ee VASIRAM & RAV] CHAPTER - 1 INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY We live on a beautiful planet called Earth, along with a wide variety of plants, animals and other organisms. Our Earth, however, is part of a vast universe. The universe is about 15 to 20 billion years old. The age of the Earth is approximately 4 to 5 billion years, while human beings evolved only around 2 million years ago. THE EARTH The Earth with its blue skies, vast oceans and lush green forests is the home to a wide variety of organisms. It has a unique atmosphere. The atmosphere also helps to regulate the ambient (surrounding) temperature, which is suitable for supporting life. In our solar system, Earth is the only planet which is known to sustain life. Only Earth has air and water to support life. As compared to other planets, Earth has the following unique conditions which have enabled it to sustain life: Conditions Necessary For Sustaining Life A. Presence of Water © During the evolution of the Earth, water vapour in the primitive atmosphere condensed into liquid water, which gave rise to the formation of oceans, rivers and other freshwater bodies. Three-fourth of Earth's surface is covered with water. © Water is a universal solvent and life originated in water. Two-thirds of a living organism consists of water, and 90 per cent of cell content is also water. Biochemical reactions in living organisms require an aqueous medium. Therefore, water is essential for the survival of living organisms. B. Atmosphere The Earth is enveloped by a gaseous atmosphere that supports life. The Earth's atmosphere consists of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). small amounts of carbon dioxide, water vapour, ozone and rare gases like argon, neon etc. The living organisms use oxygen from the atmosphere during respiration. Oxygen is necessary to oxidise food for liberating energy required for various activities in the living organisms. Green’ plants utilise carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. C, Temperature - The average temperature of the Earth is 16°C which is the most comfortable temperature for the living organisms to survive. D. Buffering Capacity Of earth - The unique feature Earth gets light from the Sun, the star nearest to Earth, approximately 150 Million kilometres away. It is the ultimate source of energy. of the Earth is its buffering action due to which a neutral pH (pH-7) is maintained in the soil and water bodies. The neutral pH is congenial for the survival and sustenance of living organisms. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF LIFE ON EARTH To begin with, conditions on Earth were inhospitable for life. Gases of the primitive atmosphere were primarily methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Water vapour filled the atmosphere, but there was no free oxygen. It was thus a reducing aimosphere on primitive Earth, and no life existed.EE VAJIRAM & RAV) Biological Evolution - From the Simple Organisms to Complex Organisms ‘As Earth cooled, water vapour condensed to form liquid water. Rains poured to form water bodies on earth. The molecules of life were formed in the water. From the molecules of life evolved bacteria, the earliest and simplest organisms. The oldest fossils of bacteria which were the first living organisms on Earth have been found in rocks that are 3-5 billion years old, For almost two billion years, different kinds of bacteria lived on earth. One of these evolved a green pigment called chlorophyll. These chlorophyll-containing bacteria used carbon dioxide and water and released oxygen through photosynthesis and started accumulating in the atmosphere. Continued photosynthesis by such bacteria progressively accumulated oxygen in the atmosphere. Thus, the atmosphere gradually transformed from reducing to oxidising. At one point of time, oxygen content in the atmosphere became 21%. Such changes served as a big trigger for biological evolution to begin and progress, and this led to the invasion of land by living organism. As time passed, protists evolved from bacteria. Both bacteria and protists are unicellular. Then came multicellular organisms, the fungi followed by plants and animals and ecological development occurred. ECOLOGY It is the branch of science concemed with the ‘interrelationship of organisms and their environments’ and the associated energy-flows. In Ecology, everything is connected to everything else, and there exists a constant interaction between organisms and their environment. Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with one another and with their physical environment. Ecological Units Concepts of ecological units, such as population, community, and ecosystem, are at the basis of ecological theory. These have increasingly become the focus of conservation strategies. Concepts of these units still suffer from inconsistencies and confusions over terminology. The different concepts are treated here together as a typical "conceptual cluster," with similar ecological functions (roles) and similar problems in their definition and use. An analysis of the multitude of existing terms and concepts that have been developed for these units reveals that they differ with respect to at least four basic criteria: (i) the questions as to whether they are defined statistically or via a network of interactions; (ii) if their boundaries are drawn by topographical or process-related criteria; (ii) how high the required internal relationships are; and (iv) if they are perceived as "real" entities or abstractions by an observer. Population: Considered the smallest ecological unit, it refers to a group of individuals that belong to the same species and that are inter-breeding. Population ecologists study the size, density, and structure of populations and how they change over time. Community: It refers to all the population in a specific area at a particular time. A complex community (having a high diversity of population) is more stable than one with relatively lower diversity. This is Precisely because food webs of communities of high diversity are more interconnected, and the greater inter-connectivity makes it more resilient to disturbance. If one species is removed, the other species Which depend on it for food have other options to switch. BRIEF HISTORY OF ECOLOGYee VAJIRAM & RAV] j f First to describe the ecological gradient of latitudinal Blskander Humboldt;1762~1850 |Meat Mant aaes pattherapicsin ied. Founder of evolution through natural selection, founder off ecological studies of soils |Charles Darwin 1809-1862 He gave the term ecology, popularised research links between| [Ernst Haeckel 1824-1019 [ie ence eralereliion Wladimir Vernadsky [869-1939 Founded the biosphere conospt First to coin the term ecosystem in 1936 and a notable| Arthur G.Tansley 1871-1955 | oe chor German Hierarchal Organization of Ecology geographer who Ea first coined the - Biosphere ecology term biogeography in Ecosystem Ecology 1891. Energy luxand Cyaling of Nutrients [Friedrich Ratzel 1844-1904 Interactions among Populations eT The unit of Evalution Meee ‘Theunit of Natural Select ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE * Environmental science is the academic field that takes physical, biological and chemical sciences to study the environment and discover solutions to environmental problems. It is the study of how living and nonliving organisms interact with their surroundings. ‘+ Moder-day technology and human actions are slowly ruining and draining the planet's ecosystem and natural resources. The study of environmental science helps to enlighten the world about global issues, such as forest denudation and dynamite fishing. Global warming is another impending issue that can only be addressed through environmental science. ‘+ Ultimately, environmental science is necessary to save the environment from destruction and alll of its dependents from extinction. Ecology is not synonymous with the environment. Ecology is closely related fo the biological disciplines of