. (2012); “attitude” was measured with
four items from Ajzen (1991) and Ajzen and
Fishbein (1977); “subjective norm” was mea-
sured with four items from Dijst et al. (2008)
and Tillema et al. (2009); “positive anticipated
emotion” was measured with four items from
Song, Lee, Kang, et al. (2012) and Song, Lee,
Norman, et al. (2012); “negative anticipated
emotion” was measured with four items from
Farag and Lyons (2010) and Taylor (2007);
“perceived behavioral control” was measured
with four items from Perugini and Bagozzi
(2001) and Richetin et al. (2008); “prior knowl-
edge” was measured with four items from Park
and Lessig (1981) and Calisir and Gurel (2003);
frequency of past behavior was measured with
two items from Kim et al. (2012) and Lee et al.
(2012); desire was measured with four items
from Perugini and Bagozzi (2001) and
Perugini and Conner (2000); and “behavioral
intention” was measured with four items from
Leone et al. (2004) and Perugini and Bagozzi
(2004).
In order to assure content validity, four tour-
ism scholars who specialize in management
information systems and four tourism managers
who specialize in senior travel were asked to
review and refine the preliminarily generated
 10 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING

items and to ensure that the items are appropri-
ate to measure seniors’ mobile usage for tour-
ism-related activities. Following that review the
wording of a few items was changed for clarity
purposes and then a pretest was conducted with
40 seniors who had used mobile devices for
tourism-related purposes within the past 12
months. Through this process 10 items (one
each from usefulness, enjoyment, prior knowl-
edge, attitude, subjective norm, positive and
negative anticipated emotion, perceived beha-
vioral control, desire, and behavioral intention)
were eliminated, leaving 32 items to measure
these constructs. A list of the measurement
items used in the analysis is presented in
Table 1. Items that were found to be ambiguous
Downloaded by [RMIT University] at 00:23 26 January 2016
were reworded. All items except the frequency
of past behavior are assessed on a 7-point Likert
scale, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to
7 = strongly agree. The frequency of past beha-
vior is coded as a continuous variable since
respondents indicated the numbers of times
they had used mobile devices for tourism (e.g.
“How often have you used mobile devices for
tourism-related purposes during the past six
months?”).
Data Collection
There are various definitions of seniors in
terms of age (e.g. over 50, 55, 60, or 65 years

TABLE 1. Measurement Items Used for Analysis

Factor Item

Usefulness 1. Using mobile devices for tourism-related purposes improves my performance.

