Anaphy 2
Etiology
Pathophysiology
A. Define pathophysiology.
• Pathophysiology is the study of how
diseases or injuries change the
normal functioning of the body.
B. Explain the importance of
pathophysiology.
• Pathophysiology is the study of the
changes that occur in a person's
body during disease or injury. That
is why it is important because it can
help doctors to understand how
diseases develop and how they can
be treated.
C. Define the following terms and
give 2 examples each.
Meaning Examples
I. Diagnosis
- The diagnosis is - A cancer diagnosis can be
the process of based on a biopsy, which is
identifying the a laboratory test that
cause of a medical involves removing a sample
condition through of tissue from the body to
examination and be examined under a
testing. microscope.
-A diagnosis of heart
disease can be made based
on a person's symptoms, a
physical examination, and
an electrocardiogram
(ECG), which is a test that
measures the electrical
activity of the heart.
ii.
- Etiology is the study of - immunologic
dysfunction
the origin or cause of a
disease or injury. It can be - metabolic
used to identify risk factors derangements
for a disease or injury, to
determine how a disease or
injury develops, or to find
new ways to prevent or
treat a disease or injury.
iii. Predisposing factors
- Predisposing factors - One example of a factor
can play a significant that may increase the
role in the likelihood of developing a
development of a certain condition is
condition or disease. It genetics. If a person has a
is important to be family history of the
aware of these factors condition, they may be
so that steps can be more likely to develop it
taken to reduce the themselves.
risk. Factors that make - Another example of a
a person more likely to predisposing factor is
develop a particular lifestyle. If a person has a
disease or condition. lifestyle that is not
conducive to good health,
they may be more likely to
develop a health condition.
For example, if a person
smokes cigarettes, they
may be more likely to
develop lung cancer.
iv. Prophylaxis
Prophylaxis - Vaccination is one of the most
is an effective forms of prophylaxis.
important Vaccines work by protecting
part of against the most common and
disease deadly strains of a disease.
prevention. When a person is vaccinated,
By taking they are injected with a “dead”
measures to or “modified” form of the virus.
prevent As that person's immune system
disease, we fights off the “dead” virus, the
can all stay immune system is also
healthy and preparing to fight the live, or
avoid the actual, virus. If you are ever
exposed to the disease, your
 spread of immune system is primed and vii. Acute
illness. ready to fight it off, because it An acute disease is a Ex.
has done so before. medical condition • Heart attack
that comes on • Covid-19
- Condom use is another form of suddenly and
prophylaxis. Condoms are typically lasts for a
effective in preventing the short period of time.
transmission of HIV and other
sexually transmitted diseases.
They work by creating a barrier
between the body and the virus. viii. Chronic
Condoms are most effective Chronic diseases are Ex.
when used correctly and medical conditions • heart disease
consistently. that develop slowly • cancer
and last for a
prolonged period.
v. Pathogenesis
- Pathogenesis is the - Trophozoites attach to ix. Subclinical
medical term for the colonic mucin, disrupt the
A subclinical state is Ex.
development and mucosal barrier with
a condition in which • a person with high
progression of a proteolytic enzymes, and
a person does not blood pressure may
disease. lyse host cells through
have any symptoms be in a subclinical
contact-dependent
but may still be at state of hypertension.
mechanisms, including
risk for developing a • Diabetes
inflammatory cells.
disease.
- Pneumonia is an
inflammation of the lung
parenchyma, usually x. Latent stage
caused by a microbe.
The period between Ex.
vi. Onset of a disease exposure and the • Incubation period of
- The onset of a - For example, onset of a covid-19 patient
disease is the diseases, like cancer, communicability may • The latent stage of
beginning of the can have a latent be shorter or longer syphilis is a period
disease process. onset, which means than the incubation when the infection is
Onset is the point in that there are no period. present in the body
time when a disease symptoms until the but there are no
or condition starts. disease has symptoms
Onset can be sudden, progressed.
such as with a heart xi. Prodromal period
attack or stroke, or it - Other diseases, like The prodromal period Ex.