physiology, evolution, genetics and behaviour. It seeks to explain: * Life processes and adaptations ‘+ Distribution and abundance of organisms + The movement of materials and energy through living communities + The succession development of ecosystems + The abundance and distribution of biodiversity in the context of the environment.VA SIRAM & RAVI EE ENVIRONMENT Every living organism is continually interacting with its environment comprised of air, light, water, land or substratum and the various kinds of living organisms. The environment is defined as the Surroundings or conditions in which an organism lives or operates. The environment broadly includes ving and nonliving components, which are listed in the table given below: Abiotic Biotic 4 ight, climate (humidity and temperature) | Living organisms including plants, animals, micro- atmospheric gases, water, substrata (soll, | organisms (bacteria, fungi, protozoa) and human river/sea bed) beings ‘A. Abiotic Components () Light - Sunlight provides energy. Green plants utilise sunlight for photosynthesis - for synthesising food for themselves as well as for all other living organisms (i) Rainfall - Weter is essential for all living beings. Majority of biochemical reactions take place in aan aqueous medium. Water helps to regulate body temperature. Further, water bodies form the habitat for many aquatic plants and animals. (ii) Temperature - Temperature is a critical factor of the environment which significantly influences the survival of organisms. Organisms can tolerate a specific range of temperature and humidity. (iv) Atmosphere - The Earth's atmosphere is made of 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 0.038% ‘carbon dioxide. Rest are inert gases (0.93% Argon, Neon etc.). (v) Substratum - Organisms may be terrestrial or aquatic. The land is covered by soil, and a wide Variety of microbes, protozoa, fungi and small animals (invertebrates) thrive in It. = Roots of plants pierce through the soil to tap water and nutrients. = Terrestrial animals live on land. = Aquatic plants, animals and microbes live in freshwater as well as in the sea. = Some microbes live even in hot water vents under the sea. B, Biotic Components (i) Green Plants Prepare food by the process of photosynthesis for all living organisms, (i) Animals — Individuals of the same species occur in a particular type of habitat. They also live with other species. One species forms food for another. Microorganisms and fungi decompose dead plants and animals, releasing nutrients locked in bodies of dead organisms for reuse by the growing plants. Living organisms need both abiotic and biotic components of the environment for survival. A delicately balanced relationship between living organisms and their environment is critically important for their survival. We are living on planet Earth with a limited supply of resources. The conservation of ecological resources can be approached through habitat protection, preservation of species, etc. In the management of ecological resources, all the activities should be governed by ecological principles Which include aspects of nature like the extinction of species, biological succession, biogeochemical cycles, stably and instablity of ecosystems; evolution, dispersal and distribution of plants and animals, etc Our activities are increasingly causing deterioration in our environment. Something needs to be done. It is the prevention of environmental degradation that must become a part of all our lives. Mass media 4ee VAR AM & RAV | such as newspapers, radio and television strongly influence public opinion. If each of us feels strongly about the environment, the press and media will add to our efforts. Politicians in a democracy always respond positively to a robust publicly-supported movement. UPSC MAINS QUESTION What do you understand by Ecological balance? Why is this balance necessary? What is being done in India today to maintain this balance? UPSC PRELIMS QUESTIONS 1. Which of the following groups is opposed to the plantation of Eucalyptus trees? [1991] (a) Environmentalists (b) Wildlife Protection group (c) Paper manufacturers (@) Matches manufacturers 2. Which one of the following legislations does not deal with the protection of the environment? [1999] (a) The Water (Cess) Act, 1977 (b) The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 (0) The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 (d) The Port Laws Amendment Act, 1997 3. Which of the following are correctly matched? (1) Medha Patkar - Environment Activist (2) Jamini Roy - Painter (3) Bhuvaneshvari - Squash player Kumari Choose the correct answer from the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2and3 (d) 1, 2and3 4. Consider the following ecosystems:[2002] (i) Taiga (2) Tropical Evergreen (3) Tropical Deciduous (4) Tundra The correct sequence in decreasing order of the Albedo values of these ecosystems is: (a) 1,4,3,2 (b) 4, 1, 3,2 (0) 4,1,2,3 (4) 1.4.2.3 5. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment describes the following major categories of ecosystem services —_ provisioning, supporting, regulating, preserving and cultural. Which one of the following is supporting service? [2012] (a) Production of food and water (b) Control of climate and disease (c) Nutrient cycling and crop pollination (d) Maintenance of diversity 6. As a result of their annual survey, the National Geographic Society and an international polling firm Globe Scan gave India top rank in Greendex 2009 score. What is this score? [2010] (a) It is a measure of efforts made by different countries in adopting carbon technologies for _reducingTe IRAN) a A) a) footprint. (b) It is @ measure of environmentally sustainable consumer behaviour in different countries. (0) It is an assessment of programmes! schemes undertaken by different countries for improving the conservation of natural resources. (d) It is an index showing the volume of carbon credits sold by different countries. . Which one of the following is the best description of the term ‘ecosystem’? [2015] (a) A community of organisms interacting with one another. (b) That part of the Earth which is inhabited by living organisms. (c) A community of organisms together with the environment in which they live (d) Flora and fauna of a geographical area Ans: 1 - a; 2-a;3-d;4-¢;5-¢;6-b;7-cnn NN) A | CHAPTER - 2 PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY The term ecology was first coined in 1869 by the German biologist Emst Haeckel. It has been derived from two Greek words, ‘oikos', meaning home or estate and ‘logos’ meaning study- In Ecology, there is emphasis is on relationships between organisms and the components of the environment, namely abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living). LEVELS OF ECOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION Ecology may be defined as the entific tt Ecology not only deals with the study of the relationship of individual coeie ciney canes organisms with their environment but also with the study of | With each other and with their Populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes and biosphere as a | Snvironment, whole. i ‘A large community unit, characterized by a major vegetation type and associated fauna, found in a specific climatic region is a blome ‘Study of human activities fecting the earth like global climate, ozone hole ete. Biomes refer basically to terrestrial areas. The aquatic systems like the seas, rivers etc. are also divided into distinct life zones on basis of salinity. 1. Study of physical iological features of particular Fig - Levels of Ecological Organization BIOSPHERE It is the largest unit In Ecological organisation. It is that part of the Earth's crust, waters and atmosphere which supports life.