2. Using mobile devices for tourism-related purposes increases my productivity.
3. Using mobile devices for tourism-related purposes enhances my effectiveness.
Enjoyment 1. I use mobile devices for tourism-related purposes for a change.
2. Using mobile devices for tourism-related purposes brings self-satisfaction.
Attitude 1. I think that using mobile devices for tourism-related purposes is good.
2. I think that using mobile devices for tourism-related purposes is valuable.
3. I think that using mobile devices for tourism-related purposes is useful.
Subjective norm 1. Most people who are close to me think it is valuable that I use mobile devices for tourism-
related purposes.
2. Most people who are close to me recommend using mobile devices for tourism-related
purposes.
Positive anticipated 1. If I succeed in achieving my goal of using mobile devices for tourism-related purposes, I will be
emotion excited.
2. If I succeed in achieving my goal of using mobile devices for tourism-related purposes, I will be
glad.
3. If I succeed in achieving my goal of using mobile devices for tourism-related purposes, I will be
happy.
Negative anticipated 1. If I fail in achieving my goal of using mobile devices for tourism-related purposes, I will be
emotion angry.
2. If I fail in achieving my goal of using mobile devices for tourism-related purposes, I will be
disappointed.
3. If I fail in achieving my goal of using mobile devices for tourism-related purposes, I will be sad.
Perceived behavioral 1. I am confident that if I want, I can use mobile devices for tourism-related purposes.
control 2. I have enough time to use mobile devices for tourism-related purposes.
Prior knowledge 1. I am a professional at using mobile devices for tourism-related purposes.
2. I have enough knowledge to use mobile devices for tourism-related purposes.
3. I know the detailed functions of using mobile devices for tourism-related purposes.
Frequency of past 1. How often have you used mobile devices for tourism-related purposes during the past six
behavior months?
2. How often have you used mobile devices for tourism-related purposes during the past year?
Desire 1. I am eager to use mobile devices for tourism-related purposes.
2. I wish I could use mobile devices for tourism-related purposes.
Behavioral intention 1. I am planning to use mobile devices for tourism-related purposes in the near future.
2. I will certainly invest time and money to use mobile devices for tourism-related purposes in the
near future.
 Myung Ja Kim and Michael W. Preis
of age); based on previous studies of tourism
and mobile devices (see for example Moschis,
Curasi, & Bellenger, 2007; Park, 2013;
Shoemaker, 1989) seniors in this study are
defined as people who are 55 years old and
over. A mobile device in this study is defined
as a wireless electronic handheld device with a
touch screen (i.e. a smartphone or tablet).
In order to collect data a top-ranking Korean
online survey firm was employed. Between
June 1 and June 15, 2013, e-mails were sent
to all seniors who were smartphone or tablet
users in the firm’s panel pool of approximately
980,000 Koreans. Recipients were invited to
click on a hypertext link to the survey question-
naire site. This online survey firm monitored
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how many recipients opened the e-mail, con-
nected to, and completed the survey question-
naire. Of the 1007 people who were sent the
e-mail, 488 opened the e-mail inviting partici-
pation. In order to determine whether the
respondents had used mobile devices for tour-
ism in the previous year, a screening question
was employed (definitions of seniors, mobile
devices, and tourism activities were provided
in detail at the beginning of the questionnaire).
Of the 488 who opened the e-mail and clicked
on the link, 148 were not qualified to continue.
The remaining 340 seniors were connected to
the actual questionnaire. Of those 340 recipi-
ents, 245 completed the questionnaire. Of the
245 responses received from qualified subjects,
four were eliminated after checking for outliers
(Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010), leav-
ing 241 questionnaires to be coded for analysis
(response rate of 72.1%).
Analysis
In order to analyze the data a component-
based approach using partial least squares
(PLS) was adopted. PLS has been widely used
in theory testing and confirmation studies (Hair
et al., 2010). It is also an appropriate approach
for examining whether “relationships might or
might not exist and thus is useful in suggesting
propositions for later testing” (Chin, 1998, p. 1).
PLS structural equation modeling (SEM) has a
better “ability to model latent constructs under
11
conditions of non-normality and with small to
medium sample sizes” than other SEM techni-
ques (Chin, Marcolin, & Newsted, 2003, p. 197).
PLS–SEM is often more suitable because “the
data conditions within the IS [information sys-
tem] field are likely more aligned with the
requirements of the PLS approach than the
requirements” of the traditional SEM approach
(Chin et al., 2003, p. 198). Based on Hair,
Sarstedt, Ringle, and Mena (2012), further bene-
fits of using PLS–SEM relate to the ability to
cope with highly complex models. SmartPLS
version 2.0, a software application for graphical
path modeling with latent variables, was used to
analyze the measurement and structural models
(Ringle, Wende, & Will, 2005).
RESULTS
Respondents’ Profile
As shown in Table 2, male respondents
(56.8%) outnumbered female respondents
(43.2%). The largest group, more than half of
the sample (68.5%), falls into the 55–59-years-
old age group, followed by the 60–64-years-old
age group (17.8%). Respondents with bachelors
or higher degrees represent a majority (55.6%) of
the sample. A majority of the sample (87.6%)
consists of married respondents, while single
respondents account for 12.4%. The largest pro-
portion of the respondents (30.7%) has household
incomes in the range of US$ 4000–5999 per
month, followed by those in the range of US$
2000–3999 (30.3%). Homemakers (24.5%) repre-
sent the largest group, followed by professionals
(21.6%). A large majority of the sample (83.0%)
used smartphones, while 17.0% of respondents
used tablets. More than half of the sample
(60.2%) had used mobile devices for tourism for
less than a year. Respondents used mobile devices
for information searching (92.9%), texting and
emailing (64.7%), and social networking
(53.9%) associated with tourism.
Measurement Model
Five items were deleted following the con-
firmatory factor analysis (CFA), leaving 27
 12 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING

TABLE 2. Demographic Characteristics of was established by the four industry and four
Respondents academic experts who reviewed the question-
naire. All constructs in the model satisfied relia-
Characteristics N % bility requirements (with composite reliability
(241) (100) greater than 0.80), discriminant validity require-
Gender ments (with average variance extracted (AVE)
Male 137 56.8 greater than 0.50), and the square root of AVE
Female 104 43.2 greater than each correlation coefficient
Age (years) (Bhattacherjee & Sanford, 2006). Specifically,
55–59 165 68.5
60–64 43 17.8
the discriminant validity of the measurement
65–69 19 7.9 model is checked by comparing “the square
Over 70 14 5.8 root of the AVE for each construct with the
Education correlations between each construct and the
Middle/High school 83 34.4
2-year college 24 10.0
other constructs” (Bhattacherjee & Sanford,
Undergraduate university 104 43.2 2006, p. 815). Discriminant validity is con-
firmed when the square root of the AVE is
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Graduate school 30 12.4

Marital status greater than the correlations between each con-
Single 30 12.4
Married 211 87.6
struct and the other constructs (Fornell &
Monthly household income (US$) Larcker, 1981). As shown in Table 4, the square
Less than 2,000 23 9.5 root of the AVE for each construct in boldface
2,000–3,999 73 30.3 exceeds the correlations between that construct
4,000–5,999 74 30.7
Over 6,000 71 29.5
and the other constructs. Thus, discriminant
Occupation validity is confirmed. Cronbach’s alpha reliabil-
Professional 52 21.6 ity normally is acceptable if the coefficient
Business/Self-employed 42 17.4 range is greater than 0.70 (Hair et al., 2010).
Service 18 7.5
For the 11 constructs in our model Cronbach’s
Office worker 30 12.4
Civil servant 6 2.5 alphas indicate good internal consistency of the
Homemaker 59 24.5 items in the scales (all Cronbach alphas were
Student 1 .4 0.793 or greater). We also examined the discri-
Retirees 20 8.3
minant and convergent validities of each indi-
Other 13 5.4
Selecting mobile devices cator (Keil et al., 2000). The results presented in
Smartphone 200 83.0 Tables 3 and 4 demonstrate adequate discrimi-
Tablets 41 17.0 nant and convergent validity.
Using mobile devices for tourism
Less than 1 year 145 60.2
Between 1 and 2 years 83 34.4
More than 2 years 13 5.4 Structural Model and Hypothesis Testing
Things done using mobile devices*
Information searching 224 92.9
The bootstrapping technique was used to
Texting and e-mailing 156 64.7
Participating in tourism activities 75 31.1 examine the structural models for their explana-
Social networking services 130 53.9 tory power and path significance (Hair et al.,
Reservation or purchase for tourism-related 99 41.1 2012). To evaluate the structural models’ pre-
purposes
dictive powers, the R2s of the coefficients of
Others 3 1.2
determination for desire and behavioral inten-
Notes. *Multiple-choice item. tion with regard to seniors’ mobile device usage
were calculated. Interpreted similarly to multi-
ple regression results, “the explanatory power of
items to be used in the analysis. To validate the a structural model [can] be evaluated by looking
measurement model, validity assessments of at the R2 value (variance accounted for) in the
content, discriminant, and convergent validities final dependent construct” (Keil et al., 2000,
were undertaken. Content validity of our survey p. 312). As a non-parametric technique, using
 Myung Ja Kim and Michael W. Preis 13

TABLE 3. Constructs From Factor Analysis

Construct Standardized factor loadings Mean Standard deviation

Usefulness .925 4.755 1.141

.917 4.710 1.106
.902 4.934 1.070
Enjoyment .926 4.726 1.204
.910 4.784 1.145
Attitude .917 5.412 .973
.915 5.473 1.029
.918 5.382 1.047
Subjective norm .941 5.257 .979
.937 5.137 1.058
Positive .924 4.730 1.147
anticipated emotion .932 4.983 1.045
.920 4.822 1.063
Negative .926 3.871 1.493
Downloaded by [RMIT University] at 00:23 26 January 2016

anticipated emotion .932 4.079 1.426

.925 3.880 1.463
Perceived behavioral .906 5.448 .957
control .913 5.287 .956
Prior knowledge .907 3.934 1.240
.933 4.440 1.200
.916 4.469 1.215
Frequency of past .972 8.423 10.066
behavior .970 15.299 19.767
Desire .926 4.988 1.090
.915 4.826 1.134
Behavior intention .951 4.900 1.214
.945 4.917 1.184

TABLE 4. Reliability and Discriminant Validity

Construct CR CA AVE Correlation of constructs

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)