can be gradual, such Alzheimer's disease, is the time before a • changes in
as with arthritis. can have an insidious person experiences appetite
onset, which means the first symptoms of • changes in
that the symptoms a disease. This period sleep patterns
are so subtle that can last for a few
they're not noticed hours or days and is
until the disease has often characterized
progressed by mild symptoms
that are not yet
 indicative of the into the tissues beneath
disease. the surface. They can
also be benign,
meaning they are not
xii. Manifestation
cancerous, or
- Is an abnormal condition that Ex. malignant, meaning
affects an organism's entire or - Allergies they are cancerous.
a portion of its structure or - redness
function. The manifestation of
a disease is the set of signs and xvi. Syndrome
symptoms that are associated A syndrome is a - Irritable Bowel
with it. Manifestations can collection of symptoms Syndrome
vary depending on the severity that occur together and - Chronic Fatigue
of the disease, as well as the are indicative of a
individual. particular condition. In
medicine, a syndrome is
often used to refer to a
xiii. Signs
group of symptoms that
A sign is an observable Ex. occur together and are
indicator by others, as • Fever and cough indicative of a particular
opposed to symptoms, etc. are signs of condition or disease.
which are only detectable COVID-19
by the individual. Several • 2 signs of leukemia
instruments, including a are Fever and xvii. Diagnostic tests
stethoscope, X-rays, and Persistent fatigue, A diagnostic test is a - Nucleic acid
laboratory testing, can be weakness medical procedure used amplification tests
used to detect this. to determine the cause of (NAATs) are a
a patient's symptoms. diagnostic test for a
The test can be used to patient who you think
xiv. Symptoms
identify a specific has a dengue.
A symptom is an Ex. condition, such as - To determine if
indication of a problem Two symptoms of cancer, or to rule out your patient has a
with one's health. It can be pregnant other potential causes. A hepatitis b you can
physical, mental, or • mild pelvic doctor typically use the blood test as
emotional, and is typically cramping or performs diagnostic your diagnostic test.
experienced by the discomfort without tests, but some may be
individual with the bleeding. performed by a
condition. Others may • tiredness or fatigue technician.
also be able to observe
symptoms.
xviii. Remissions and exacerbations
Remissions and Cartilage erosion.
xv. Lesion
exacerbations are Cartilage is eroded by
A lesion refers to any Ex. two terms that are enzymes from the pannus,
damage or injury to the • Cyst: thin walls, no often used in and in addition, nutrients
body, which can be solid nodules, and only relation to chronic that are normally supplied
caused by several rare calcifications. illnesses. A by the synovial fluid to the
factors. Lesions can be • Tumors remission is when cartilage are cut off by the
superficial, meaning the symptoms of pannus. Erosion of the
they only affect the the illness are cartilage creates an
body's surface, or deep, reduced or unstable joint.
meaning they extend disappear
completely for a Fibrosis. In time, the medication and
period. An pannus between the bone therapy.
exacerbation is ends
when the symptoms becomes fibrotic, limiting
of the illness movement. This calcifies xxii. Sequelae
worsen. and Sequelae is a medical - poor circulation in
the joint space is term that refers to the the feet because of
obliterated. long-term effects of a diabetes.
disease or injury. It - Post-traumatic
can be used to stress disorder
xix. Precipitating factor describe both (PTSD) may be a
A precipitating factor is an - Hypertension physical and psychological
event or circumstance that for stroke. psychological effects. consequence of
leads to a situation or problem. - Precipitating Sequelae can occur sexual assault.
Precipitating factors can be factors include immediately after the
internal or external, and they negative life initial event, or they
can be controllable or events that may not appear until
uncontrollable. Precipitating occur years later.
factors can contribute to the independently
development of a problem or from one
they can trigger a problem that another. xxiii. Convalescence
already exists. The convalescence - Restricted Diet
period refers to the - Rest and sleep
time after a person is
xx. Complications discharged from the
Complications are The most common hospital and is
defined as any complication of recovering at home.
unfavorable and pneumonia is Acute The length of this
unintended sign, respiratory distress. period varies
symptom, or disease that depending on the
occurs during the Fatigue and sleep severity of the illness
diagnosis or treatment of problems are the and the individual's
a patient. They can range sample complications overall health.
from mild to life- of asthma During
threatening and can convalescence, it is
occur at any stage of important to take it
treatment. easy and take care of
oneself to ensure a
xxi. Therapy full recovery.