[TRA A RO) How Is Biosphere Formed: It is formed through the interaction of Atmosphere, Lithosphere and Hydrosphere. The area of contact and interaction between these three components are the basic requirements for the Biosphere to exist. The atmosphere, Lithosphere and Hydrosphere are the three main subdivisions of Biosphere. Living ‘organisms are mostly confined to the area prevalent in sunlight and oxygen. This includes lower layers of the atmosphere, the surface of land, the few metres of soil and the upper layer water of oceans, lakes and rivers. In simple words, biosphere can be viewed as the part of the Earth consisting of ‘oceans and the surface of the continents, together with the adjacent atmosphere. The three components of Biosphere can further be elaborated as follows: Lithosphere Geologically, Lithosphere refers to the combination of Earth's crust and outer mantle. It provides the platform and habitat to the biotic elements of the ecosystem. Hydrosphere Hydrosphere refers tothe combined mass of water found on, under and above the surface of the earth. The hydrosphere is made up of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers and springs. The water in these bodies can be freshwater or saltwater, The hydrosphere is home to a wide diversity of aquatic plant and animal life. Atmosphere It is an envelope of gases ‘surrounding the earth. Although the atmosphere is approximately 1000 KMs in width, the layer which we are concerned for the study of the ecosystem is only 10-15 KMs thick, i.e. Troposphere. ‘Rimosphere Plants absorb carbon dioxide (the main climate- altering gas) and produce ‘oxygen instead BIOMES. Biomes are the major subdivisions of the biosphere. The Earth's biomes are spread over millions of square miles and span entire continents. Each has a unique climate. The average weather conditions in a given region determine the boundaries of a biome and the abundance of plants and animals found in each one. How are biomes differentiated? Cardinal feature of each biome is that they are recognisable by the characteristic structure of its dominant vegetation. categories: freshwater regions and saltwater regions. So biomes, are a larger unit of organisation that categorise regions of the Earth's ecosystems mainly according to the structure and composition of vegetation. 8es VAR AYES RAV] Biomes of the land are called Terrestrial Biomes, and that related to ocean and water are called Aquatic. Biomes. An ecosystem is studied through the functional approach, and a biome is studied through the distributional approach. Terrestrial and aquatic biomes can also be called as terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Tropical forest {ij Temperate grassland i High mountains) ] Savanna Temperate broadieaf forest (_) Polar ice Desert {i Coniferous forest Chaparral (ij Tundra Although a biome can be considered an extensive ecosystem, it differs from an ecosystem such as a pond or a patch of woodland in its complexity and internal variations. For example, the coniferous taiga biome contains lakes, bog, and other ecosystems within itself, in addition to the overall evergreen forest ecosystem. The evergreen forest itself varies considerably from one locality to the next within the biome. Fig: Types Of Ecological Studies [Study of T. Organisms] 2. Population 3. Community 4. Ecosystem Levels of (individual) |] A group of organisms |] A. group of organisms |]4 communities of ecological | | basic unit of |} consisting of a number |] consisting of a organisms and their organization | sudy of different populations|] number of different || physical that live in defind area |] species that live in |Jenvironment, Jand interact with each |] an area and interact interacting as an other, with each other ecological unit Study of the form, ][ Study of Study of structure] [Study of the physiology, behavior,|| interaction between |} and composition | {community in relation distribution and populations and of community and | }to the structure of its adaptation of intraspecific interspecific lecosystem-nutrients organism in relation |] relationships. interactions cycling, climate, to environment between members | Jenergy flow etc of community studied,es V4) & RAV) ECOSYSTEM Space pee og _— fadaton ECOSYSTEM _— Environment te Plants ——pepersst_p ‘Consumers ——erersal_—_t> Plants, migration Animals SN Frosion and and soll Deposition Leach Soil organic _s Organic Matter Matter The ecosystem is a core concept in Ecology, serving as the level of biological organisation in which organisms interact simultaneously with each other and with their environment. As such, ecosystems are a level above that of the ecological community but are at a level below, or equal to, biomes and the biosphere. ‘+ Some have even called the interacting system of organisms that live within the guts of most animals as an ecosystem, despite their residence within a single organism, which violates the levels of organization definition of ecosystems. ‘Moreover, interactions between ecosystem ‘components are as much a part of the definition of ecosystems as their constituent organisms, matter and energy. ecosystems and the biosphere is the largest of all possible ecosystems. ‘The spatial boundaries, component organisms and the matter, energy content and flux within ecosystems may be defined and measured. However, unlike organisms or energy, ecosystems are inherently conceptual, in that different observers may legitimately define their boundaries and components differently. For example, a single patch of trees together with the soil, organisms and atmosphere interacting with them may define a forest ecosystem, yet the entirety of all organisms, their environment, and their interactions across an entire forested region in the Amazon might also be defined as a single forest ecosystem. Y oe ‘An ecosystem can be of two basic types: ac Open Ecosystem: When there is a free exchange of energy and matters from outside. Most ecosystems are open. For example, a desert surrounded by farmland — the two different ecosystems will affect one another. Closed Ecosystem: When the ecosystem is isolated from outside. No materials can leave or enter, but only energy from external sources can. 10 Sioned aeMEME AIR AV & RA COMMUNITY Community refers to all the populations in a specific area or region at a particular time. Its In general, ecologists believe that a community that has a high diversity is more complex and stable than a community that has a low diversity. This theory is founded on the observation that the food webs of communities of high diversity are more interconnected. Greater interconnectivity causes structure _ involves | these systems to be more resilient to disturbance. If a species is removed, many — types of ‘| those species that relied on it for food have the option to switch to many other interactions among | species that occupy a similar role in that ecosystem. In a low diversity species. Some of | ecosystem, possible substitutes for food may be non-existent or limited in these involve the | abundance, acquisition and use of food, space, or other environmental resources. Others involve nutrient cycling through all members of the community and mutual regulation of population sizes. In all of these cases, the structured interactions of populations lead to situations in which individuals are thrown into life or death struggles. Communities in most instances are named after the dominant plant form (species). + For example - A grassland community is dominated by grasses, though it may contain herbs, shrubs, and trees, along with associated animals of different species Community Structure: Ecologists use two characteristics to desoribe a biological community: + Physical_appearance: the relative sizes, stratification, and distribution of its populations and species. + Species diversity: a combination of numbers of different species (richness) and abundance of individuals within each species (species evenness). In nature, many species occupy the same habitat, but they perform different functions. The functional role of a species in its habitat is referred to as “niche” in that ‘common habitat. A niche is unique for a species while many species share the habitat. No two species in a habitat can have the same niche. Population A population is a group of individuals of the same species inhabiting the same area. Populations can be defined at various spatial scales. Local populations can occupy tiny habitat patches like a puddle. Populations can be considered at a scale of regions, islands, continents or seas. The entire species can be viewed as a population. Populations differ in their stability. Some of them are stable for thousands of years. Other populations persist only because of continuous immigration from other areas. Individual ‘An individual is any living thing or organism, which can act and function independently in the course of its life. Individuals do not breed with individuals from other groups. ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems change and develop over Ecological succession may also occur when the conditions of an environment suddenly and drastically change. A forest fires, wind storms, and | human activities like agriculture all greatiy alter the conditions of an environment. These massive forces may also destroy species and thus alter the | dynamics of the ecological community tragering a | scramble for dominance among the species still Present. The rise and the decline of numerous species within our various communities illustrate | two types of motive forces of succession: the impact of an established species to change a_ site's environmental conditions, and the impact of | large external forces to suddenly alter the environmental nature of a site. | "1DPE YAIR AC & RA] time. Nothing remains the same and habitats are always changing. It is the observed process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time. Within any community, some species may become less abundant over some time interval, or they may even vanish from the ecosystem altogether. Similarly, over some time interval, other species within the community may become more abundant, or new species may even invade into the community from adjacent ecosystems. ‘of succession, the cause of ecosystem This observed change over time in ‘what | change, is the impact of established species on their is living’ in a particular ecosystem is | environments. The original environment may have been Ecological succession. optimal for the first spécies of plant or animal, but the newly Stages of Ecological Succession altered environment is often optimal for some other species : : of plant or animal, Under the changed conditions of the Ecological Succession —_proceeds | environment, the previously dominant species may fail, and through various stages, starting from | another species may become ascendant. Pioneer Community to Climax stage. Each such stage is called sere or seral community. A seral community (or sere) is an intermediate_stage be 7 — The process of a habitat slowly gaining more complex succession in an ecosystem advancing | organisms over time is known as biological succession. The towards its climax community. In many | frst organisms involved in the succession are the pioneer cases, more than one seral stage | lot 'genisn evolves until climax conditions are attained. A pri-sere is a collection of seres making up the development of an area from non-vegetated surfaces to a climax community. A seral community is a name given to each group of plants within the succession. Ecological succession breaks down into three fundamental phases: Primary Succession, Secondary Succession and a Climax Community. 1. Primary Succession It occurs when organisms colonise an area devoid of life, usually after a catastrophic natural event Hundreds o years Fig: Primary Succession[nes VAAN & R.A) ] that leaves the land barren. Often the first organisms to take hold are algae, fungi and simple plants such as lichens and mosses. Over time a thin layer of soil builds up so that more advanced plants, such as grasses and ferns, can take root. Along with the successful colonisation of plants come animals such as insects, birds and small invertebrates. * One example of primary succession is the pioneer communities that begin to inhabit a newly created lava bed, where life cannot exist until the rock surface cools to a moderate temperature. Pioneer Community: + Its a group of organisms that invade a new area in the process of ‘Ecological Succession’. ‘These organisms are typically plants, animals and fungi. They are the first to move into a new habitat and often make the habitat more hospitable for future inhabitants. + The pioneers through their death and decay leave patches of organic matter in which small animals can live. Organic debris, accumulates in pockets and crevices, providing the soil in which seeds can become lodged and grow. + As the community of organisms continues to develop, it becomes more diverse, and competition increases, but at the same time, new niche opportunities develop. The pioneer species disappear as the habitat conditions change and invasion of new species progresses, leading to the replacement of the other community. 2. Secondary Succession This term describes the process in which an established community is replaced by a different set of plants and animals. * Most ecological changes occur as secondary succession. Most biological communities are in a continual state of secondary succession. Secondary succession is gradual, always moving toward the climax community. It occurs when an area that has previously had an ecological community is so disturbed or changed that the original community was destroyed and a new community moves in. * Such successions are comparatively more rapid. This is more common than primary succession and is often the result of natural disasters such as fires, floods, and winds, as well as human interference such as logging and clear-cutting. It starts from previously built-up substrata with already existing living matter. This type of succession starts in a given area where the conditions for life are favourable because the area was occupied earlier by the well-developed ity. Ex. Succession in an abandoned crop field. 3. Climax Community The culminating stage in succession is the establishment of a stable community in the area, and this is known as the climax community. Thus, the final stage of ecological succession is the formation of the climax community. Climax communities are relatively stable and can vary widely in a given region. Some of the features or the characteristics of the climax community are: ‘+ The vegetation of this region is tolerant to the environmental conditions. + The species diversity is vast, and the food chains of these species are involved and with spatial structure. 13es VAJIRAM & RAV) time. Nothing remains the same and habitats are always changing. It is the observed process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time. Within any community, some species may become less abundant over some time intérval, or they may even vanish from the ecosystem altogether. Similarly, over some time interval, other species within the community may become more abundant, or new species may even invade into the community from adjacent ecosystems. This observed change over time in ‘what is living’ in a particular ecosystem is Ecological succession. Stages of Ecological Succession Ecological Succession _ proceeds through various stages, starting from Pioneer Community to Climax stage The “engine” of succession, the cause of ecosystem change, is the impact of established species on their environments. The original environment may have been optimal for the first species of plant or animal, but the newly altered environment is often optimal for some other species of plant or animal. Under the changed conditions of the environment, the previously dominant species may fail, and another species may become ascendant. Each such stage is called sere or seral community. A seral_ community (or sere) is an intermediate stage found in ecological succession in an ecosystem advancing towards its climax community. In many cases, more than one seral stage evolves until climax conditions are attained. A pri-sere is a collection of The process of a habitat slowly gaining more complex organisms over time is known as biological succession. The first organisms involved in the succession are the pioneer ‘communities. seres making up the development of an area from non-vegetated surfaces to a climax community. A seral community is a name given to each group of plants within the succession. Ecological succession breaks down into three fundamental phases: Primary Succession, Secondary Succession and a Climax Community 4. Primary Succession It occurs when organisms colonise an area devoid of life, usually after a catastrophic natural event Hundreds of years ary Succession 12ee VARA oR A\ | that leaves the land barren. Often the first organisms to take hold are algae, fungi and simple plants such as lichens and mosses. Over time a thin layer of soil builds up so that more advanced plants, such as grasses and ferns, can take root. Along with the successful colonisation of plants come animals such as insects, birds and small invertebrates. * One example of primary succession is the pioneer communities that begin to inhabit a newly created lava bed, where life cannot exist until the rock surface cools to a moderate temperature. Pioneer Community: + Itis a group of organisms that invade a new area in the process, of ‘Ecological Succession’. These organisms are typically plants, animals and fungi. They are ‘the first to move into a new habitat and often make the habitat more hospitable for future inhabitants. + The pioneers through their death and decay leave patches of organic matter in which small animals can live. Organic debris accumulates in pockets and crevices, providing the soil in which seeds can become lodged and grow. + As the community of organisms continues to develop, it becomes more diverse, and competition increases, but at the same time, new niche opportunities develop. The pioneer species disappear as the habitat conditions change and invasion of new species progresses, leading to the replacement of the other community, Secondary Succession This term describes the process in which an established community is replaced by a different set of plants and animals. * Most ecological changes occur as secondary succession. Most biological communities are in a continual state of secondary succession. Secondary succession is gradual, always moving toward the climax community. It occurs when an area that has previously had an ecological community is so disturbed or changed that the original community was destroyed and a new community moves in. * Such successions are comparatively more rapid. This is more common than primary succession and is often the result of natural disasters such as fires, floods, and winds, as well as human interference such as logging and clear-cutting. It starts from previously built-up substrata with already existing living matter. This type of succession starts in a given area where the conditions for life are favourable because the area was occupied earlier by the well-developed community. Ex. Succession in an abandoned crop field. Climax Community The culminating stage in succession is the establishment of a stable community in the area, and this is known as the climax community. Thus, the final stage of ecological succession is the formation of the climax community. Climax communities are relatively stable and can vary widely in a given region. Some of the features or the characteristics of the climax community are: ‘+ The vegetation of this region is tolerant to the environmental conditions. «The species diversity is vast, and the food chains of these species are involved and with spatial structure. 13ee VARA & RAVI Sete eRe «Iti a balanced ecosystem. There is also an equilibrium between the nutrients taken in from the soil and the return of the nutrients to the soil by litterfall. +The individual organisms in the climax ecosystem are replaced by other organisms of the same kind. Thus, maintaining species equilibrium. Some Other Types Of Ecological Succession Are As Follows: + Autotrophic Succession: It is characterised by the early and continued dominance of autotrophic organisms like aren plants. It begins in a predominantly inorganic environment, and the energy flow is maintained indefinitely. ’ « Allogenic Succession: In some cases, however, the replacement of the existing community is mainly caused by any other external condition and not by the existing organisms. Such a course is referred to as allogenic succession. + Autogenic Succession: After the succession has begun, in most of the cases, itis the community itself, which, as a result of its reactions with the environment, modifies its environment and thus causing its replacement by new communities. = Micro Succession: This involves the succession of microoraanisms. It begins in a predominantly ‘organic environment, and there is a progressive decline in energy content. The succession of protozoa in the hay infusion is called micro-succession. ADAPTATION: Every organism is suited to live in its particular habitat. Each organism is adapted to its particular environment. Adaptations that can be observed in structure have been produced and perfected through evolution. This means that the adaptations have developed over many generations to help a species survive successfully in its environment. [An adaptation is the appearance or | Presence of gills and fins are examples of adaptation in | behaviour or structure or mode of life of fishes to aquatic habitat. In aquatic flowering planis, | 47 organism that allows it to survive in a ‘absence of wood formation and highly reduced root system | Patticularenvironment: are adaptations to an aquatic environment. Examples of basic adaplations that help ainals and plants to survive in their respective HABITAT AND ORGANISM environmeras: Habitat is the physical environment in which an |'> Te shape of a\birc's beak organism lives. Each organism has particular |+ The thickness or thinness of fur. requirements for its survival and lives where the |, Presence of feathers and wings in birds. ‘+ Evergreen and deciduous nature of trees. + Presence and absence of thorns on leaves and stems. environment provides for those needs. A habitat 4 may support many different species having similar requirements. For example, a single ‘ocean habitat may support a whale, a sea- horse, seal, phytoplankton and many other kinds of organisms. The features of the habitat can be represented by its structural Shelter or coveree VAR AM & RAV) components, namely (1) space (2) food (3) water (4) and cover or shelter. Earth has four significant habitats — (1) Terrestrial (2) Freshwater (3) Estuarine (Where rivers meet the ocean) and (4) Ovean. ‘The human gut is the habitat of a tapeworm and the rotting log a habitat of a fungus. SPECIES A species is defined as a group of similar populations of organisms whose members are capable of interbreeding, and to produce tertile offspring (children). A tiger, a lion, a lotus and a rose are examples of different species. Every species has a scientific name, understood by people of all over the world. Humans belong to species of Homo sapiens. Only members of the same species can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Every species has its own set of genetic characteristics that makes the species unique and different from other species. EVOLUTION ‘The number of species surviving in the world today is the ‘outcome of two processes - speciation and extinction. Speciation «It's the process by which new species are formed, and evolution is the mechanism by which speciation is brought about. Extinction + It means the dying out of a variety of or a species. It is generally a natural occurrence. + The primary reason for these extinctions is environmental change or biological competition. + Extinction occurs when species cannot evolve fast enough to cope with the changes taking place in their environment. ‘A valid theory of evolution was propounded by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace in 1859. This theory has been extended in the light of progress in genetics and is known as Neo-Darwinism. It has the following features: * Organisms tend to produce more offsprings that can be supported by the environment. * Mutation (a change in genetic material that results from an error in replication of DNA) causes new genes to arise in a population. Further, in a sexually reproducing population, meiosis and fertilisation produce a new combination of genes every generation, which is termed recombination, Thus, members of the same species show ‘variation’ and are not identical. Variations are heritable. + An evolutionary force which Darwin termed natural selection, selects among variations ie. genes that help the organism to adapt to its environment. Such genes are reproduced more in a population due to natural selection. Those offspring which are suited to their immediate environment have a better chance of surviving, reaching reproductive age and passing on the suitable adaptations to their progeny. Evol species, n, thus, results in adaptation and diversity of the 15EE VASIR AM & RAY | Steinmeier. BIOTIC INTERACTION In the natural worid, no organism exists in absolute isolation, and thus every organism must interact with the environment and other organisms. An organism's interactions with its environment are fundamental to the survival of that organism and the functioning of the ecosystem as a whole. The types of Biotic Interaction can be classified further as follows: ‘The competition is defined as the process in which the organism fights for the same resources. It can be intra-specific or inter-specific. : «The competition between the organisms of the same species is referred to as an intra-speci competition. This type of competition is very severe as the organism of the same species has the same requirement for food, water, shelter and light etc. The intraspecific competition keeps a close check on the size of population, They compete for thé same natural resources. Biotic interactions are the effects which organisms in ‘+ The competition between the organisms of | a community have on one another. the different species is refereed as interspecific competition. For example, in forests, the different types of trees and vegetations compete for water, sunlight and other similar resources. + Interactions need not be direct; individuals may affect each other indirectly through intermediaries, such as shared resources or The predation is defined as an interaction | common enemies. between the members of different species. In this, one member catches the prey and kills them. They are known as predators. The majority of them are animals which are mainly carnivorous. The herbivorous animals can also act like a predator. They remove the plants as well as seeds, There are few plants which also act as predators and are known as insectivorous plants. «The prey has a high reproductive ability. If there are no predators, the population of the prey will increase at such a rate that it will cross the carrying capacity of the environment. + Effects range from consumption of another individual (predation, _herbivorism, or cannibalism), to mutual benefit (mutualism).. Predation Parasitism ‘The parasitism is defined as the process in which two organisms of different species are present and in which one of the organism acts as a parasite and the other organism acts as a host. The parasite spends a part of their full life in the body of a host. The food is obtained from the host. = The Ectoparasites occur on the body surface of the host, and the Endoparasites occur inside the body of host. Mutualism Mutualism is the name given to associations between pairs of species that bring mutual benefit. The individuals in the populations of each mutualism species grow and/or survive and/or reproduce at a higher rate when in the presence of individuals of the other species. This type of interaction is a pervasive phenomenon. * For example, most rooting plants have mutualistic associations with fungal Mycorrhizae. Mycorthizae increase the capability of plant roots to absorb nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus. In return, the roots of the host provide support and a constant supply of carbohydrates for consumption. Mutualistic interactions between species can be of two types: symbiotic or non-symbiotic. 16eens VAI R AM & RAN) eee = In a symbiotic mutualism, individuals interact physically, and their relationship is biologically | essential for survival. For example, the fungal-algal symbicsis that occurs in lichens. | + More common in nature is the non-symbiotic mutualism. In this interaction, the mutualists live independent lives yet cannot survive without each other. The most obvious example of an interaction of this type is the relationship between flowering plants and their insect pollinators. Commensalism The commensalism is defined as the process in which two organisms of different species are present and in which one organism is benefited while the other one acts as a neutral organism. It is neither harmed and nor benefitted ’ + There are small plants which grow on the larger plants for only space and are known as epiphytes They do not depend on nutrition. Amensalism The Amensalism is defined as the process in which two organisms of different species are present and in which one organism does not allow the other organism to survive. For example, the growth of staphylococcus is inhibited by the use of penicillin. = There are some other crops like barley, sorghum and sunflower. They do not allow the weed to grow near them. Neutralism Neutralism is the most common type of inter-specific interaction. Neither population directly affects the other. What interactions occur is slight and indirect. The simple presence of the two species should not directly affect the population level of either. An example of neutralism would be the interaction between rainbow trout and dandelions living in a mountain valley. Type of Interaction | Effect of Interaction Examples Competition Both species are harmed | Oak trees and maple trees competing for _ | (Population growth rates are | light in a forest, wading birds foraging for reduced). food in a marsh Predation ‘One species benefits, one is | Predation: wolf and rabbit Parasitism: flea Parasitism harmed. and wolf Mutualism Both species benefit. The | Humans and house pets, insect pollination relationship may not be essential | of flowers for either. Commensalism | One species benefits, one is not | Cow's excreta as food and shelter for Dung affected Beetles ‘Amensalism ‘One species harms another | Allelopathy (plants that produce substances (typically by releasing a toxic | harmful to other plants), broccoli residue substance) but is not affected | suppresses the growth of other vegetables itself. in the same plant family ‘Neutralism No net benefit or harm to either | Spiders and Cacti in desert - species 7VA TRAM & RAVI | eae rane eater) UPSC MAINS QUESTIONS What do you understand by ecological balance? Why is this balance necessary? What is being done in India today to maintain this balance? [1987] UPSC PRELIMS QUESTIONS | 1. Lichens, which are capable of initiating ecological succession even on a bare rock, are a symbiotic association of [2014] (a) algae and bacteria ’ (b) algae and fungi (c) bacteria and fungi (6) fungi and mosses Ans: (b) IMPORTANT FOR PRELIMS Forest Survey of India categorises forests based on the canopy density: * Scrubs: The degraded forest lands which have a Canopy density of less than 10% are called Scrubs. * Open Forests: The Lands with Canopy density of 10-40% are called Open Forests. * Moderately Dense Forest: The Land with forest cover having a canopy density of 40-70% is called the Moderately Dense Forest (MDF). + Very Dense Forests: The Lands with forest cover having a canopy density of 70% and more are called Very Dense Forests (VDF) 18amr! SRA ch LAY) siempre memmemremmmnce: CHAPTER - 3 ECOSYSTEM The portion of the Earth which sustains life is called the biosphere. The biosphere is vast and cannot be studied as a single entity. It is divided into many distinct functional units called an ecosystem. AN ECOSYSTEM , ‘An ecosystem is a system, or a group of interconnected elements, formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with their environment, Components of an Ecosystem In nature, several communities of organisms live together An ecosystem is referred to as the | and interact with each other as well as with their physical systems involving the habitation of local | environment as an ecological unit. It is called an flora and fauna. It is a subset of | ecosystem. A.G. Tansley coined the term ‘ecosystem’ in Biosphere, wherein various species, their | 1935. populations and communities interact with each other along with non-living things like land, sunlight, wind, humidity to name a few, called as abiotic elements, (whereas, the living things are called as biotic elements). These biotic and abiotic elements continuously produce and exchange materials. The interaction between them involves input, transfer and storage of energy and nutrients. However, as a result of these complex processes, the components of an ecosystem tend to attain a state of equilibrium, thereby becoming self-sustaining and controlled by limiting factors. Photosynthesis: The process begins when sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments in the plant. The plants use energy from sunlight to combine carbon dioxide from the atmosphere with water from the soil to imake carbohydrates, starches, and cellulose. This process converts the energy of sunlight into energy stored in chemical bonds with oxygen as a by-product. This stored energy is the direct or indirect source of energy for all organisms in the ecosystem. ‘A pond is an excellent example of an ecosystem. It includes inorganic aspects like Oxygen, Nitrogen, Water; organic compounds like Protein, Carbohydrates, Lipids; physical factors like temperature, pressure, humidity, Producers; Micro-Consumers and so on. Components of Ecosystem Abiotic pomponents Biotic components Phy: Inorganic substances Organic substances © Temperature Water Proteins © Humidity Oxygen Carbohydrates © Light Carbon dioxide Lipids * Atmospheri -al factors pressure Nitrogen Producers Consumers Decomposers _ Detritivores (Green plants) (Animals) (Microorganisms) 19ee VA STRAM & RAV] ES Ecosystem - Abiotic Components (Nonliving): The abiotic component can be grouped into the following three categories:- 1. Physical factors: Sunlight, temperature, rainfall, humidity and pressure. They sustain and limit the growth of organisms in an ecosystem. 2. Inorganic substances: Carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, water, rock, soll and other minerals. 3. Organic compounds: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and humic substances. They are the building blocks of living systems and therefore, link the biotic and abiotic components e Ecosystem - Biotic Components (Living): “The biotic factors with which an organism interacts depend on whether itis @ producer, a consumer oF @ decomposer. Their classification can be shown as follows * Humans are also biotic factors in ecosystems. Other organisms are affected by human actions, Producers: Producers are also known as | often in adverse ways. Autotrophs or ~—selffeeders. Producers manufacture the organic compounds that they use as sources of energy and nutrients. Most producers are green plants or algae that make organic compounds through photosynthesis. + We compete with some organisms for resources, prey on other organisms, and alter the environment of still others. | Consumers: Only producers can make their food. They also provide food for the The living components of the ecosystem which depend on producers for their nutrition are called consumers. All the animals and certain plants are included in this category. consumers an |e Primary consumers - All the herbivorous animals like rodents, cow, creomposers. The | elephants, deer, goats ete, which directly consume the plants re ale Mcaneors, are the | primary consumers. Amorg the aquatic animals, certain kinds offs, Producers the energy | Cfustaceans, Molluscs ote, which survive on phytoplankton are also Source was the entie | primary consumers. Herbivorous animals are important animals Caveystom, Organisms | because all other animal's We is dependent on these primary that get their energy by | consumers. feeding on other |, Secondary consumers - Carnivorous and omnivorous animals belong organisms are called |” {9 this category. Camivorous predate on herbivorous animals. Heterotroph. Based on | Qmnivorous animals eat herbivorous animals as well as plants. food preferences, they | Sparrow, Crow, Fox, Wolves, Cat, Dogs, Snakes etc. belong to this can be grouped into category. three broad catagories. «Tertiary consumers - They are strictly carnivorous animals that prey ¢ Herbivores (0.9. upon carnivores, herbivores, and omnivorous organisms. Lions, Tigers, cow, deer and rabbit | Vultures etc. are regarded at tertiary consumers. etc.) feed directly on plants Sl ee arate ae ESS] = Camivores are animals which eat other animals (e.g. lion, cat, dog ete.) and « Omnivores organisms feed upon both plants and animals e.g. human, pigs and sparrow. Detritus: Some consumers feed on living plants and animals. Others get their energy from dead plant and animal matter are called Detritus (Detrivores). They are also called Saprotrophs. The Detrvores are further divided into detritus feeders and decomposers. 20es VASIR AM & RAV) Chemosynthesis (a particular type of producers - chemosynthetic bacteria) + A few producers, including specialised bacteria, can extract inorganic compounds from the environment and convert them to organic nutrients in the absence of sunlight. This process is called chemosynthesis. + In some places, on the floor of the deep ocean where sunlight can never reach, hydrothermal vents pour out boiling water suffused with hydrogen sulphide gas. Specialised bacteria use the heat to convert this mixture into the nutrients they need, Parasites 7 Plants and animals that infect other living components of the ecosystem and survive on them are regarded as parasites. Various types of fungi, bacteria and a few flowering plants are parasitic. Several protozoans, insects and nematodes are also parasitic. Detritus feeders Decomposers ‘Scavenger (is an example of a consumer) . ‘Scavenging is a feeding behaviour in which an animal feeds | Scavengers role is vital for the on either dead animal or dead plant matter. Scavengers are | ecosystem as they contribute to the animals with scavenging habits. Scavengers do not spend | decomposition, while decomposers and energy to kill their prey, but they sense the smell of food on | detritus feeders are responsible for which they can feed. Vultures, Burying beetle, Raccoons, | completing the process. Jackals, and Hyenas are some prime examples for animal scavengers. Termites and earthworms are good examples of plant scavengers. TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS Ecosystems are classified as follows: (i) Natural Ecosystems: A natural ecosystem is the result of interactions between organisms and the environment. Other features of a natural ecosystem are- A natural ecosystem has a diverse aEe VASIRAM & RAV) amount of species and plants, Natural ecosystems are self-sustaining, it contains more natural factors and organisms, it is dependent on solar radiation e.g. forests, grasslands, oceans, lakes, rivers and deserts. It provides food, fuel, fodder and medicines. It is dependent on solar radiation and energy subsidies (alternative sources) such as wind, rain and tides. e.g tropical rain forests, tidal estuaries and coral reefs. (li) Man Made/Artificial Ecosystems: Dependent on solar energy-e.g. Agricultural fields and aquaculture ponds. Dependent on fossil fuel e.g. urban and industrial ecosystems. TROPHIC LEVEL Trophic levels are the feeding position in a food chain such as primary producers, herbivore, primary carnivore, etc. At the first trophic level, primary producers (plants, algae, and some bacteria) use solar energy to produce organic plant material through photosynthesis. Herbivores—animals that feed solely on plants—make up the second trophic level. Predators that eat herbivores comprise the third trophic level; if larger predators are present, they represent still higher trophic levels. Organisms that feed at several trophic levels (for example, a hawk that eats snake) are classified at the highest of the trophic levels at which they feed. Decomposers, which include bacteria, fungi, moulds, worms, and insects, break down wastes and dead organisms and return nutrients to the soil. The trophic level interaction involves the following three concepts ~ 1. Food Chain 2. Food Web 3, Ecological Pyramids How many trophic levels can an ecosystem support? The answer depends on several factors, including the amount of energy entering the ecosystem, energy loss between trophic levels, and the form, structure, and physiology of organisms at each level. FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM Ecosystems are a complex dynamic system. They perform certain functions. These are At higher trophic levels, predators generally are physically larger and are able to utilize a fraction of the energy that was produced at the level beneath them, so they have to forage over increasingly large areas to meet their caloric needs. Because of these energy losses, most terrestrial ecosystems have no more than five trophic levels, and marine ecosystems generally have no more than seven. This difference between terrestrial and marine ecosystems is likely due to differences in the fundamental characteristics of land and marine primary organisms. ‘+ Energy flow through the food chain + Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles) * Ecological succession or ecosystem development * Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or feedback control mechanisms. In an ecosystem, there are three functional components - inorganic constituents, organism and energy input. 22»y_—___EEEEELLA NRO TTT FUNCTION ~ ENERGY FLOW THROUGH ECOSYSTEM Food chains and energy flow are the functional properties of ecosystems which make them dynamic. The biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem are linked through them. Energy Flow Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients obtained from external sources. On average, about 10 percent of net energy production at one trophic level is passed on to the next level. How? Primary Productivity (1) Processes that reduce the energy transferred between |~« An écosystem's Gross Primary trophic levels include respiration, growth and Productivity (GPP) is the rate of the reproduction, defecation, and non-predatory death total amount of organic matter that it produces through photosynthesis. ‘© Net Primary Productivity (NPP) rate Quaternary describes the amount of energy that consumers remains available for plant growth after subtracting the fraction that | plants use for respiration. + Productivity in land ecosystems generally rises with temperature up to about 30°C, after which it declines, and is _ positively correlated with moisture. On land, primary productivity thus is highest in warm, wet zones in the tropics where tropical forest biomes are located. In contrast, desert scrub ecosystems have the lowest Productivity because their climates are extremely hot and dry. 4 + In the oceans, light and nutrients Herbivore Zooplankton are important controlling factors for 4 + productivity. As light penetrates only into the uppermost level of the ty eee f oceans, photosynthesis occurs in . surface and near-surface waters. Plont Phytoplankton Marine primary productivity is high A terrestrial food chain A marine food chain near coastlines and other areas where upwelling brings nutrients to the surface, promoting plankton (organisms that die but are not eaten by consumers). blooms. Among aquatic ecosystems, algal beds and coral reefs have the highest net primary production. (2) The low rate of energy transfer between trophic levels makes decomposers generally more important than producers in terms of energy flow. Decomposers process large amounts of organic materials and return nutrients to the ecosystem in inorganic forms, which are then taken up again by primary producers. Energy is not recycled during decomposition, but rather is released, mostly as heat. 23Ee en ay ECOLOGICAL BALANCE Ecological balance is a term used to describe the dynamic equilibrium between living organisms such as human being, plants, and animals as well as their environment. Photosynthesis that takes place in the ecosystem contributes to building a good environment that stabilises the coexistence of all ‘organisms. Harmonious relationships reflect a healthy and desirable ecological balance. Human being plays a key role to maintain ecological balance because they have the highest thinking capacity as compared to other living organisms. Sufficient food availability to all living organisms and their stability reflect the existence of ecological balance. Therefore, this balance is very important because it ensures survival, existence and stability of the environment. ‘Survival of all organisms is actualised due to ecological balance. Favourable ecosystem ensures that each organism thrives and multiply as expected. Ecological balance Is also important because it leads to the continued existence of the organisms. For example, human activities such as farming and resources exploitation are checked to prevent excessive destruction of the forests. Deforestation leads to drought. Drought reduces food production resulting in insufficient food. Insufficient food leads to starvation and later death occurs, hence reducing the existence of some species. Besides, ecological enhances a stable environment that is free from ecological imbalances. This calls | for collective efforts to ensure a stable environment is created. Human activities influence | environmental stability. Tree planting and reduced deforestation rate prevent undesirable climate | change. Control of excessive wild animals’ inhabitant maintains desired population growth. Therefore a human can contribute positively to create and maintain ecological balance. | FOOD CHAIN The simplest way to describe the flux of energy through ecosystems is as a food chain in which energy passes from one trophic level to the next, without factoring in more complex [The idea to relationships between individual species. Some very simple ecosystems may consist | apply the food of a food chain with only a few trophic levels. Prana ag A food chain is a sequence of who eats whom in a biological community (an | ecology and ecosystem) to obtain nutrition. It is a sequence of organisms that feed on one | to analyse its another. consequences : : was first ‘A food chain starts with the primary energy source, usually the sun. The next link in proposed by the chain is an organism that makes its own food from the primary energy source. For Charles Elton. example, photosynthetic plants that make their own food from sunlight by photosynthesis and chemosynthetic bacteria that make their food energy from chemicals in hydrothermal vents. These are called autotrophs or primary producers. Next, come organisms that eat the autotrophs; these organisms are called herbivores or primary consumers. For example, a grasshopper that eats grass, The next link in the chain is animals that eat herbivores, called secondary consumers. For example, a frog or rat that eat grasshoppers. In tum, these animals are eaten by larger predators, called tertiary consumers. For example, a snake that eats rats. Tertiary consumers are eaten by quaternary consumers. For example a hawk that eats snakes. The arrows in a food chain show the flow of energy, from the sun or hydrothermal vent to a top predator. As the energy flows from organism to organism, energy is lost at each step. FOOD WEB Trophic levels in an ecosystem are not linear; rather they are interconnected and make a food web. All of the interconnected and overlapping food chains in an ecosystem make up a food web. 24