(1) Usefulness .939 .902 .837 .915

(2) Enjoyment .914 .813 .842 .668 .918
(3) Attitude .940 .905 .840 .640 .554 .917
(4) Subjective norm .937 .865 .881 .665 .561 .779 .939
(5) Positive anticipated emotion .947 .916 .857 .693 .682 .589 .586 .926
(6) Negative anticipated emotion .949 .919 .860 .435 .544 .290 .293 .600 .927
(7) Perceived behavioral control .906 .793 .828 .573 .442 .609 .665 .491 .221 .910
(8) Prior knowledge .942 .908 .844 .631 .538 .450 .567 .507 .369 .467 .919
(9) Frequency of past behavior .970 .939 .942 .132 .210 .095 .078 .094 .091 .063 .130 .971
(10) Desire .918 .801 .848 .628 .623 .641 .607 .755 .470 .548 .528 .133 .921
(11) Behavioral intention .947 .887 .899 .699 .682 .637 .663 .725 .492 .597 .605 .141 .738 .948

Notes. AVE: average variance extracted; diagonal elements in the correlation of constructs matrix are the square roots of the
AVE. For adequate discriminant validity, “diagonal elements should be greater than the corresponding off-diagonal elements”
(Bhattacherjee & Sanford, 2006, p. 815). CR = composite reliability; CA = Cronbach’s alpha.

bootstrapping to assess significance allows us to the path estimates and t-statistics were calcu-
calculate confidence intervals (Hair et al., lated for the hypothesized relationships. The
2012). Using this technique with 500 resamples results suggest that eight of ten antecedents
 14 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING
FIGURE 3. Path Analysis Results
Usefulness
motivation .487***
Attitude
R2 = 0.439
.229**
Enjoyment
motivation Subjective
norm
Positive
anticipated
emotion
.049
Negative
anticipate
emotion
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Perceived
behavioral
control
Notes. *p < 0.1; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001; solid line: significant path, dotted line: non-significant path.
directly or indirectly influence the formation of
behavioral intention of seniors’ usage of mobile
devices for tourism. The results of the PLS
analysis are shown in Figure 3.
As shown in Table 5, the results indicate that
nine out of thirteen hypotheses are statistically
supported. Based on research on the PLS metho-
dology (Hair et al., 2012) and previous practice
(see for example Kim et al., 2012), this study
utilizes a significance level of p < 0.10.
Specifically, H1 and H2 show that usefulness
(β = .487, t-value = 6.293, p < 0.001) and enjoy-
ment (β = .229, t-value = 2.586, p < 0.01) have
effects on seniors’ attitudes toward usage of
mobile devices for tourism-related purposes.
Also, H3, H5, and H7 reveal that desire is influ-
enced by attitude (β = .212, t-value = 2.848,
p < 0.01), positive anticipated emotion
(β = .478, t-value = 7.022, p < 0.001),
and perceived behavioral control (β = .108,
t-value = 1.724, p < 0.1). H8 shows that perceived
behavioral control (β = .213, t-value = 4.326,
p < 0.001) has an effect on behavioral intention.
Hs 9 and 10 demonstrate that prior knowledge
affects desire (β = .107, t-value = 1.836, p < 0.1)
and behavioral intention (β = .244, t-value = 4.563,
p < 0.001). Finally, H13 shows that behavioral
intention is affected by desire (β = .488,
Prior
knowledge
.212**
.018 .107* .244***
.478*** .488*** Behavioral
Desire
intention
R2 = 0.652
R2 = 0.640
.041
.031
.108*
.213*** Frequency of
past behavior
t-value = 11.256, p < 0.001). However, H4, H6,
H11, and H12 are not supported.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
This study finds that usefulness significantly
influences attitude toward using mobile devices
for tourism, partially supporting the findings of
Purnawirawan et al. (2012). Since using informa-
tion technology has been perceived as a beneficial
behavior (Bhattacherjee & Sanford, 2006),
seniors may perceive using mobile devices as
improving their lives and performance, increasing
their productivity, and enhancing their effective-
ness. Also, the study finds that enjoyment motiva-
tion has a significant effect on attitude toward
using mobile devices for tourism-related pur-
poses, indirectly supporting previous research
(Teo & Noyes, 2011). It seems that using mobile
devices allows seniors to have fun, do something
different for a change, and gain a feeling of self-
satisfaction. The relationship between usefulness
and attitude is twice as strong as that between
enjoyment and attitude. As might be expected, it
appears that seniors use mobile devices for tour-
ism-related purposes for their effectiveness more
than for pleasure.
 Myung Ja Kim and Michael W. Preis 15