Therapy is the treatment - Cognitive
of a disease or disorder behavioral therapy xxiv. Prognosis
using therapeutic (CBT) is the most The prognosis for a - For the breast
techniques. These common therapy disease or condition cancer stage 4 the
techniques can be used for anxiety is the medical term prognosis is bad
divided into three main disorders. for predicting its because it is just 5
categories: medical, - Successful course. A prognosis years and only 28
psychological, and treatment for can be good or bad percent.
social. schizophrenia and is often - While for the lung
involves a uncertain. A good cancer it is only 37
combination of prognosis means that percent.
 the chances of a organs, as well as a
favorable outcome toxicology report.
are good, while a bad The autopsy report is
prognosis means that used to help
the chances of a determine the manner
favorable outcome of death.
are poor.
xxviii. Epidemiology
xxv. Morbidity Epidemiology is the - For example,
Morbidity refers to Some common study of how health- epidemiological
the state of being illnesses are heart related conditions or studies showed that
unhealthy or unwell. disease, diabetes, and occurrences, such as smoking is a major
It can be physical, obesity. disease, are cause of lung cancer.
mental, or both. distributed and what - Experimental
Morbidity can be causes them. The studies test whether a
caused by disease, incidence, particular exposure
injury, poor lifestyle distribution, and (such as a new drug)
choices, or a management of increases or
combination of these diseases among decreases the risk of
factors. populations are the
developing a disease.
focus of this area of
xxvi. Mortality medicine. The goal of
Mortality is a -There are about epidemiology is to
medical term that 140,000 per year of control health
refers to the number death of stroke in problems by
of deaths in a America. understanding their
population. It is - The infant mortality cause and
usually expressed as rate last 2020 is about development.
a rate per 100,000 5.4 per one thousand
people. Mortality infant lives. xxix. Occurrence of a disease
rates can be affected A disease is an Diseases can have a wide
by many factors, abnormal condition range of effects on the
including age, that affects an body. Some diseases,
lifestyle, and access organism's entire or such as cancer, can be
to healthcare. a portion of its fatal. Others, such as the
structure or common cold, are
xxvii. Autopsy function. Diseases relatively harmless. Still,
The autopsy is a - Necropsy is the can be brought on others, such as
medical procedure autopsy for pets. by both internal Alzheimer's disease, can
used to determine the - a dead person. dysfunctions and cause a gradual decline in
cause of death of a external sources the function of the
deceased person. The like infections. affected individual.
autopsy is performed
by a medical
examiner or
xxx. Epidemics
pathologist and An epidemic is a serious - Malaria, for
usually includes an public health concern example, is
examination of the because it can spread considered an
body and internal quickly and cause many epidemic in
 people to become sick. In certain countries
medical terms, an and regions.
epidemic is defined as a - Smallpox is one
sudden increase in the of the most severe
number of cases of a and deadly e. Give 5 ways of injuring cells in the body
disease. This can happen diseases to have and give a brief description each.
when a disease is new to a afflicted
population or when there humanity.
is a sudden increase in the
spread of a disease.
xxxi. Communicable disease
These are the disease - Such as the flu, can
that can be also be transmitted
transmittable with through contact with
others. They can be contaminated objects,
transmitted through such as doorknobs or
the air, by touch, or countertops.
- Some of the more
by contact with
well-known
contaminated
communicable
surfaces.
diseases include
influenza,
tuberculosis, and
HIV/AIDS.
and the aging process. Cellular changes
can have diverse effects on the body,
and they can be a source of disease.
➢ There are ways in which cells in the
body can be injured. That is why it is
important to be aware of these different
types of damage so that we can take
steps to protect our cells from harm.
1. Physical damage to cells can occur
from trauma, such as a car accident
or a fall.
2. Chemical damage to cells can occur
from exposure to toxins, such as
pesticides or cigarette smoke.
3. Radiation damage to cells can occur
from exposure to ionizing radiation,
such as X-rays or gamma rays.
4. Thermal damage to cells can occur
from exposure to extreme heat or
cold.
5. Mechanical damage to cells can
occur from exposure to mechanical
stress, such as from ultrasound or
massage.

f. In the initial cell damage, what happens to

xxxii. Notifiable or reportable
the cell? If the factor causing the damage is
disease removed
A notifiable or Notifiable diseases quickly, what happens? If the amount of
reportable disease is are usually those that damage instead increases, what then happens
one that is required are most serious, to the cell?
by law to be reported such as HIV/AIDS, ➢ In the initial cell damage, the cell is
to the government. tuberculosis, and damaged. If the factor causing the damage is
The purpose of cancer. removed quickly, the cell is repaired. If the
reporting is to help amount of damage instead increases, the cell
track the spread of is destroyed.
disease and to allow
for early intervention g. Discuss the events occurring after cell
and treatment. death.
➢ Cell death is a process that occurs naturally
in the body. After a cell dies, the body must
d. What are cellular changes and why do remove the dead cell and replace it with a
these occur? new one. This process is known as cell
➢ Cellular changes are alterations that turnover.
happen to cells. These changes can be ➢ There are two main types of cell death:
the result of a variety of factors, like apoptosis and necrosis. Apoptosis is a
environmental factors, genetic factors, controlled form of cell death that occurs
 when the body needs to remove damaged or
unwanted cells. Necrosis is an uncontrolled
form of cell death that occurs when cells are
damaged by injury or disease.
➢ After a cell dies, the body must remove the
dead cell and replace it with a new one. This
process is known as cell turnover. Cell
turnover is a normal process that happens
throughout our lives. However, when cell
death occurs at an accelerated rate, it can
lead to serious health problems.
h. Define the following terms.
i. Atrophy
Atrophy is the wasting away of a body tissue or
organ. This can be due to a lack of use, poor
nutrition, or disease. When a muscle atrophies, it
loses mass and strength.
ii. Hypertrophy
The term "hypertrophy" refers to the
enlargement of body tissues or organs. This can
be due to increased activity, hormones, or
disease. When a muscle hypertrophies, it
increases in size and strength.
iii. Hyperplasia
Cell proliferation in a body tissue or organ is
known as hyperplasia. This can be due to
hormones, disease, or injury.
iv. Metaplasia
Metaplasia is the transformation of one cell type
into another. This can be due to chronic
inflammation, exposure to toxins, or disease.
v. Dysplasia
Dysplasia is the abnormal development of cells
in a body tissue or organ. This can be due to
disease, injury, or exposure to toxins.
vi. Anaplasia
Anaplasia is the loss of normal cell structure.
This can be due to disease, injury, or exposure
to radiation.
vii. Neoplasia
Neoplasia is the abnormal growth of cells in a
body tissue or organ. This can be due to disease,
injury, or exposure to toxins.
viii. Apoptosis
Apoptosis is the programmed death of cells.
This can be due to disease, injury, or exposure
to toxins.
ix. Benign tumors
Benign tumors are non-cancerous growths. They
are usually not harmful and can often be
removed surgically.
x. Malignant tumors
Malignant tumors are cancerous growths. They
can spread to other parts of the body and are
often life-threatening.
xi. Necrosis
Necrosis is the death of cells. This can be due to
disease, injury, or exposure to toxins.
xii. Hypoxia
Hypoxia is a condition in which the body tissues
do not get enough oxygen. This can be due to
disease, injury, or exposure to toxins.
xiii. Microorganisms
Microorganisms are tiny living things that can
cause disease. They can be viruses, bacteria, or
fungi.
xiv. Lysis
Lysis is the breakdown of cells. This can be due
to disease, injury, or exposure to toxins.
xv. Inflammation
Inflammation is the body's response to injury. It
is characterized by redness, swelling, and pain.
xvi. Morphology
The study of morphology is the study of the
structure and form of living things.
xvii. Necrosis
Necrosis is the death of cells. This can be due to
disease, injury, or exposure to toxins.
xviii. Gangrene
Gangrene is the death of body tissue. This can
be due to disease, injury, or exposure to toxins.
i. Enumerate the different types of necrosis
and give a brief description to each one.
➢ Necrosis is a type of cell death that can
occur in response to various stimuli,
such as infection, inflammation, trauma,
and ischemia. There are several
different types of necrosis, each with its
own unique features.
1. One type of necrosis is coagulative
necrosis, which is characterized by
the hardening of tissue due to the
loss of cell water. This type of
necrosis is often seen in organs that
have been damaged by ischemia or
infarction.
2. Necrosis can also take the form of
liquefactive necrosis, which is
characterized by the breakdown of
tissue into a liquid form. This type
of necrosis often leads to the
formation of cysts in the brain.
3. A third type of necrosis is called
caseous necrosis, which is
characterized by the formation of a
cheese-like substance called caseous
material. This type of necrosis is
often seen in tuberculosis infections.
4. Finally, a fourth type of necrosis is
fibrinoid necrosis, which is
characterized by the deposition of
fibrin in tissue. This type of necrosis
is often seen in autoimmune
diseases such as lupus.
j. What are the different fluid
compartments? Give the approximate
percentage of body weight in an
adult male and female in each compartment.
- There are four primary fluid regions in
the human body: intracellular,
extracellular, transcellular, and
intravascular. The intracellular fluid
region is the most voluminous,
comprising two-thirds of the body's total
fluid. The extracellular fluid region is
second most sizable and encompasses
the fluid between cells. The transcellular
fluid region encompasses the fluid in the
gastrointestinal tract, bladder, and eye.
The intravascular fluid region is the
smallest and encompasses the fluid in
blood vessels.
Female Male
Solids 40% 40%
Fluids 55% 60%
k. Give 4 components/examples of
extracellular fluid.
- Extracellular fluid is a vital component
of the body, made up of water,
electrolytes, proteins, and small
molecules. These substances play a
crucial role in cell function and
metabolism.
l. How to maintain a constant level of body
fluid? How is fluid added and lost?
- The human body is made up of
approximately 60% water, which is
essential for all its functions.
Maintaining a constant level of body
fluid is crucial for good health, and this
can be achieved by ensuring that fluid is
added to the body when it is lost.
Maintaining a constant level of body
fluid is essential for good health. Fluid
is added to the body through the
consumption of food and drink, and it is
lost through urine, sweat, and breathing.
It is important to drink enough fluids
each day to replace the fluids that are
lost.
m. Discuss how the balance of water and
electrolytes is maintained by the following:
i. Thirst mechanism
- One way that the body regulates fluid
balance is through the thirst mechanism.
When the body is dehydrated, sensors in
the brain detect this and trigger the
sensation of thirst. This encourages the
individual to drink fluids and replenish
the body's water supply.
ii. Antidiuretic hormone
 - Another way that the body regulates
fluid balance is through the release of
antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH is
released by the pituitary gland in
response to dehydration. It helps to
conserve water by reducing urine
output.
iii. Aldosterone
- Aldosterone is a hormone that is
released by the adrenal glands in
response to dehydration. It helps to
conserve water by increasing
reabsorption of water and electrolytes
by the kidneys.
n. What is the difference between hydrostatic
and osmotic pressures?
- Hydrostatic pressure and osmotic
pressure are two diverse types of
pressure that can be exerted by fluids.
Hydrostatic pressure is caused by the
weight of the fluid, while osmotic
pressure is caused by the difference in
concentrations of solutes on either side
of a membrane.
o. Define:
i. Filtration
- is the process by which small molecules
can pass through a membrane, while
larger molecules are unable to. This is
because the pores in the membrane are
too small for the larger molecules to fit
through. An example of filtration is the
process by which water and small
molecules are filtered out of the blood
by the kidneys.
ii. Diffusion
- This is a transfer from high to low
concentration. This is because the
molecules are constantly moving and
colliding with each other, and they will
eventually spread out evenly. An
example of diffusion is the way that
oxygen diffuses from the lungs into the
blood.
iii. Osmosis
- Transferring water molecules from a
region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration. This is because
water molecules are attracted to other
molecules, and they will eventually
spread out evenly. An example of
osmosis is the way that water molecules
move from the blood into the cells.
iv. Active Transport
- The movement of molecules up or down
a concentration gradient. This is because
the molecules are using energy to move
against the gradient. An example of
active transport is the way that sodium
ions are pumped out of the cell.
p. Discuss edema.
- Edema is the medical term for swelling.
It occurs when fluid accumulates in the
body's tissues. This can happen for a
variety of reasons, including injury,
pregnancy, medications, and chronic
health conditions.
- There are two types of edemas:
localized and generalized. Localized
edema occurs in one specific area of the
body, such as the ankle or foot.
Generalized edema, on the other hand,
affects the entire body.
q. Give four general causes of edema and
provide a brief discussion on each.
1. Edema due to increased capillary
hydrostatic pressure.
- Edema is a condition in which fluid
accumulates in the body tissues, causing
swelling in the affected area. Edema can
be caused by increased capillary
hydrostatic pressure, which can be
treated with diuretics, compression
stockings, or elevation of the affected
limb.
2. Edema brought on by increased
capillary permeability and interstitial
fluid osmotic pressure.
- Increased capillary permeability can
cause edema by allowing fluid to leak
out of the blood vessels and into the
tissues. This can happen when the blood
vessels are damaged or when the body's
immune system is activated. Interstitial
fluid osmotic pressure can also cause
edema. This happens when the
 concentration of solutes in the
interstitial fluid is higher than in the
blood. This can happen when the body's
kidneys are not functioning properly.
3. Edema due to blocked lymphatic
drainage.
- When the lymphatic system is blocked,
edema can occur. A network of vessels
and nodes called the lymphatic system
works to remove extra fluid from tissues
and return it to the bloodstream. If the
lymphatic system is not working
properly, fluid can build up and cause
the tissues to swell.
4. Edema due to decreased capillary
osmotic pressure from
hypoalbuminemia.
- a decrease in the level of albumin in
the blood. Albumin is a protein that
helps to maintain the osmotic pressure
of the blood, so when it is decreased, the
osmotic pressure decreases as well,
leading to the accumulation of fluid in
the tissues.
r. Give 3 effects of edema and provide a brief
discussion on each.
5. There are three primary effects of
edema:
1. Swelling: This is the most visible
effect of edema and is caused by the
accumulation of fluid in the tissues. The
swelling can be painful and can lead to
difficulty moving the affected body part.
2. Organ damage: If the edema is
severe, it can cause damage to the
organs. This can lead to organ failure
and even death.
3. Difficulty breathing: Edema can also
cause difficulty breathing, as the fluid
accumulation can make it difficult for
the lungs to expand. This can be a life-
threatening condition.
s. Discuss dehydration.
6. Dehydration is a condition that occurs
when the body does not have enough
water to function properly. It can be
caused by a variety of factors, including
heat exposure, strenuous activity, and
certain medical conditions. Dehydration
can lead to serious health problems, so it
is important to be aware of the signs and
symptoms and to take steps to prevent
it.
t. Give 5 common causes of dehydration and
provide a brief discussion on each.
1. Not drinking enough fluids: This is
the most common cause of dehydration.
When we do not drink enough fluids,
our bodies do not have the necessary
water to function properly.
2. Excessive sweating: Sweating is a
natural process that helps to regulate our
body temperature. However, if we sweat
excessively, we can lose water and
become dehydrated.
3. Vomiting and diarrhea: These are
both common causes of dehydration, as
they can lead to the loss of a lot of fluids
from the body.
4. Fever: A fever can cause the body to
lose fluids through sweating.
5. Sun exposure: Spending too much
time in the sun can cause dehydration
due to sweating and loss of fluids
through the skin.
u. Give 3 effects of dehydration and provide a
brief discussion on each.
7. Dehydration is a condition that can have
a range of effects on the body,
depending on the severity.
1. Dry Skin: When the body is
dehydrated, it does not have enough
water to keep the skin properly
moisturized. This can lead to dry, flaky
skin.
2. Fatigue: Dehydration can cause
fatigue because the body does not have
enough fluid to keep the blood properly
circulated. This can lead to feelings of
tiredness and weakness.
 3. Thirst: Thirst is the body’s way of
telling you that it needs more water. If
you are thirsty, it is a good indication
that you are already dehydrated.
v. Give 4 ways on how the body compensates
for the fluid loss.
Fluid loss is common in the human
body and can occur due to sweating,
urination, and other functions. When the
body loses fluid, it needs to replenish
the loss to maintain homeostasis.
One way the body makes up for fluid
loss is by increasing thirst, which
encourages the person to drink more
fluids and replace the lost fluids.
Another way the body makes up for
fluid loss is by increasing urine output,
which helps get rid of excess fluids and
maintain the proper balance. The body
also regulates blood volume by
controlling the amount of fluid in the
blood, which prevents the blood from
becoming too diluted. Finally, the body
can also increase sweating to help
replace lost fluids.
w. What is third-spacing?
Third-spacing is a condition in which
fluid accumulates in the spaces between
cells. This fluid is composed of water,
electrolytes, and proteins, and can lead
to serious complications if not treated
properly. Third-spacing is most seen in
patients with sepsis, burns, or trauma,
but can also occur in patients with heart
failure, liver failure, or kidney failure.
Treatment of third-spacing typically
involves replenishing fluid and
electrolytes.
x. Compare the signs and symptoms of fluid
excess and fluid deficit.
There are two main types of fluid
imbalances: fluid overload and fluid
deficiency. Both can cause serious
health problems if not treated properly.
Fluid retention, also called fluid
overload, happens when there is an
excessive amount of fluid in the body.
This can cause problems like high blood
pressure, heart failure, and kidney
failure.
Fluid deficit, also known as
dehydration, occurs when there is not
enough fluid in the body. This can lead
to problems such as heat stroke, kidney
failure, and death.
y. Give a brief description, enumerate causes
and effects of an increase, or decrease in the
following electrolytes.
i. Sodium (hypernatremia, hyponatremia)
• Sodium is an important electrolyte that
helps keep fluid levels balanced in the
body. An increase or decrease in sodium
levels can cause serious health
problems.
• Causes of hypernatremia (high sodium
levels) include dehydration, excessive
sweating, and certain medications.
effects of hypernatremia include thirst,
dry mouth, and confusion.
• Causes of hyponatremia (low sodium
levels) include heart failure, kidney
disease, and certain medications. Effects
of hyponatremia include fatigue, muscle
weakness, and nausea.
• Treatment for both hypernatremia and
hyponatremia include replenishing
fluids and electrolytes. More severe
cases may require hospitalization.
ii. Potassium (hyperkalemia, hypokalemia)
iii. Calcium (hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia)
z. What is the importance of acid-base
balance?
➢ The importance of acid-base balance in
the human body cannot be understated.
All the body’s systems rely on a delicate
balance of acids and bases to function
properly. When this balance is
disrupted, it can lead to a variety of
health problems, such as acidosis,
alkalosis, indigestion, respiratory
problems, kidney stones, muscle
weakness, and paralysis.
aa. Enumerate 3 mechanisms that control or
compensate for pH.
➢ There are a number of mechanisms that
help to control or compensate for pH,
 including the use of buffers, the
respiratory system, and the kidney.
Buffers are substances that help to
maintain a stable pH by absorbing
excess acid or base. The respiratory
system also helps to regulate pH by
exchanging carbon dioxide for oxygen.
The kidney helps to regulate pH by
excreting excess acid or base. All of
these mechanisms are important in
keeping the pH of the body within a safe
range.
bb. What is a buffer system and what is its
importance?
➢ A buffer system is a solution that helps
to maintain a stable pH level. It is
important because it helps to keep the
pH level within a certain range, which is
necessary for many biochemical
reactions to occur.
cc. Discuss the bicarbonate-carbonic acid
buffer system and maintenance of serum pH.
➢ The bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffer
system is a key mechanism for
maintaining pH homeostasis in the body
by regulating the pH of the blood and
other body fluids. This system plays an
important role in buffering against
changes in pH.
dd. Enumerate the causes, effect,
compensation, and expected laboratory result
in respiratory acidosis.
and alkalosis, and metabolic acidosis and
alkalosis
➢ Respiratory acidosis and alkalosis are
two conditions that can occur when the
body's pH level becomes imbalanced.
There are several causes of respiratory
acidosis and alkalosis, and each
condition can have different effects on
the body. Treatment for respiratory
acidosis and alkalosis typically involves
correcting the underlying cause of the
condition.