TABLE 5. Standardized Structural Estimates and Tests of Main Hypotheses

Hypothesis (H) Path Estimates t-value Test results

H1 Usefulness → Attitude .487 6.293*** Supported

H2 Enjoyment → Attitude .229 2.586** Supported
H3 Attitude → Desire .212 2.848** Supported
H4 Subjective norm → Desire .018 0.255 Not supported
H5 Positive anticipated emotion → Desire .478 7.022*** Supported
H6 Negative anticipated emotion → Desire .049 0.810 Not supported
H7 Perceived behavioral control → Desire .108 1.724* Supported
H8 Perceived behavioral control → Behavioral intention .213 4.326*** Supported
H9 Prior knowledge → Desire .107 1.836* Supported
H10 Prior knowledge → Behavioral intention .244 4.563*** Supported
H11 Frequency of past behavior → Desire .041 1.192 Not supported
H12 Frequency of past behavior → Behavioral intention .031 0.840 Not supported
H13 Desire → Behavioral intention .488 11.256*** Supported
R2
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Attitude = 43.9%
Desire = 65.2%
Behavioral intention = 64.0%

Notes. *p < 0.1; **p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; R2 = coefficient of determination (variance explained).

This study shows that positive anticipated emo-
tion greatly influences seniors’ desire to use
mobile devices for tourism, extending the findings
of Lee et al. (2012) and Song, Lee, Kang, et al.
(2012). Seniors with positive feelings about using
mobile devices for tourism-related purposes are
likely to have a strong desire to use mobile
devices for tourism-related purposes. However,
subjective norms and negative anticipated emo-
tions toward using mobile devices do not have
significant effects on seniors’ desire to use mobile
devices for tourism-related purposes, contrary to
our expectations. Currently, using mobile devices
is a common and growing practice among Korean
seniors so it appears that they are not concerned
about what others think about their using mobile
devices. Failure to achieve their goals while using
mobile devices may be quite common to seniors
so that any negative feelings about using mobile
devices do not influence their desire to use mobile
devices for tourism-related purposes. Perceived
behavioral control of use of mobile devices affects
seniors’ desire and behavioral intentions, which is
consistent with previous studies (Kim et al., 2012;
Song, Lee, Norman, et al., 2012) that show that
perceived behavioral control affects behavioral
intention. Seniors who perceive they have beha-
vioral control have greater desire and behavioral
intention.
The results indicate that seniors’ prior knowl-
edge of use of mobile devices has a significant
effect on their desire and behavioral intention to
use the devices for tourism-related purposes.
That is to say, the more prior knowledge of
using mobile devices seniors have, the greater
their desire and behavioral intention to use those
devices. In this study, frequency of past behavior
does not show a significant effect on desire and
behavioral intention, extending the findings of
Kim et al. (2012) and Song, Lee, Norman, et al.
(2012). With respect to the failure to show sig-
nificant effects of frequency of past behavior on
desire and behavioral intention, use of mobile
devices for tourism-related purposes is a fairly
recent behavior since 60.2% of the sample have
used mobile devices for tourism-related purposes
for less than a year. Additionally, seniors’ desire to
use mobile devices has a highly significant effect
on behavioral intention, extending the findings of
previous studies (see for example Lee et al., 2012;
Song, Lee, Kang, et al. (2012).
Theoretical Implications
This study is one of the very few that empiri-
cally applies the EMGB in the realm of seniors’
usage of mobile devices (i.e. smartphones and
 16 JOURNAL OF TRAVEL & TOURISM MARKETING
tablets) and thus helps introduce the theory to the
tourism literature. Specifically, this research has
several important findings related to seniors’ use
of mobile devices for tourism-related purposes.
Firstly, the relationships between the extrinsic
motivation of usefulness and attitude toward
using mobile devices, as well as between enjoy-
ment and attitude, are significant in the context of
tourism. These findings demonstrate the impor-
tance of extrinsic and intrinsic motivations for
seniors’ use of mobile devices for tourism-related
purposes. As shown in the research model (see
Figure 3), the extrinsic and intrinsic motivations
of usefulness and enjoyment can act as antecedents
of seniors’ attitudes toward using mobile devices,
which in turn influence desire and behavioral
Downloaded by [RMIT University] at 00:23 26 January 2016
intention. Furthermore, the relationships between
seniors’ prior knowledge and desire to use mobile
devices for tourism-related purposes as well as
between seniors’ prior knowledge and behavioral
intention are positive and significant. This finding
has strong implications for tourism academics by
demonstrating the importance of prior knowledge
for seniors’ use of mobile devices.
In terms of use of mobile information technol-
ogy by seniors, this study provides compelling
evidence of the explanatory power of the
EMGB. In other words, the findings of this
study extend the link between usefulness and
attitude as the core drivers of information technol-
ogy usage (Bhattacherjee & Sanford, 2006). The
findings also show that enjoyment as a hedonic
motivation has an important role in information
technology use (Kim et al., 2015; Venkatesh et al.,
2012). These findings have significance for
researchers and practitioners alike. Furthermore,
this study represents an advance in the body of
scientific knowledge relating to information tech-
nology systems. In addition, the use of the PLS–
SEM approach in this study, rather than traditional
SEM, represents an important methodological
contribution to tourism research since the PLS–
SEM is better suited when a model is complicated
and the sample size is small.
Practical Implications
The research findings hold several practical
implications for practitioners in the tourism
industry. Firstly, managers of mobile tourism
businesses should focus on effectiveness, pro-
ductivity, and benefits when targeting mobile
devices for seniors. Since usefulness is a strong
motivator for seniors’ use of mobile devices for
tourism-related purposes, tourism managers
should focus on enhancing usefulness for
users. Secondly, the results relating to the strong
relationship between positive anticipated emo-
tion and seniors’ desire to use mobile devices
for tourism-related purposes suggest marketers
of tourism products and services to seniors
should promote hedonic aspects of their web-
sites and offerings. In other words, marketers
should enhance positive feelings and strong
desire for mobile device usage, which in turn
influence behavioral intention. Thirdly, the
highly significant relationship between desire
and behavioral intention toward using mobile
devices has practical implications for tourism
businesses targeting seniors. Specifically, mar-
keters should stimulate seniors’ behavioral
intention to use mobile devices for tourism-
related purposes by making their websites
attractive and easy to use and by promoting
the pleasure to be experienced by purchasing
the tourism products being promoted.
In addition, based on the findings of this
study, tourism marketers should help seniors
acquire knowledge of how to use mobile
devices for tourism-related purposes. This
could be done, for example, by using YouTube
videos or other simple instructional methods.
Furthermore, raising behavioral intention could
be accomplished by offering loyalty programs,
discounts, or special promotions for seniors
using mobile devices. Results indicate that tour-
ism marketers should concentrate on actions
that will build seniors’ desire to use mobile
devices. One method is to use extrinsic rewards
to encourage seniors to use mobile devices for
tourism-related purposes, for example by offer-
ing loyalty programs or award levels that give
seniors incentives to book travel through the
websites. Another option is to create applica-
tions for mobile devices for seniors and create
special offers only available for bookings made
on mobile devices. As markets become ever
more competitive in the tourism industry, differ-
ences between offerings will decrease but
 Myung Ja Kim and Michael W. Preis
opportunities will increase as mobile electronic
devices become more ubiquitous and as more
seniors become aware of the benefits of using
the devices. In such an environment, tourism
managers should seek to present unique oppor-
tunities and provide distinctive offerings.
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE
RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
The findings of this study should be inter-
preted carefully as the significant relationships
may reflect the perceptions of Korean seniors
rather than those of all seniors. While the theory
Downloaded by [RMIT University] at 00:23 26 January 2016
tested in this study is significant, the results
should be further tested by analyzing samples
from other cultures. We recommend further test-
ing be conducted to determine whether the
results are uniform for users of smartphones,
tablets, and laptops. It would also be useful for
future studies to focus on both seniors and non-
seniors to understand to what extent behaviors
between senior and non-senior mobile users dif-
fer, and, in fact, whether patterns differ for dif-
ferent age groups. In addition, future research
should test other models, such as the technology
acceptance model (TAM), and should test addi-
tional variables in order to determine whether
additional factors encourage seniors to use
mobile devices for tourism-related activities.
Finally, future research could adopt a qualitative
research method (e.g. in-depth interviews) relat-
ing to mobile device usage for tourism activities
by seniors to gain a deeper understanding of their
desires, intentions, and behaviors.
ORCID
Myung Ja Kim http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8077-8503
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SUBMITTED: November 7, 2014
FINAL REVISION SUBMITTED:
April 5, 2015
ACCEPTED: June 15, 2015
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY