NOTES-18EME15_25

ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
18EME15 /18EME25
ATME COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
VISION
Development of academically excellent, culturally vibrant, socially responsible and globally
competent human resources.
MISSION
To keep pace with advancements in knowledge and make the students competitive and
capable at the global level.
To create an environment for the students to acquire the right physical, intellectual,
emotional and moral foundations and shine as torch bearers of tomorrow's society.
To strive to attain ever-higher benchmarks of educational excellence.
DEPARTMENT OFMECHANICAL ENGINEERING
VISION
To impart excellent technical education in mechanical engineering to develop technically

competent, morally upright and socially responsible mechanical engineering professionals.
MISSION:
To provide an ambience to impart excellent technical education in

mechanical engineering.
To ensure state of-the- art facility for learning, skill development and research
in mechanical engineering.
To engage students in co-curricular and extra-curricular activities to impart social

& ethical values and imbibe leadership quality.
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’S)
After successful completion of program, the graduates will be
PEO 1: Graduates will be able to have successful professional career in the allied areas
and be proficient to perceive higher education.
PEO 2: Graduates will attain the technical ability to understand the need analysis, design,
manufacturing, quality changing and analysis of the product.
PEO 3: Work effectively, ethically and socially responsible in allied fields of mechanical
engineering.
PEO 4: Work in a team to meet personal and organizational objectives and to contribute
to the development of the society in large.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’S)
The Mechanical engineering program students will attain:
PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences
PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems

and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations
PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions
PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations
PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice
PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development
PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice
PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings
PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions
PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments
PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’S)
After successful completion of program, the graduates will be
PSO 1: To comprehend the knowledge of mechanical engineering and apply them to identify,
formulate and address the mechanical engineering problems using latest technology in a
effective manner.
PSO 2: To work successfully as a mechanical engineer in team, exhibit leadership quality and
provide viable solution to industrial and societal problems.
PSO 3: To apply modern management techniques and manufacturing techniques to produce

products of high quality at optimal cost.
PSO 4: To exhibit honesty, integrity, and conduct oneself responsibly, ethically and legally,
holding the safety and welfare of the society paramount.
Contact Hours Total Hrs/
Course Code Course Title Core/Elective Prerequisite
L T P Sessions
Elements of
18ME15/25 Mechanical Core BASIC SCIENCE 4 - - 50
Engineering
Course objectives: This course (18ME15/25) will enable students to:
CLO1: Learn the fundamental concepts of energy, its sources and conversion.
Course CLO2: Comprehend the basic concepts of thermodynamics.
Objectives CLO3: Understand the concepts of boilers, turbines, pumps, internal combustion engines and
refrigeration.
CLO4: Distinguish different metal joining techniques.
CLO5: Enumerate the knowledge of working with conventional machine tools, their specifications
Topics Covered as per Syllabus
MODULE-I
Sources of Energy: Introduction and application of energy sources like fossil fuels, Hydel, Solar, Wind, Nuclear fuels
and Bio-fuels. Environmental issues like Global Warming and Ozone Depletion
Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics: Introduction, States, Concepts of work, Heat, Temperature, Zeroth law, 1st
Law, 2nd Law and 3rd Laws of thermodynamics. Concept of Internal energy, Enthalpy and entropy (Simple
Numericals)
Steam: Formation of Steam and Thermodynamic properties of steam (Simple Numericals)
(RBT: L1, L2 and L3)
MODULE-2
Boilers: Introduction to Boilers, Classification, Lancashire boiler, Babcock and Wilcox Boiler, Introduction to Boiler
mounting and accessories (No sketches).
Turbines: Hydraulic Turbines- Classification and specification, Principles and operation of Pelton Wheel Turbine,
Francis Turbine and Kaplan Turbine (Elementary Treatment only)
Hydraulic Pumps: Pumps, Introduction, Classification and specification of Pumps, Reciprocating pump and
Centrifugal Pump, Concept of Cavitation and Priming.
MODULE - 3
Internal Combustion Engines
Classification, IC engines parts, 2 and 4 stroke petrol and 4 stroke diesel engines. P-V diagrams of Otto and Diesel
cycles. Simple problems on indicated power, brake power, indicated thermal efficiency, brake thermal efficiency,
mechanical efficiency and specific fuel consumption.
Refrigeration and Air conditioning
Refrigeration – Definitions – Refrigerating effect, Ton of Refrigeration, Ice making capacity, COP, relative COP and
Unit of refrigeration. Refrigerants, Properties of refrigerants, List of commonly used refrigerants, Principle and
working of vapor compression refrigeration and vapor absorption refrigeration. Domestic refrigerator, Principles and
applications of air conditioners, window and split air conditioners.
MODULE-4
PROPERTIES, COMPOSITION AND INDUSTRAIL APPLICATIONS OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS:
Metals- Ferrous: Cast Iron, Tool steels and stainless steels.
Non-Ferrous: Aluminum, brass, bronze
Polymers: Thermoplastics and thermo setting polymers.
Ceramics: Glass, optical fiber glass, cements
Composites- Fiber reinforced composites, Metal Matrix composites.
Smart Materials: Piezoelectric materials, Shape memory alloys, Semiconductors and insulators.
JOINING PROCESSES: SOLDERING, BRAZING AND WELDING
Definitions, Classification and Methods of soldering, Brazing and welding
Brief description of arc welding, Oxy-acetylene welding, TIG welding and MIG welding
BELT DRIVES
Open & crossed belt drives, Definitions- slip, creep, velocity ratio, derivations for length of belt in open and crossed
belt drive, ratio of tension in flat belt drives, advantages and disadvantages of V belts and timing belts, simple
numerical problems.
GEAR DRIVES:
Types- Spur, helical, bevel, worm and rack and pinion, Velocity ratio, advantages and disadvantages over belt drives,
simple numerical problems on velocity ratio
MODULE-5
Lathe: Principle Of Working of a Center Lathe, Parts of a Lathe. Operations on Lathe- Turning, Facing, Knurling, Thread
Cutting, Drilling, Taper Turning by Tailstock Offset Method and Compound Slide Swiveling Method. Specification of Lathe
Milling Machine: Principle of Milling, Types of Milling Machines, Working Of Horizontal and Vertical Milling Machines.
Milling Processes -P lane Milling, End Milling, Slot Milling, Angular Milling, Form Milling, Straddle Milling, and Gang
Milling
(Layout of sketches of the above machines needs to be dealt. Sketches need to be used only for explaining the operations
performed on the machines)
Introduction to Advanced Manufacturing Systems
Computer Numerical Control (CNC): Introduction, Components of CNC, Open Loop and Closed Loop Systems,
advantages of CNC, CNC Machining centers and Turning Centers.
Robots: Robot Anatomy, Joints and Links, Common Robot Configurations, Applications of Robots in material handling,
Processing and assembly and inspection.
List of Text Books
1. V.K.Manglik, “Elements of Mechanical Engineering”, PHI Publications, 2013. (Module-1,2,4,5)
2. MikellP.Groover, “Automation, Production Systems & CIM”, 3rd Edition, PHI (Module
3. K.R.Gopalkrishna, “A text Book of Elements of Mechanical Engineering”- Subhash Publishers, Bangalore.
(Module -1,2,3,4,5)
List of Reference Books
1. S.TrymbakaMurthy, “A Text Book of Elements of Mechanical Engineering”, 4th Edition 2006, Universities Press
(India) Pvt Ltd, Hyderabad.
2. K.P.Roy, S.K.HajraChoudhury, Nirjhar Roy, “Elements of Mechanical
Engineering”, Media Promoters & Publishers Pvt Ltd,Mumbai,7 th Edition,2012
3. Pravin Kumar, “Basic Mechanical Engineering”, 2013 Edition, Pearson.
Energy Resources and Steam
MODULE-1 ENERGY AND STEAM
Objective:
• To understand importance of energy for country economical growth.
• To study the different energy resources like fuels, solar, hydro, wind energy etc.
To understand the difference between Renewable sources of energy & Non-
renewable energy sources
Contents
1.1 Energy Sources:
1.2 Renewable sources of energy
1.3 Non-renewable energy sources
1.4 Fuels
1.5 Solar Enegy
1.6 Hydroelectric power plant
1.7 Wind Energy
1.8 Nuclear Energy.
1.9 Steam
1.10 Boilers
ENERGY
Energy is an fundamental concept in physics, with applications throughout the
natural sciences.Can you imagine life without lights, fans, cars, computers and television
or, of fetching water from the well and river? This is what life would have been like had
man not discovered the uses of energy – both renewable and nonrenewable sources.
Energy is the driving force for humans and machines, without energy the whole
world will comes to stand still (halt).
The total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified in various ways.
For example, it is sometimes convenient to distinguish kinetic energy from potential
energy. It may also be convenient to distinguish gravitational energy, electrical energy,
thermal energy, and other forms. These classifications overlap; for instance thermal
energy usually consists partly of kinetic and partly of potential energy
Energy is the primary and most universal measure of all kinds of work by human
beings and nature. Most people use the word energy for input to their bodies or to the
machines.
1.1 ENERGY SOURCES
The energy resources available can be divided in to
Primary energy resources: These can be defined as sources, which provide a
net supply of energy. Coal, oil, uranium etc. are examples of this type. The primary fuels
only can accelerate growth but their supply is limited. It becomes very essential to use
these fuels sparingly. Primary fuels contribute considerably to the energy supply.
Secondary energy resources: Secondary fuels produce no net energy. Though it

may be necessary for the economy, these may not yield net energy. Secondary sources
are like solar, wind & water energy.
1.1.1 Renewable sources of energy

Energy sources which are continuously produced in nature and are essentially
inexhaustible are called renewable energy sources.
4. Direct solar energy

5. Wind energy
6. Tidal energy
7. Hydel energy
8. Ocean thermal energy
9. Bio energy
10. Geo thermal energy
1.1.2 Non-renewable energy sources
Energy sources which have been accumulated over the ages and not quickly
replenishable when they are exhausted
1. Fossil fuels. 2. Nuclear fuels 3. Heat traps
1.1.3
1.
Advantages of renewable energy sources
Non exhaustible.
2.
Can be matched in scale to the need and can deliver quality energy.
3.
Can be built near the load point.
4.
Flexibility in the design of conversion systems.
5.
Local self sufficiency by harnessing locally available renewable energy.
6.
Except biomass, all other sources are pollution free.
1.1.4 Disadvantages
1.
Intermittent nature of availability of energy such as solar, wind, tidal etc. is a major
setback in the continuous supply of energy.
2.
Solar energy received at the earth is dependent on local atmosphere conditions, time of
the day, part of the year etc.
3.
Sources such as wind, tidal etc. are concentrated only in certain regions.
1.2 Calorific Value of Fuels

The efficiency of fuel is expressed in terms of calorific value.
Calorific value of a fuel is defined as the total quantity of heat liberated by
burning a unit mass or volume of fuel completely.
Higher Calorific Value (H.C.V.):

The Higher Calorific Value of a fuel is defined as the total heat
liberated by complete combustion of one kg /litre /m3 of fuel, including the
heat recovered from condensed water vapour.
Lower Calorific Value (L.C.V.):
The Lower Calorific Value of a fuel is defined as the heat liberated by complete
combustion of one kg /litre /m3 of fuel, excluding the heat recovered from
condensed water vapour.
L.C.V. = H.C.V. - (mass of H2O x Latent Heat)
1.3 Combustion
Principle of Combustion
Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the
production of heat, or heat and light. Complete combustion of a fuel is
possible only in the presence of an adequate supply of oxygen.
Oxygen (O2) is one of the most common elements on earth making

up 20.9% of our air. Rapid fuel oxidation results in large amounts of
heat. Solid or liquid fuels must be changed to a gas before they will
burn. Usually heat is required to change liquids or solids into gases.
Fuel gases will burn in their normal state if enough air is present.
Most of the 79% of air (that is not oxygen) is nitrogen, with traces
of other elements. Nitrogen is considered to be a temperature
reducing dilutant that must be present to obtain the oxygen required
for combustion.
Nitrogen reduces combustion efficiency by absorbing heat from the
combustion of fuels and diluting the flue gases. This reduces the
heat available for transfer through the heat exchange surfaces. It also
increases the volume of combustion by-products, which then have to
travel through the heat exchanger and up the stack faster to allow the
introduction of additional fuel
air mixture.
This nitrogen also can combine with oxygen (particularly at high

flame temperatures) to produce oxides of nitrogen (NOx), which are
toxic pollutants.
Carbon, hydrogen and sulphur in the fuel combine with oxygen in
the air to form carbon dioxide, water vapour and sulphur dioxide,
releasing 8084 kcals, 28922 kcals & 2224 kcals of heat respectively.
Under certain conditions, Carbon may also combine with Oxygen to
form Carbon Monoxide, which results in the release of a smaller
quantity of heat (2430 kcals/kg of carbon) Carbon burned to CO2
will produce more heat per pound of fuel than when CO or smoke
are produced.
C + O2 → CO 2 + 8084 kCals/kg of Carbon

2C + O2 → 2 CO + 2430 kCals/kg of Carbon
2H 2 + O2 → 2H2O + 28,922 kCals/kg of Hydrogen
S + O2 → SO2 + 2,224 kCals/kg of Sulphur
Each kilogram of CO formed means a loss of 5654 kCal of heat. (8084-2430).
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS:

The fossil fuels have been classified according to their:
1. State of occurrence
2. State of aggregation.
According to the state of occurrence, we have:
(a) Natural or primary fuels, which are found in nature. E.g.
wood, peat, coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.
(b) Artificial (or) secondary fuels are those which are prepared from the primary fuels.
E.g., charcoal, coke, kerosene oil, petrol, coal gas, oil gas, producer
gas, blast furnace gas etc.
The second classification is based upon their state of aggregation like: (a) solid fuels;
(b) liquid fuels; (c) gaseous fuels.
Fig .1 Classification of fuels
1.4.1 SOLID FUELS

Solid fuels are of two types
(1) Natural Solid fuels
(2) Artificial Solid fuels
(1) Natural Solid Fuels: Natural solid fuels are of following types;
(a) Wood
(b) Peat
(c) Lignite or Brown Coal
(d) Bituminous Coal
(e) Anthracite
(a) Wood:
Mainly consists of Carbon, Hydrogen and water.

Its Calorific Value varies according to the kind of wood & water content in it.
It is not used as commercial fuel.
It is raw material for other solid fuels.
(b) Peat:
It is first stage which is derived from wood & vegetable matters & is derived from
earth.
It contains 20% to 30% of water.
It burns without smoke or soot formation.
Its calorific value is approx. 14,500 KJ/kg.
(c) Lignite or Brown Coal:
It is very soft, inferior quality coal.

It contains 60% or more Carbon.
It also contains 15% to 20% moisture.
It is used as low grade fuel.
It is non - caking type of coal.
It burns with large smoky flame having C.V. equal to 21,000 kJ/kg.
(d) Bituminous Coal:
It is soft & shiny black in appearance.

It contains about 70% Carbon & 20% - 30% Volatile matter.
It burns with long yellow and smoky flame.
It may be caking or non - caking type.
Its calorific value is approx. 31,500 KJ/kg.
(e) Anthracite Coal
It is very hard & brittle.

It contains 90% or more Carbon.
It also contains 8% to 10% volatile matter.
It is used as High grade fuel.
It is non - caking type of coal.
It does not give smell when burning.
It’s Calorific. Value is approx. 36,000 kJ/kg.
(2) Artificial Solid Fuels: Artificial Solid Fuels are of following types;
(a) Wood Charcoal
(b) Coke
(c) Briquetted Coal
(d) Pulverised Coal
(a) Wood Charcoal

It is obtained by burning wood in retorts with insufficient air to a temp. of 310ºC.
It contains 80% to 90% Carbon.
It can burn easily without smoke.
Its Calorific Value is approx. 28,000 kJ/kg.
(b) Coke:
It is made by burning Bituminous coal by driving out its volatile elements in absence of
air.
It is hard, brittle & porous.
The coke formation process is called
Carbonization.
It contains 85% to 95% Carbon.
Its Calorific Value is approx. 32,500 kJ/kg.
(c) Briquetted Coal:
It consists of finely ground coal mixed with proper binder and pressed
together into Briquettes(Blocks).
This increases heating value of coal & decreases the losses.

(d) Pulverised Coal:
It is powder form of coal.

It is formed by crushing the coal.
This fine particle atomised coal is burnt by supplying the air to it.
Low grade fuel is efficiently burnt by pulverising it.
It gives better control, complete combustion with less excess air, higher flame temp.
etc.
QUID FUELS:
1.4.2 LIQUID FUELS:
Liquid fuels are of two types;
(1) Natural Liquid fuels
(2) Artificial Liquid fuels
(1) Natural Liquid Fuels: Natural Liquid fuels are of following types;
(a) Crude petroleum
(b) Fossile fuels.
(a) Crude Petroleum:

It is obtained from natural reservoirs in the earth’s crust through wells.
Distillation is the process of heating the
crude petroleum and condensing the vapour thus formed at various temp. and
pressures.
By Distillation of crude oil, petrol, kerosene, diesel, fuel oils, tar etc… are
obtained.
(b) Fossile Fuels:
Due to reactions of Vegetable matters & animals embodied with earth, after very
long period at high pressure and temperature fossil fuels are formed.
(2) Artificial Liquid Fuels: Artificial Liquid fuels are of following types;
(a) Hydrocarbons
(b) Vegetable matter (Alcohol)
(a) Hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbon is a substance having Carbon & Hydrogen as basic constituents.

Most of artificial liquid fuels are obtained from mixture of different
Hydrocarbons.
The main Hydrocarbons are;
(1) Paraffins (CnH2n+2)
(2) Olefines (CnH2n) /Ring compound
(3) Naphthenes (CnH2n) /Chain compound
(4) Aeromatics or Benzenes (CnH2n - 6)
(b) Vegetable matter (Alcohol)
(a) Petrol:
Petrol or Gasoline is obtained by distillation of crude oil from 65º to 220ºC.

Its Calorific value is 44,250 kJ/kg.
It is used for light petrol engines, aviation and small industrial installation.
(b) Kerosene/Paraffin oil:
Kerosene or Peraffin oil is obtained by distillation of crude oil from 220º

to 345ºC.
It is heavier and less volatile than petrol.
It is used for heavy road traction, tractors and internal combustion engines.
(c) Fuel oil:
Fuel oil is obtained by distillation of crude oil from 345º to 470ºC.

It is heavy and non - volatile.
(d) Alcohol:
It is formed by fermentation of vegetable matter.

Widely used as commercial fuel.
Its calorific value is 26,800 kJ/kg.
1.4.3 GASEOUS FUELS:

Gaseous fuels are of two types;
(1) Natural Gaseous fuels
(2) Artificial Gaseous fuels

(1) Natural Gas:

Natural gas consists of mainly methane & ethane, propane and also oxygen,
Carbon monoxide, Nitrogen, and Carbon dioxide etc.
3 3
Its calorific value varies from 35,500 kJ/m to 46,000 kJ/m .
(2) Artificial Gaseous Fuel:
Artificial gaseous fuels are prepared gases of fixed composition like

acetylene(C2H2), methane(CH4), ethylene(C2H4) etc…
The artificial industrial gases are Coal gas, Producer gas, Water gas, Mond gas, Blast
furnace gas, Cock - oven gas, Marsh gas etc…
(i)Coal Gas/Illuminating Gas:
It is obtained by distilling coal in retorts. It mainly consists of Hydrogen, CO, CO2,

CH4, Nitrogen etc…
3 3
Its calorific value varies from 21,000 kJ/m to 25,000 kJ/m .
(ii) Producer Gas:
It is obtained by passing insufficient air through a bed of incandescent coke or

charcoal in gas producer.
It consists of CO, CO2,H2, N2
It is cheaply available.
Its calorific value varies from 4,200 kJ/m3 to 6,600 kJ/m3.
(iii)Water Gas/Blue Gas:

It is obtained by passing steam through
Incandescent bed of cock or coal containing carbon.
It burns with blue flame and hence also called blue gas.
(iv) Mond gas:

It is obtained by injecting large quantity of steam in producer.
It is used in gas engines.
Its calorific value is 5,800 kJ/m3.
(v) Blast - furnace Gas:

It is obtained as by-product in the production of Pig iron.

It is mixture of H2, CO, CO2, N2 and CH4.
It contains considerable amount of dust in it.
(vi) Coke - Oven Gas:

It is produced by high temp. carbonization of bituminous coal.
It is by - product from coke oven.
It is mixture of methane & hydrogen.
(vii) Marsh Gas:

It is a simple Hydrocarbon (Methane)
produced in nature by the decay of vegetable matters under water.
(viii) Oil Gas:

Produced by vaporisation and thermal cracking of oils and steam.
Its calorific value is 17,000 to 25,000 kJ/m3.
1.4.4 Requirements of a Good Fuel
It should have low ignition temperature.

It should have high calorific value.
It should freely burn with high combustion efficiency.
It should not produce harmful gases or smoke.
It must produce less ash.
It must be cheaper and should be easily available.
Its storage must be easy.
Its transportation & handling should be easy. It

should not react with material of furnace.
1.5 Solar energy

Solar energy is the most readily available source of energy. It does not belong to
anybody and is, therefore, free. It is also the most important of the non-conventional
sources of energy because it is non-polluting and, therefore, helps in lessening the
greenhouse effect. The sun constantly delivers 1.36 kW of energy per square meter to
the earth. The energy which reaches the earth surface contains both beam radiation and
diffused radiation. The radiation reaches the ground directly from the sun is called beam
radiation. Diffuse radiation is that solar radiation received from the sun after its direction
has been changed by reflection and scattering by the atmosphere.
The problem with solar radiation is estimation of diffused radiation & beam
radiation, both radiations are not constant. It keeps on changes every minute,hour,day
month and year. Therefore it is difficult to design a solar device which will suit to our
requirements. To harvest solar energy we need solar collectors, these collectors are
designed to absorb and store the solar energy, these devices should work more
effectively in varying temperature conditions.
1.5.1 Solar radiation
The distribution of solar radiation as a function of the wavelength is called the

solar spectrum, which consists of a continuous emission with some superimposed line
structures. The Sun’s total radiation output is approximately equivalent to that of a
blackbody at 5776 K. The solar radiation in the visible and infrared spectrum fits closely
with the blackbody emission at this temperature. However, the ultraviolet (UV) region
(o0.4 mm)of solar radiation deviates greatly from the visible and infrared regions in
terms of the equivalent blackbody temperature of the Sun. In the interval 0.1-0.4 mm,
the equivalent blackbody temperature of the sun is generally less than 5776 K with a
minimum of about 4500 K at about 0.16 mm. The deviations seen in the solar spectrum
are a result of emission from the no isothermal solar atmosphere.
1.5.2
Solar
const
ant
The
solar
constant is the amount of solar radiation received outside the Earth’s atmosphere on a
surface normal to the incident radiation per unit time and per unit area at the Earth’s
mean distance from the Sun. The solar constant is an important value for the studies of
global energy balance and climate. Reliable measurements of solar constant can be made
only from space and a more than 20-year record has been obtained based on overlapping
satellite observations.
Solar energy harvesting
1.5.3 Liquid Flat plate collectors

The flat plate collector is a device used to absorb and store solar energy. The
stored energy is used for domestic, agriculture or industrial applications. The
construction of flat plate collector is very simple.
The flat plate collector consists of a metal sheet (absorber surface) exposed to the
solar radiation. This sheet absorbs both beam and diffused solar radiation. The sheet is
coated with black paint. Fluid carrying pipes are connected to back side of the metal
sheet. The liquid most commonly used is water. The lower side of metal sheet is covered
with insulating material. The transparent cover (glass) is fixed above the metal sheet,
which reduces the heat loss due to convection & radiation. The flat plate collector
efficiency is good at medium and maximum temperatures, but at low temperature the
efficiency is very low. The flat plate collectors are designed for output temperatures
ranging from 60º C to 100º C.
Fig. 2 Liquid Flat plate collectors

1.5.4 Solar pond
A solar pond is a body of water that collects and stores solar energy. Solar energy will
warm a body of water (that is exposed to the sun), but the water loses its heat unless
some method is used to trap it. Water warmed by the sun expands and rises as it
becomes less dense. Once it reaches the surface, the water loses its heat to the airthrough
convection, or evaporates, taking heat with it. The colder water, which is heavier, moves
down to replace the warm water, creating a natural convective circulation that mixes the
water and dissipates the heat. The design of solar ponds reduces either convection or
evaporation in order to store the heat collected by the pond. They can operate in almost
any climate.
A solar pond can store solar heat much more efficiently than a body of water of the same
size because the salinity gradient prevents convection currents. Solar radiation entering
the pond penetrates through to the lower layer, which contains concentrated salt solution.
The temperature in this layer rises since the heat it absorbs from the sunlight is unable to
move upwards to the surface by convection. Solar heat is thus stored in the lower layer
of the pond .
Working Principle
The solar pond works on a very simple principle. It is well-known that water or air is
heated they become lighter and rise upward. Similarly, in an ordinary pond, the sun’s
rays heat the water and the heated water from within the pond rises and reaches the top
but loses the heat into the atmosphere. The net result is that the pond water remains at
the atmospheric temperature. The solar pond restricts this tendency by dissolving salt in
the bottom layer of the pond making it too heavy to rise . You can see a shematic view
of a solar pond in Figure 3.
3 Schematic View of a Solar Pond
The solar pond possesses a thermal storage capacity spanning the seasons. The surface
area of the pond affects the amount of solar energy it can collect. The bottom of the pond
is generally lined with a durable plastic liner made from material such as black
polythene and hypalon reinforced with nylon mesh. This dark surface at the bottom of
the pond increases the absorption of solar radiation. Salts like magnesium chloride,
sodium chloride or sodium nitrate are dissolved in the water, the concentration being
densest at the bottom (20% to 30%) and gradually decreasing to almost zero at the top.
Typically, a salt gradient solar pond consists of three zones .
An upper convective zone of clear fresh water that acts as solar collector/receiver and
which is relatively the most shallow in depth and is generally close to ambient
temperature, gradient which serves as the non-convective zone which is much thicker
and occupies more than half the depth of the pond. Salt concentration and temperature
increase with depth, A lower convective zone with the densest salt concentration,
serving as the heat storage zone. Almost as thick as the middle non-convective zone, salt
concentration and temperatures are nearly constant in this zone .
When solar radiation strikes the pond, most of it is absorbed by the surface at the bottom
of the pond. The temperature of the dense salt layer therefore increases. If the pond
contained no salt, the bottom layer would be less dense than the top layer as the heated
water expands. The less dense layer would then rise up and the layers would mix. But
the salt density difference keeps the ‘layers’ of the solar pond separate. The denser salt
water at the bottom prevents the heat being transferred to the top layer of fresh water by
natural convection, due to which the temperature of the lower layer may rise to as much
as 95°C .
Fig. 5 El Paso Solar Pond
1.6 Solar photovoltaic(PV) systems

Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar
radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic
effect. Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels composed of a number of
solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Solar photovoltaics power generation has
long been seen as a clean sustainable energy technology which draws upon the planet’s
most plentiful and widely distributed renewable energy source – the sun. The direct
conversion of sunlight to electricity occurs without any moving parts or environmental
emissions during operation. It is well proven, as photovoltaic systems have now been
used for fifty years in specialized applications, and grid-connected systems have been in
use for over twenty years .
In 2013, its fast-growing capacity increased by 38 percent to a running total of 139 GW,
worldwide. This is sufficient to generate at least 160 terawatt hours (TWh) or about 0.85
percent of the electricity demand on the planet. China, followed by Japan and the United
States, is now the fastest growing market, while Germany remains the world's largest
producer, contributing almost 6 percent to its national electricity demands.
Solar photovoltaics is now, after hydro and wind power, the third most important
renewable energy source in terms of globally installed capacity. More than 100 countries
use solar PV. Installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with
farming and grazing) or built into the roof or walls of a building (either building-
integrated photovoltaics or simply rooftop).
Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and
sophistication, the cost of photovoltaics has declined steadily since the first solar cells
were manufactured, and the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) from PV is competitive
with conventional electricity sources in an expanding list of geographic regions. Net
metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated
electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries. With current
technology, photovoltaics recoup the energy needed to manufacture them in 1.5 (in
Southern Europe) to 2.5 years (in Northern Europe).
Mechanism of generation
The solar cell is composed of a P-type semiconductor and an N-type semiconductor.
Solar light hitting the cell produces two types of electrons, negatively and positively
charged electrons in the semiconductors. Negatively charged (-) electrons gather around
the N-type semiconductor while positively charged (+) electrons gather around the P-
type semiconductor. When you connect loads such as a light bulb, electric current flows
between the two electrodes.
Fig.6 Solar PV system

1.7 Wind energy
Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of atmospheric
air. It has been used for hundreds of years for sailing, grinding grain, and for irrigation.
Wind energy systems convert this kinetic
energy to more useful forms of power. Wind energy systems for irrigation and milling
th
have been in use since ancient times and since the beginning of the 20 century it is
being used to generate electric power. Windmills for water pumping have been installed
in many countries particularly in the rural areas.
Wind can be used to do work. The kinetic energy of the wind can be changed into other
forms of energy, either mechanical energy or electrical energy.
Advantages of wind energy.

Wind is free, wind farms need no fuel.
Produces no waste or greenhouse gases.
The land beneath can usually still be used for farming.
A good method of supplying energy to remote areas.
Disadvantage of wind energy

The wind energy available in dilute form, hence bigger size energy conversion machines
are required.
Wind energy systems are noisy in operation.
Large space is required.
High initial cost.
High maintenance cost.
Multi blade wind mill

The multi blade wind mill is the oldest one which consists of 12 to 20 blades.
These blades are made of metal sheet or cloth. The multi blade wind mill is bulky and
heavy, but develops huge torque to drive pump or to generate electricity.
Fig. 7 Sail type wind mill
Sail type wind mill
The sail type wind mill has 3 to 4 wings. These wings are generally made of cloth hence
the weight of these wind mills are less. Each wing have the shape of a triangle. This
wind mill is used for light loads.
Propeller type wing mill In this type two rotors are connected to a rotor. The rotor is
connected to a generator through a set up gear box. The blades are made of metal. The
cost of the blades are too high, hence the number of blades are restricted to two numbers
only. Rotors with more than 3 to 4 blades will develop more torque than two blades.
Darries rotor
Savonius rotor is a vertical shaft wind mill, this requires less structural support.
The components like gear box and generator are located at ground level.The horizontal
axis wind mill will react to wind from any direction. This wind mill will develop high
initial torque, and develops lesser power output per given rotor size.
Fig.8 Darries rotor
It has two or three thin curved (egg beater) blades with airfoil cross section. The
blades of Darries rotor are made lighter than propeller type wind mill. When rotating,
these airfoil blades provide a torque about the central shaft with response to a wind
stream. The advantages of darries rotor wind mill are high speed, high efficiency and
low cost.
1.8 Hydro Power

When it rains in hills and mountains, the water becomes streams and rivers that
run down to the ocean. The moving or falling water can be used to do work. Energy,
you'll remember is the ability to do work. So moving water, which has kinetic energy,
can be used to make electricity. Today, moving water can also be used to make
electricity.
Hydroelectric power uses the kinetic energy of moving water to make electricity.
Dams can be built to stop the flow of a river. Water behind a dam often forms a reservoir
Like the picture of Shasta Dam in Northern California pictured on the right. Dams are
also built across larger rivers but no reservoir is made. The river is simply sent through a
hydroelectric power plant or powerhouse.
1.8.1 Hydro power plant

The water behind the dam flows through the intake and into a pipe called a
penstock. The water pushes against blades in a turbine, causing them to turn.
The turbine spins a generator to produce electricity. The electricity can then
travel over long distance electric lines to your home, to your school, to factories and
businesses.
Hydro power today can be found in the mountainous areas of states where there are
lakes and reservoirs and along rivers.
Fig.9a Hydro power plant

Fig.9b Hydro power plant
Elements of hydro power station
Reservoir: The reservoir is used to store ample of water for power generation.
The dam is a massive concrete structure which is built across the reservoir. The concrete
structure will block the flow of water out of reservoir. The sluice gates are built in
concrete structure which can be opened or closed to allow the water out of reservoir.
Dam: Controls the flow of water and increases the elevation to create the head. The
reservoir that is formed is, in effect, stored energy.
Generator: Connects to the turbine and rotates to produce the electrical energy.
Penstock : The water from the reservoir to the power house is carried through pipe lines
is called as penstock. The penstock may be a concrete pipe or metal pile.
Draft tube: The conical shaped passageway downstream of the turbine that slows the
water exiting the turbine runner and allows uniform recovery of water pressure between
the runner and the tailrace .
Surge tank: hydraulic structure designed to control pressure and flow fluctuations in a
penstock or tunnel. It functions as a standpipe and a quick-acting reservoir that
temporarily stores or releases water to the penstock.
Tailrace: The channel which directs water flow away from the powerhouse after passing
through the generating turbines.
1.9 Nuclear Energy

The depletion of natural resources like crude oil, natural gas and coal, this leads
to invention of alternative source of energy for survival. Uranium is the main element
required to run a nuclear reactor where energy is extracted. Nuclear fission or fusion
process produce tremendous amount of heat energy. The energy released during nuclear
reaction is utilized to generate electricity.
Nuclear fission: Nuclear fission is the process, where a heavy nucleus splits into
two fragments of more or less of equal mass.
Neutron + Heavy nucleus → Fission fragments + Neutrons ( 2 to 3 ) + energy

235 1 137 97 1
92U + 0N → 56Ba + 56Kr + 20N + Energy
(The energy released by fission of I gram of U-235 is equal to that due to
10
combustion of 50 million tons of coal ; it is about 8.5 x 10 J.)
In the above reaction uranium-235 is used as fuel, which is available in nature.
The other reactor fuels are uranium-233 and plutonium-239 Which are prepared
artificially.
The fission reaction

releases not only energy,
but also the emissions of
neutrons. Two
or three neutrons are
emitted on the average per nucleus undergoing fission. The emitted neutrons can cause
fissions in additional nuclei, thus liberating more neutrons which can cause further
fissions.
Nuclear fusion:
Fusion energy is a form of nuclear energy released by the fusion (combustion) of
two light nuclei( i.e. nuclei of low mass ) to produce heavier mass.
1 4
41H → 2He + 2+1 e0
Parts of a nuclear reactor

A nuclear reactor is a device which controls the nuclear fission chain reaction to
harness nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. A nuclear reactor which is used t generate
electricity, is called a nuclear power plant.
In nuclear power plant, the energy released by fission is used produce
superheated steam. This turns a turbine which in turn operates an electric generator.
A nuclear power plant has the following components.
i) The fissionable material of nuclear fuel
ii) The control rods
iii) The pressure vessel
iv) Cooling system
v) Heat exchanger.
In a nuclear power plant nuclear power plant nuclear fuel in the form of pellets
are enclosed in several tubular claddings of steel or aluminum. This is called fuel
assembly. Enriched U-235 or Pu-239 is the fuel material. The fast neutrons released
during fission are slowed down by a moderator, usually graphite surrounding the fuel
assembly. A coolant is circulated through the reactor to remove the heat generated.
Ordinary water is most commonly used coolant. Other coolants such as heavy water,
liquid sodium, molten salts and hydro carbon liquids are also used.
Fig.10 Nuclear power plant

Rods made of boron or cadmium which are neutron absorbers are used as control rods.
The neutrons available for fission are controlled by moving the control rods in and out of
the nuclear core. The rods can be used to shut down the reactor. Functioning of the
reactor is constantly monitored with the help of suitable instruments.
Heat produced during fission process is absorbed by the coolant and is used to
convert water in to steam in the heat exchanger. The steam is used to rotate the steam
turbine .The steam turbine is connected to a generator which generate electricity.
The entire reactor is enclosed in a concrete building with lead sheets covered
inside to prevent radioactive radiations being released in to the environment.
1.10 Bio Fuels

Introduction to bio fuels
Biofuels are fuels made from recently grown plant or animal matter. Fossil fuels were
also originally plant or animal matter, but that material has spent millions of years
underground in extreme conditions and so it has changed significantly and its energy
value was concentrated. As fossil fuel supplies diminish, renewable energy resources
that can be replenished faster than we use them must be found in order for society to
continue functioning as we are accustomed. Some folks believe that biofuels, like corn
ethanol and biodiesel, could supply this renewable supply of fuel.
There are other negative environmental impacts related to fossil fuel use, in addition to
the depletion of a limited resource. Many toxic chemicals contained in fossil fuels are
released into the atmosphere upon burning of oil and coal. Biofuels are less toxic than
fossil fuels - biodiesel is less toxic than table salt, for example. In addition, carbon
released from the sequestered underground reservoirs of fossil fuels goes into the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Most scientists agree that the human-caused increase in
atmospheric carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are at least partially
influencing global temperature. Thus, fossil fuel use influences global climate
destabilization. Biofuels are touted as a potential solution (at least partially) to the
problem of greenhouse gases from fossil fuels. The biofuels still release carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere, but since the fuel comes from recently grown plants, it was
extracted from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, and will be reused by future
crops. By limiting the amount of carbon moving from the underground to the
atmosphere, the idea is to reduce the intensity of global warming.
Ethanol and biodiesel are now commonly mixed with petroleum-based fuels for sale as
transportation fuels
1.10.1 Ethanol
Ethanol is made by the biological fermenting of sugars in the feedstock. If the feedstock
does not contain sugars initially, pretreatment steps must precede the fermentation to
transform the complex starches (corn) or cellulose into simpler sugar molecules. After
the fermentation step, distillation is required to separate the ethanol from water.
1.10.2 Biodiesel
The diesel engine was originally designed to run on peanut oil. Modern diesel engines
are designed to run on petroleum (fossil fuel) diesel, but can still run on vegetable oil if
the oil’s viscosity is low. Warming the oil is required to lower the viscosity, so some
alterations must be made to the fuel supply to the engine. The main reason for the use of
petroleum diesel is its low cost and slightly higher energy value. Some people are
promoting a return to vegetable oil for reasons of renewability and low pollution. By
converting the oil to biodiesel, the energy value is increased and viscosity is lowered.
This fuel can then be mixed with petroleum diesel (up to 20% mix (B20) can be used
safely in any diesel engine) or can be used pure in many vehicles.
1.10.3 Bio Gas
Since today’s infrastructure for transport is based on liquid fuels, the introduction of
gaseous fuels into the transport sector is slow and represents a challenge for future
transport strategies. Nevertheless, vehicles which use gaseous fuels in place of liquid
fuels are already operating. Today most of them run on natural gas. Many automotive
manufacturers already offer pure or bivalent natural gas vehicles as standard models.
One of the promising future options for sustainable transport fuels is the subsidization of
natural gas by biomethane. Biomethane is the most efficient and clean burning biofuel
which is available today. It can be produced from nearly all types of biomass including
wet biomass which is not usable for most other biofuels. Another motivation for using
gaseous biofuels for transport applications is the opportunity of diversifying feedstock
sources.
1.10.4 Bio fuels used in engineering application

Bio diesel and ethanol used in Automobiles
Bio gas used to cooking purpose
Bio fuels used in rural electrification
Bio fuels used in agriculture sector
Bio fuels used in thermal applications
1.10.5 Comparison of biofuels with petroleum fuels
Bio
SL.NO Characteristics Petroleum fuels(Diesel) fuels(Honge)
1 Calorific Value(kJ/kg) 42500 38987
2 Viscosity at 40° 2-5 4.9-5.7
3 Cetane number 45-55 40-48
4 Flash point(°C) 56 174
5 Specific gravity 0.820 0.927

3
6 Density (kg/m ) 820 927
1.11 Steam formation and Properties

1.11.1 Introduction:
Steam is the gaseous phase of water. It utilizes heat during the process and carries large
quantities of heat later. Hence, it could be used as a working substance for heat
engines. Steam is generated in boilers at constant pressure. Generally, steam may be
obtained starting from ice or straight away from the water by adding heat to it. Steam
exists in following states or types or conditions.
(i) Wet steam (saturated steam)
(ii) Dry steam (dry saturated steam)
(iii) Superheated steam
(iv) Supersaturated steam water, which is one of the Pure
Substance, exists in three phases:
(a) Solid phase as ice (freezing of water)
(b) Liquid phase as water (melting of ice)
(c) Gaseous phase as steam (vaporization of water)
Water could be used as coolant and water vapor is used as a working fluid for
the operation of Steam Engines and Steam Turbines.
1.11.2 Properties of Steam

o
Take one kg of water at 0 C in a cylinder fitted with piston. Place a known
weight on the piston to have constant pressure acting on the piston. Insert a thermometer
to monitor the temperature. Start heating the cylinder at a constant rate and note down
the temperature along with the quantity of heat added. Plot the values on a graph with
the quantity of heat supplied taken along x – axis and the temperature along y – axis.
The nature of the graph is shown in the figure 11
Fig .11
Initially the temperature starts increasing steadily with heat addition. This
continues up to the point ‘f ‘ on the graph. At this point water is no more able to take in
the heat in liquid phase. Water starts changing its phase to vapor (steam). This change in
phase from liquid to vapor is called boiling. The change of phase occurs at constant
temperature and at point ‘g ‘ the water is completely vaporized. Further heating results
in steady increase in temperature of steam.
The water is said to be saturated at point ‘f’. we call the point ‘f’ saturated liquid
point. Similarly, the steam is said to be saturated at point ‘g’, and we call the point ‘g’
the saturated vapor point. The constant temperature at which boiling takes place is called
the saturated temperature (Tsat)
By definition heat added at constant pressure is given the name enthalpy denoted
by ‘h’. The variable along x – axis now becomes enthalpy. We can define enthalpy at
salient points on the graph as follows
Fig.12
hf = Enthalpy of saturated liquid

0
(heat added from 0 C till the point ‘f’)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation
(amount of heat added to convert saturated liquid to saturated vapour)
hg = Enthalpy of saturated steam
0
(amount of heat added from 0 C till the point ‘g’)
The quantity hf is also called the sensible heat because we can sense the change
in temperature from 0 to f. The quantity hfg is also called latent heat (latent = hidden)
because we are unable to sense the change during this period.
Condition of the fluid at different states

The fluid which has its state between ‘0’ and ‘f’ is called sub-cooled liquid, the
fluid which has its state between ‘f’ and ‘g’ is called wet steam, and the fluid which has
its state beyond ‘g’ is called super-heated steam.
The boiling process starts at ‘f’ and ends at ‘g’. At ‘f’ we have 1kg of water and
no vapour, similarly, at ‘g’ we have 1 kg of steam and no water. In between ‘f’ and ‘g’
we have a mixture of water and steam and this mixture is called wet steam. The ratio of
the mass of steam present in the mixture to the total mass of the mixture is called the
dryness fraction denoted by ‘x’.
Dryness fraction, x = mg / (mf + mg)
Where, mf = mass of water in the mixture.
mg = mass of steam in the mixture.
(mf + mg) = total mass of the mixture.
The steam, which is super-heated, has its temperature above the saturation
temperature. The amount by which the temperature is raised above the saturation
temperature is called the degree of superheat.
Degree of superheat, T = Tsup - Tsat

Where, Tsat = saturation temperature
Tsup = superheated temperature.
1.12 Properties of steam at different states
We can calculate some of the important properties of steam such as enthalpy,
specific volume and internal energy when the steam exists in wet state and superheated
state. To do this, we need to know the values of the properties at ‘f’ and ‘g’.
Fig. 13
1.12.1 Enthalpy:
Enthalpy of wet steam with dryness fraction ‘x’: We know that enthalpy is the amount of
heat added at constant pressure. Therefore,
hA = amount of heat added from ‘0’ to ‘A’.
= amount of heat added from ‘0’ to ‘f’ + amount of heat added from ‘f’ to ‘A’.
= hf + amount of heat added from ‘f’ to ‘A’.
A dryness fraction of ‘x’ means that out of 1 kg of water initially taken, x kg is

converted into steam, and (1-x) kg still remains as water.
Amount of heat added to convert

1 kg saturated water into steam = hfg
Therefore,
Amount of heat added to convert
x kg saturated water into steam = x.hfg
and,
hA = hf + x.hfg.
Enthalpy of superheated steam: In the superheated region steam obeys the ideal gas
equation very closely. We can calculate the properties of steam in this region using the
ideal gas equation.
hB = amount of heat added from ‘0’ to ‘B’.

= amount of heat added from ‘0’ to ‘g’ + amount of heat added from ‘g’ to ‘B’.
hB = hg + Cps ( T)
Where Cps = Specific heat of steam
T = Degree of superheat = (Tsup – Tsat)
1.12.2 Specific Volume:

Specific volume is the volume occupied by unit mass of a
substance Let vf = volume occupied by 1 kg of saturated liquid
vg = volume occupied by 1 kg of saturated vapor
Specific volume of wet steam vA with dryness fraction (x)

o
We have taken 1 kg of water at 0 C initially. The total mass of the mixture at any state
is 1 kg. When the dryness fraction of steam is x, we have x kg of steam and (1 – x) kg of
water.
Volume occupied by (1 – x) kg of water = (1 – x)
vf Volume occupied by x kg of steam = x vg
Therefore, total volume occupied by the mixture

is vA = (1 – x) vf + x vg
But the specific volume of saturated water (vf) is negligible compared to the
specific volume of saturated vapour (vg). Neglecting the first term the specific volume of
the mixture is approximately and very closely given by
vA = x vg
Specific volume of superheated steam (vB)

In superheated region at low pressures, steam obeys the ideal gas equation very
closely. We can approximate the properties in this region using ideal gas equation.
We know that steam behaves like an ideal gas in the superheated region.
Applying the ideal gas equation at states ‘g’and ‘B’ we have
pvg = RTsat
pvB = RTsup
dividing, vB . = Tsup .
Vg Tsat
vB . = Tsup .Vg
Tsat
1.12.3 Internal energy (u)

All forms of energy possessed by the system, except the kinetic and potential
energies, are collectively called as internal energy.
Total energy content of the system,
Energy = Internal energy (u) + Kinetic energy + Potential energy.
By definition, enthalpy,
h = u + pv
therefore, internal energy,
u = h – pv
We can calculate the internal energy of the system at any given state by
substituting the values of h, p and v corresponding to that state.
Internal energy of saturated liquid,
uf = hf –pvf
Internal energy of saturated vapour,
ug = hg –pvg
Internal energy of wet steam,
uA = hA –pvA
Internal energy of superheated steam,
uB = hB –pvB
1.4 Steam boilers

The steam boiler may be defined as a closed vessel which is used to convert
water into steam at required temperature and pressure by the application of heat.
The fuel used in boiler may be solid, liquid or gas. The fuel is burnt in a furnace to
produce heat. This heat is used to convert water in to steam at required temperature and
pressure.
Classification of a boiler: The may be classified as follows
1) Horizontal, vertical or inclined

If the axis of the boiler is horizontal is known as horizontal. If the axis of the
boiler is vertical is known as vertical boiler. If the axis of the boiler is inclines is known
as inclined boiler.
2) Fire tube boiler & water tube boiler
Fire tube boiler: In fire tube boiler the hot gases flows inside the tube and the
water surrounds the tube.
Water tube
Hot gases
Water tube boiler: In water tube boiler the water flows inside the tube and the
hot gases flows around the tube.
Hot gases
Tube
Water
3) Internally fired & externally fired boiler

Internally fired boiler: If the furnace is located inside the boiler shell is known as
internally fire boiler.
Externally fired boiler: If the furnace is located outside the boiler shell is known
as externally fired boiler.
4) Forced circulation & natural circulation

Forced circulation: In forced circulation boiler, the water is circulated in the
boiler is done with the help of pump in known as forced circulation.
Natural circulation: In natural circulation boiler, the water is circulated in the
boiler is due to convection currents is known as natural circulation boiler.
5) High pressure boiler & low pressure boiler

High-pressure boiler: The high-pressure boiler is designed to produce steam at
very high pressure is known as high-pressure boiler.
Low-pressure boiler: The low-pressure boiler is designed to produce steam at
low pressure is known as low-pressure boiler.
6) Single tube & multi tube boiler

Single tube boiler: If the boiler contains only one fire tube is known as single
tube boiler.
Multi tube boiler: If the boiler contains more than one fire tube is known as multi
tube boiler.
7) Stationary & portable (locomotive) boiler

Stationary boiler: If the boiler is located at factory site Example, power
generation plant and the boiler used in textile mills are known as stationary boiler.
Portable boiler: Portable boiler is a small boiler, which can be used as a
locomotive or temporarily used at factory sites.
1.5.1 Lancashire boiler

The Lancashire boiler is a horizontal axis, fire tube, multi tubular, low pressure,
natural circulation, internally fired, and stationary boiler.
The parts of Lancashire boiler are flue tubes, safety valve, steam stop valve,
pressure gauge, furnace, feed check valve, man hole, water level indicator, fusible plug
and blow off valve. Figure 14.a and 14.b shows the Lancashire boiler.
Fig14.a Lancashire boiler

Fig14.b Lancashire boiler
Construction: The Lancashire boiler consists of cylindrical metallic shell Carries

two flue tubes. Furnace is located in the flue tubes. The boiler is mounted on the brick
structure, which contains passages for the circulation of flue gases. The hot gases flows
from furnace to the other end of the tube, where the gases are made to flow in the bottom
central channel (gases run from right to the left) and reaches the left hand side of the
bottom central channel, now the gases divides in to two streams, one stream enters the
side channel-1, and the other stream enters the side channel-2, now both the streams will
runs through (right hand side to the left hand side) sides of the boiler shell and reaches
the other side of the side channels, from there it makes its last part of journey to the
chimney.
Working: The furnace door is opened and charging of the furnace is done. Once
the combustion starts in the furnace it releases the heat energy, these hot gases first flows
in the flue tubes transferring the heat to the flue tubes. The hot gases, which comes out
from the flue tube, still contains large amount of heat energy, hence again these gases
are deflected to the bottom central channel. In the bottom central channel again the heat
is transferred to the bottom of the boiler shell, but still it carries some quantity of heat in
it, again the hot gases are divided in to two streams and made to flow in side channel-1
& 2. In side channel-1 & 2 again the heat is transferred to the sides of the boiler shell.
The heat that is transferred from hot gases to the boiler shell is given directly to
the water present in the boiler and gets converted in to steam. This steam is collected in
the steam space and is taken out through steam stop valve to run stem turbine or for any
other application.
The hot gases start its journey from the furnace and travel in several channels and
reach the chimney. Near the chimney economizer and air pre-heater is installed and
these systems will take away all the heat that is present in the hot gases. Now the hot gas
aches the chimney will have very low temperature (little more than atmospheric
temperature).
1.5.2 Babcock & Wilcox boiler

Babcock & Wilcox boiler is horizontal boiler, multi tube, externally fired, water tube,
stationary, low-pressure boiler and natural circulation boiler.
The parts of Lancashire boiler are flue tubes, safety valve, steam stop valve, pressure
gauge, furnace, feed check valve, man hole, water level indicator, fusible plug and blow
off valve. Figure 15.a and 15.b shows the Babcock & Wilcox boiler.
The parts of Lancashire boiler are flue tubes, safety valve, steam stop valve, pressure
gauge, furnace, feed check valve, man hole, water level indicator, fusible plug and blow
off valve.
Fig. 15.a Babcock & Wilcox boiler

Fig15.b Babcock & Wilcox boiler

Construction: The Babcock & Wilcox boiler is externally fired boiler. The furnace is
located at the bottom of the boiler shell. Above the furnace the water tubes are placed
o
and is inclined at 15 . The water flows from the boiler to down take header and flows
through pipes reaches up take header and flows back to the boiler. The flow of water is
purely due to convective currents. The super heater tubes are located above the furnace.
Working: The furnace door is opened and charging of the furnace is done. Once
the combustion starts in the furnace it releases the heat energy, The hot gases rises from
the furnace and heat is transferred to both tubes and boiler shell. The boiler shell deflects
the hot gases to move downwards. The boiler shell and the baffle plate deflects the hot
gases to circulate up and down several times, there by transferring the heat to both tubes
and boiler shell. The circulation of water in the tubes is due to density difference.
The steam that is collected in the steam space is known as wet steam, to convert
this wet steam in to super-heated steam, the wet steam is passed through super heater
tubes. The super heater tubes are located near the furnace where the temperature is
maximum. Once the steam is converted in to super-heated steam. It goes to steam stop
valve and further it goes to the application.
1.5.3 Boiler mountings:

The boiler mountings are necessary for the proper function & safety of a boiler;
The various boiler mountings are listed below.
i) Safety valve
ii) Water level indicator
iii) Pressure gauge
iv) Blow off valve
v) Steam stop valve
vi) Feed check valve
vii) Man hole
i) Safety valve : The boiler is designed for a pressure, but the working pressure of a
boiler is always less than the design pressure. The function of a safety valve is to protect
the boiler from excess pressure, when the pressure inside the boiler exceeds the working
pressure, the safety valve opens and the excess pressure is released to atmosphere.
ii) Water level indicator: The function of a water level indicator is to indicate the actual
level of water in the boiler. For proper function of a boiler the water level in the boiler
has to be maintained between minimum & maximum level but, if the water level falls
less than the minimum results in rapid increase in pressure of steam leads to explosion of
a boiler. Always the water level indicator is located nearer & easily visible for the
operator.
iii) Pressure gauge: The function of a pressure gauge is to indicate the actual pressure
inside the boiler. The pressure rating of a pressure gauge, which is mounted on a boiler,
should be twice the working pressure of a boiler.
iv) Blow off valve: The function of a blow off valve is to drain the sediments from a
boiler. This operation is carried out when the boiler is not in use. Always the blow off
valve is located at the lowest position of a boiler so that it is easy to drain the sediments
from the boiler.
v) Steam stop valve: The function of a steam stop valve is to regulate the quantity of
steam that is going to the application. Always the boiler generates more steam than the
quantity of steam required for the application; hence steam stop valve regulates the flow
and delivers the required quantity of steam to the application.
vi) Feed check valve: The feed check valve is a unidirectional valve; it allows the water
from tank to the boiler and blocks the steam from boiler to the water tank. When the
pump is on it feeds the water to the boiler and, when the pump is off the high-pressure
steam flows towards the feed check valve but it blocks the leakage of steam from boiler
to the water tank.
vii) Man hole: The boilers may be either water tube or fire tube boiler. In both the
boilers hot gases flow in or outside the tubes leaves behind some quantity of ash. This
ash deposit will reduce the heat transfer rate, which leads to decrease the efficiency of a
boiler. When the boiler is not in use a person enters the boiler through a man hole and
cleans the surfaces of the tubes.
1.5.4 Boiler accessories:

Boiler accessories are auxiliary parts used in steam boilers for their proper
function and to improve the efficiency of the power plant. The various boiler accessories
are listed below.
i) Super heater
ii) Economizer
iii) Air pre heater
iv) Steam separator
v) Steam trap
i) Super heater: The function of a super heater is to increase the temperature of the steam
above its saturation temperature. The steam, which is delivered from the boiler is known
as wet steam, if wet steam is used for the application results in corrosion of parts and
erosion of turbine blades. The steam separator is in the form of U-tube, which is located
just above the furnace where the temperature is maximum.
ii) Economizer: The function of a economizer (heat exchanger) is used to recover the
waste heat from the gases going to chimney, this is also known as waste heat recovery
system. The heat recovered from gases is used to heat the boiler feed water. The supply
of preheated water to the boiler reduces the amount of fuel required to raise water
temperature from atmospheric temperature to preheated water temperature.
iii) Air pre heater: Air preheater is another heat exchanger is used to recover waste heat
from the gases. The air, which is fed to the furnace, is preheated to few degrees more
than atmospheric temperature. Due to this, the amount of heat to be added to the air in
the furnace is considerably reduced.
iv) Steam separator: The function of a steam separator is used to separate the water
particles present in the steam. The presence of water particles in the steam gives rise to
blades erosion in turbines and corrosion of parts in steam engine.
v) Steam trap: The function of a steam trap is to drain the condensed steam
automatically from the steam pipes and steam separators without permitting any steam to
escape to the application.
Outcomes:
• Student has understood importance of energy resources.
• Students are aware of the different types of non-renewable energy sources
Student gain the knowledge of different types of boilers and their application in
industry and steam power plants
Review Questions
1. Differentiate between Renewable sources of energy & Non-renewable energy sources.

2. Explain different types fuels.
3. Explain with neat sketch solar Flat plate collector
4. Explain with neat sketch solar pond.
5. Explain the working of babcox & Wilcox boiler with neat sketch
6. Explain the working of Lancashire boiler with neat sketch
Turbines and IC Engines
Unit II
Objective:
• To understand basic definitions and mode of heat transfer.
• To study the basic laws governing heat transfer and derivation of
governing equation.
Contents
2.1 Classification of steam turbine:
2.1.1. Principle of operation of Impulse turbine
2.1.2. Principle of operation of Parson’s turbine
2.2. Gas Turbine
2.2.1. Open cycle Gas Turbine
2.2.2. Closed cycle Gas Turbine
2.3. Water turbines
2.3.1 Classification of water turbine
2.3.2 Principle of operation of Pelton wheel
2.3.3 Principle of operation of Francis turbine
2.3.4 Principle of operation of Kaplan turbine
Steam turbines - Classification, Principle of operation of Impulse and

reaction turbines, Delaval’s turbine, Parson’s turbine. (No
compounding of turbines).
Gas turbines: Classification, Working principles and Operations of
Open cycle and closed cycle gas turbines.
Water turbines- Classification, Principles and operations of Pelton
wheel, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine
Internal Combustion Engines
Classification, I.C. Engines parts, 2 Stroke and 4 stroke Petrol
engines, 4 stroke diesel engines. P-V diagrams of Otto and Diesel
cycles. Problems on indicated power, brake power, indicated thermal
efficiency, brake thermal efficiency, mechanical efficiency, and
specific fuel consumption, [numericals on IC Engines].
12 hours
2.1 Steam turbines

2.1.1Introduction:
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from
pressurized steam, and converts it into useful mechanical work. A steam turbine is a
prime mover in which rotary motion is obtained by the gradual change of momentum of
the steam. Steam turbines are primarily used to run alternators or generators in thermal
power plants. It is also used to rotate the propeller of ships through reduction gearing.
Main parts of a steam turbine:-

Nozzle: In steam turbines, normally, convergent-divergent type of nozzles is used.

When steam flows through the nozzles, there is a pressure drop, which is converted into
velocity or kinetic energy. The nozzles also guide the steam in the proper direction to strike
the blades. The nozzles are kept very close to the blades to minimize the losses.
Rotor: The rotor or runner consists of a circular disc fixed to a horizontal shaft.
Fig. 2.1 A rotor of a modern steam turbine, used in a power plant

Blade : On the periphery of the rotor, a large no of blades are fixed. The steam
jet from the nozzles impinges on the surface of the blades due to which the rotor rotates.
Casing: It is a steam tight steel casing which encloses the rotor, blades etc. In a
multistage turbine, the casing also accommodates the fixed blades.
2.1.2 Expansion of Steam in the Nozzle

A nozzle is a passage of varying cross-section through which steam flows. Figure
shows a convergent-divergent nozzle in which the cross-sectional area of the nozzle
diminishes from the entry to throat, and thereafter diverges to the exit as shown in the
figure 2.2. Steam is expanded in a nozzle to increase its kinetic energy.
The high pressure and low velocity steam generated in a boiler enters the nozzle,
and as it passes between the entry and the throat, the pressure of the steam drops to a
lower value. In other words, steam expands to a low pressure. This drop in pressure
reduces the enthalpy (heat content) of steam.
Since there is no external work and heat transfer in the nozzle, the reduction in
the enthalpy of steam must therefore be equal to the increase in velocity (kinetic energy)
of the steam. In other words, the steam performs work upon itself by accelerating itself
to a high velocity. Hence, the steam comes out of the nozzle with low pressure, and high
velocity. Beyond the throat, the nozzle diverges to a certain length, so as to allow any
incomplete expansion of the steam to take place.
Fig. 2.2 convergent-divergent nozzle
2.1.3 Classification of steam turbine:

Steam turbines can be classified in to two types:
1. Impulse Turbine (De-Laval Turbine): In impulse turbine the steam expands

in nozzles and its pressure does not alter as it moves over the blades.
2. Reaction Turbine (Parson’s Turbine):
In reaction turbine, the steam expands continuously as it passes over the
blades and thus there is a gradual fall in the pressure during expansion.
Turbines can also be classified based on
Basis Types
Action of steam or type of expansion Impulse turbine ( Velocity turbine)
Number of stages Single stage turbine
Multi stage turbine
Type of steam flow Axial flow turbine
Radial flow turbine
Steam Pressure Low pressure, Medium Pressure
High pressure and mixed pressure turbines
Exit Pressure Condensing and non-condensing turbines
2.1.4 Single stage impulse turbine (De-Laval turbine).

The pressure energy is converted into velocity energy or kinetic energy by the expansion
of steam through a set of nozzles. Normally, in steam turbines, convergent-divergent
nozzles are used. The kinetic energy is converted into mechanical energy with the help
of moving blades, fixed on the rotor. The rotor is connected to the output shaft. All these
parts are enclosed in a casing.
In operation, the high pressure, low velocity steam generated in a boiler is made to flow
through a convergent-divergent nozzle. As the steam passes through the nozzle,
expansion takes place and the pressure of the steam decreases. This drop in pressure of
the steam results in the increase in the velocity (kinetic energy) of steam. The change in
pressure and velocity of steam is shown in figure b.
The high velocity jet of steam coming out of the nozzle is directed towards the moving
blades of the turbine. The steam flowing over the blades undergoes a change in its
velocity and direction thereby resulting in change of momentum. The force due to the
change of momentum is the impulse force that acts in the direction normal to the blades,
thereby pushing the blade in its direction. The force acting on the blade is shown in
figure b.
This turbine is not suitable for practical purposes, since high-pressure steam expands in
one set of nozzles and get converted to very high velocity steam, due to this the rotor
will rotate at a very high speed. So in practice, multistage impulse turbines or compound
turbines are used.
Fig: 2.3 single stage impulse turbine

2.1.5 Reaction turbine (Parson’s turbine)

Reaction turbine was invented by Sir Charles Parson and hence widely called
Parson's turbine. The reaction turbine, as the name implies, is turned by reactive force
rather than by a direct push or impulse. In reaction turbines, the blades that project
radially from the periphery of the rotor are formed and mounted so that the spaces
between the blades will have the nozzle shape. Since these blades are mounted on the
revolving rotor, they are called moving blades. Fixed or stationary blades of the same
shape as the moving blades are fastened to the casing in which the rotor revolves. The
fixed blades guide the steam into the moving blade. A reaction turbine is moved by three
main forces: (1) the reactive force produced on the moving blades as the steam increases
in velocity as it expands through the fixed blades. (2) The reactive force produced on the
moving blades when the steam changes its direction.
In operation, the high pressure, low velocity steam generated in a boiler passes over the
first row of fixed blades. The space between the fixed blades acts as nozzle due to which
the steam gets expanded to a low pressure and high velocity. The fixed blades guide the
high velocity jet of steam to move on to the moving blades. The high velocity jet of
steam now glides over the moving blades where it undergoes a change in its velocity and
direction, thereby resulting in change of momentum. This gives impulse force to the
blade and hence the rotor to rotate. Thus the kinetic energy of the steam is converted into
mechanical energy of rotation of the rotor. Pressure-velocity diagram is shown in figure
Fig.2.4a Reaction turbine

Fig.2.4b Reaction turbine
Fig.2.4c Reaction turbine

2.1.6 Difference between impulse turbine and reaction turbine
Impulse turbine Reaction turbine

Complete expansion of steam takes place Partial expansion of steam takes place in
in the nozzle the fixed blades and further expansion
takes place in the moving blades.
Blades are symmetrical in shape Blades are non symmetrical in shape i.e.,
aerofoil section
The rotor runs at higher speeds. The rotor runs at relatively low speed.
The impulse turbines are used for small The reaction turbines are used in large
power generation plant. power generation plant.
Less floor area is required.(small power More floor area is required.(Medium and
plant) large power plant)
The pressure of steam remains constant The pressure of steam drops from inlet to
from inlet to the outlet of the blade. the outlet of the blade
2.1.7 Advantages of steam turbines

Following are a few important advantages of steam turbines over other prime
movers:
Steam turbines can work, at high temperatures and very high steam pressures. Hence the
thermal efficiency is higher compared to other prime movers.
Steam turbines are rotary engines and hence do not have any reciprocating parts. Hence,
less vibration and noise.
No wear and tear of the parts. Also lubrication is not required.
Turbine rotor can be balanced accurately.
Power generation in a steam turbine is at a uniform rate. Hence, a flywheel is not required.
Higher speeds with greater speed range is possible.
Steam turbines can take considerable over-load with only a slight reduction in its efficiency.
Steam turbine can be designed in sizes ranging from a few kW to over 1000 MW
in a single unit. This enables to use steam turbines as prime movers in large
power plants.
Steam turbines are extensively used to propel ships of high tonnage and also to drive
high speed generators, compressors, etc.
2.2 Gas turbines

2.2.1 Introduction to gas turbines
A gas turbine is a prime mover. Here a jet of burnt gases and air is made to flow over
several wing of moving blades which are fixed to the rotor. The shapes of blades are
almost similar to steam turbines. Kerosene, coal, bunker oil, coal gas, gasoline… are
used as fuel for gas turbines.
The first gas turbine was designed and manufactured in England by Stolze in 1872. In
United States, Charles G. Curtis was the first to patent and develop a gas turbine in
1914. World war –1 and world war –2 have given a great boost for the development of
the gas turbine. Frank whittle was a first scientist patented the design of the gas turbine
aircraft engine. Gas turbine is used in wide range of applications like, aircraft, industrial,
ship and power generation plants.
In the gas turbine plant, the atmospheric air is drawn and is compressed to a high
pressure, the fuel is injected to the compressed air, the fuel burns and the energy is
released, the energy is utilized to rotate a turbine. The heat transfer to the working fluid
may be through direct contact or through indirect heating without any change in the
composition of the working fluid.
Fig.2.5. Alstom’s GT-8C2, 50/60Hz gas turbine with basic specification

2.2.3 Classification of gas turbines

i) Open cycle gas turbine
ii) Closed cycle gas turbine
i) Open cycle gas turbine

The components of open cycle gas turbine are compressor (low or high pressure),
combustion chamber and turbine. The turbine shaft may be connected to a generator to
generate electricity or connected to a propeller to propel the ship. In aircraft engine the
exit gas from a turbine is expanded in a nozzle to propel an aircraft. The figure 2.6
shows an open cycle gas turbine.
Working: A compressor which draws air at atmospheric pressure and compress

the air and delivered to a combustion chamber at high pressure. The fuel (liquid or gas)
is injected into a stream of high-pressure air and the combustion takes place in a
combustion chamber. The combustible gases releases tremendous amount of energy,
which is used to rotate a turbine. The exhaust gases from the turbine are led to the
atmosphere. The exit gas from the turbine is not recycled back to the compressor hence
it is known as open cycle gas turbine, In open cycle gas turbine every cycle fresh air
enters the compressor.
Fig.2.6 Open cycle gas turbine
ii) Closed cycle gas turbine

The components of closed cycle gas turbine are compressor (low or high
pressure), heating chamber, turbine and cooler.
Fig.2.7 Closed cycle gas turbine

The closed cycle gas turbine is as shown in figure2.7. The components of the
closed cycle turbine are compressor, turbine, heat exchanger (cooler) and heat exchanger
(heater). The rotary compressor compresses the air to very high pressure and delivers it
to the heat exchanger, where heat transfer takes place at constant pressure. The high
pressure and temperature gases are then expanded through the turbine doing mechanical
work. The exit gases from the turbine is cooled to ambient temperature in heat
exchanger (cooler), this cooled gases fed back to the rotary compressor for the next
cycle. Thus the same working fluid is circulated through the cycle. The working fluid
selected for closed cycle is helium.
2.2.4 Comparison of open cycle and closed cycle gas turbines:

1. In open cycle gas turbines, the products of combustion directly come in contact with
the turbine. Hence only high quality fuel should be used. In closed cycle gas
turbines, the working fluid absorbs heat from the hot gases in the heating chamber
and there is no mixing of the two fluids. Only the working fluid comes in contact
with the turbine blades and hence any even low quality fuels can be used for
producing heat.
2. The closed cycle gas turbine requires a cooling medium, which is usually water.
Large quantities of water are required which necessitates setting up of the plant near
water sources. In open cycle the hot exhaust gases are let to the atmosphere ad there
is no need of any cooling medium.
3. The closed cycle gas turbines require a lot of piping arrangement because there is
indirect heat transfer between the fluids and there is no direct mixing of the fluids.
But in open cycle gas turbine, less piping arrangement is required because the gases
are directly passed on to the turbine.
2.2.5 Applications of gas turbine.

To generate electric power
In air craft’s, ship propulsions, supercharging, heavy diesel engine and in wind
turbines
In steel, oil and chemical industries
In turbojet and turbo propeller engine i.e rockets, missiles, space ships etc..
Fig.2.8. Gas turbines in marine service:
Fig. 2.9. Gas turbines in offshore service

2.3 Water turbines

2.3.1 Introduction: Water turbines were developed in the nineteenth century and were
widely used for industrial power prior to electrical grids. Now they are mostly used for
electric power generation. They harness a clean and renewable energy source.
A hydraulic turbine is a machine, which converts pressure energy in to
mechanical energy. It uses the kinetic energy end potential energy of water and sets the
rotor in motion by the dynamic action of water flowing from high head.
2.3.2 Classification of hydraulic turbines

The classification of water turbines are as follows.
1. Based on the type of energy available at the inlet of the turbine:
a) Impulse turbine:
The energy available at the inlet of the turbine is only kinetic energy. Example: Pelton
wheel, Girad turbine, Banki turbine, etc.
b) Reaction turbine:
Both pressure energy and kinetic energy is available at the inlet of the turbine. Example:
Kaplan turbine, Francis turbine, Thomson turbine, etc.
2. Based on the head under which turbine works:

Water head:
The pressure is referred to as the head, which is defined as the vertical height in meters
(or feet) from the level of water in the dam/river to the level where the water leaves the
turbine housing. The amount of energy available from water depends on both the
quantity of water available and its pressure.
a) High head turbine: Head of water available at the inlet of

the turbine ie, above 300 m. Example:Pelton wheel.
b) Medium head turbine: Head of water available at the inlet of the turbine ranges
from 50 m to 150 m. Example: Francis turbine.
c) Low head turbine: Head of water at the inlet will be less than 50m. Example:
Kaplan Turbine.
3. Based on the direction of flow of water through the runner:
a) Tangential flow turbine: Water flows along the tangent to the runner.
Example: Pelton wheel.

Axial flow turbine: Water flows in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the
runner. Example: Kaplan turbine.
Radial flow turbine: Water flows in a radial direction through the runner. Radial flow
turbines are further classified into inward radial flow and outward radial flow turbines.
Example: Thomson turbine, Girad turbine, Old Francis turbine.
Mixed flow turbine: Water flows radially into the runner and leaves axially.
Example: Modern Francis turbine.
.
4. According to the specific speed of the turbine
i) Low specific speed turbine, impulse turbine. Ex: pelton wheel.
ii) Medium specific speed, reaction turbine. Ex: Francis turbine.
iii) High specific speed, reaction turbine. Ex: Kaplan turbine
2.3.4 Impulse turbine
In impulse turbine a high-velocity jet of water hits a series of specially shaped
cups on the runner. Impulse turbines change the velocity of a water jet. The jet impinges
on the turbine's curved blades which reverse the flow. The resulting change in
momentum (impulse) causes a force on the turbine blades. Since the turbine is spinning,
the force acts through a distance (work) and the diverted water flow is left with
diminished energy. Prior to hitting the turbine blades, the water's pressure (potential
energy) is converted to kinetic energy by a nozzle and focused on the turbine. No
pressure change occurs at the turbine blades, and the turbine doesn't require a housing
for operation
2.3.5 Pelton wheel

Pelton wheel, a type of impulse turbine, named after L. A. Pelton who invented it
in 1880. Water passes through nozzles and strikes cups arranged on the periphery of a
runner, or wheel, which causes the runner to rotate, producing mechanical energy. The
runner is fixed on a shaft, and the rotational motion of the turbine is transmitted by the
shaft to a generator. Pelton turbines are suited to high head, low flow applications; they
are used in storage power stations (dams) with downward gradients above 300 meters.
Fig.2.11 Pelton wheel
The Pelton wheel consists of the following parts:
a) Nozzle with a spear head:

A nozzle is a passage of varying cross-section attached to the penstock as shown in the
figure. The nozzles may vary in number depending on the design requirements. Usually
nozzles are arranged around the runner wheel such that the water jet emerging from a
nozzle is tangential to the circumference of the runner wheel. The flow of water through
the nozzle is controlled by a spear head, which is operated by means of a hand wheel.
This arrangement provides a smooth flow of water with negligible energy losses.
a) Runner and buckets
The runner is a circular wheel with a series of evenly spaced buckets fixed around its
periphery. The buckets (cup shaped blades) are shaped like a bowl or a double
hemispherical cup. The advantage of having double cup shaped buckets is that, the jet of
water gets split and leaves symmetrically on both sides of the buckets. This helps to
eliminate the end thrust or axial thrust on the bearing and the output shaft. The flow of
water on the bucket is shown in Figure 2.9 (b). The runner is coupled to a rotating shaft
as shown in figure 2.9 (a).
c) Turbine casing
The casing prevents the splashing of water, and it also helps to discharge the water into the
tailrace.
Working:
In operation, water from the reservoir (dam) having potential energy flows through the
penstock and enters the nozzle. As water flows through the nozzle, the potential energy of
water is completely converted into kinetic energy in the nozzle. The high velocity jet of
water issuing from the nozzle impinges on the curved blades fixed around the runner wheel.
The impulse force due to the high velocity jet of water sets the runner wheel into rotary
motion. Hence, the shaft coupled to the runner wheel also rotates thereby doing useful
work. Thus, the potential energy of the water is converted into mechanical work. After
performing work, the water freely discharges to the tailrace. The work produced at the
output shaft is used to drive a generator to produce electricity the electricity is then
transmitted to a substation where transformers increase voltage to allow transmission to
homes, office, and factories.
The following are some of the locations in India where Pelton turbines are installed:
1) Sharavathi (Karnataka)
2) Koyana (Maharashtra)
3) Pallivasal (Kerala)
4) Pykara (Tamilnadu)
5) Joginder Nagar (Himachal Pradesh)
2.3.6 Reaction turbines:

Reaction turbines are acted on by water, which changes pressure as it moves
through the turbine and gives up its energy. They must be encased to contain the water
pressure (or suction), or they must be fully submerged in the water flow. Newton's third
law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines. Most water turbines in use are
reaction turbines. They are used in low and medium head applications.
2.3.7 Francis turbine

Francis turbine is a mixed flow reaction turbine used for medium heads. It was the first
hydraulic turbine with radial flow, designed by American scientist James Francis. Figure
shows the front and top views of a Francis 2.12 turbine.
Fig. 2.12 Francis turbine.
Francis turbine consists of the following parts:

Runner
A runner is a circular wheel on which a series of curved blades are fixed. The number of
blades usually varies between 16 and 24. The runner in turn is coupled to a rotating
vertical shaft.
Guide wheel
A guide wheel is a stationary wheel around the runner of the turbine. A number of
blades are fixed around the circumference of the guide wheel, and these blades are called
guide blades or stationary blades. The guide blades allow the water to strike at a certain
angle on to themoving blades. The blades are designed in such a manner that the water
while flowing through the blades will be subjected to nozzle effect. In other words the
pressure energy of the water will be converted to kinetic energy during its flow over the
blades. Spiral casing (volute or scroll casting):
The spiral casing is a closed passage surrounding the guide blades as shown in the
figure. The cross-sectional area of the spiral casing gradually decreases (tapered) along
the flow direction in order to distribute water uniformly around the entire perimeter of
the runner. The spiral casing is also known as scroll casing or volute.
Draft tube
The draft tube is a tube or a pipe of gradually increasing area used for discharging
water from the exit of the turbine to the tailrace at low pressures. It does not allow water
to fall freely to the tailrace as in the case of Pelton Turbine.
Working:
In operation, water from the reservoir (dam) flows through the penstock and enters
the spiral casing. As the water flows through the tapered spiral casing, a part of its
potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. Water flows through the guide blades,
gets deflected and then flows radially inwards to the outer periphery (outer diameter) of
the runner. The water then moves over the moving blades in the radial direction and is
finally discharged to the tailrace axially from the center of the runner via a draft tube.
During its flow over the runner blades, the blade passages act as nozzle, and the
remaining part of the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. It is important to
note at this point, that the jet of water does not impinge on the runner. In fact, they are
leaving the runner at high velocity. So, the momentum is converted into force as in the
case of impulse turbine. Since the water leaves the blades at high velocity, there is a
reaction force on the runner. This force sets the runner into rotary motion. Hence the
shaft connected to the runner also rotates thereby doing useful work. The shaft in turn
drives the generator to produce electricity.
Fig. 2.12a Francis turbine.
The following are some of the locations in India where Francis turbines are
installed.
1) Shiva Samudram (Karnataka)
2) Bhakra (Punjab)
3) Gandhi Sagar (Rajasthan)
4) Rihand(U.P)
2.3.8 Kaplan turbine:

Kaplan turbine is an axial flow reaction turbine and is used where large quantity of water
is available at low heads. The turbine consists of a hub or boss fixed to a vertical shaft.
The runner blades attached to the hub are adjustable, and can be turned about their axis
to take care of change of load. The runner has only 4 to 8 blades. Similar to Francis
turbine, Kaplan turbine also has a ring of fixed guide blades at the inlet to the turbine.
The inlet is a scroll shaped tube surrounding the fixed blades.
In operation, water from the reservoir flows through the penstock and enters the spiral
casing. A part of the potential energy of water is converted into kinetic energy in the
spiral casing. The water then moves through the guide blades (fixed blades), gets
deflected and then flows axially through the runner blades as shown in figure 2.13.
Fig. 2.13.a Kaplan turbine.
Fig. 2.13.b Kaplan turbine.

2.3.9 Comparison of impulse and reaction water turbine:
IMPULSE TURBINE REACTION TURBINE

Available energy is completely converted The available energy is Partially converted
in to kinetic energy in the nozzle in to kinetic energy in the fixed blade and
partially in the moving blades
The water comes out from the nozzle and In reaction turbine, water first enters the
directly impinges on the runner. fixed blades and then enters the moving
blades.
The pressure of the water flowing from The pressure of the water reduces while
inlet to the outlet of runner remains flowing from inlet to the outlet of runner
constant (atmospheric pressure). (less than atmospheric).
Turbine can be installed above the tail Turbine is submerged in water below tail
race. race.
Casing is provided to prevent splashing of Air tight casing is provided to prevent the
water pressure leakage.
Power developed is mainly due to kinetic Power developed is partly by change in
energy. kinetic energy and partly due to pressure
energy.
Impulse turbine requires high head Reaction turbine requires low head.
2.3.10 Differences between Francis and Kaplan Turbines
Francis Turbine Kaplan Turbine

It is a mixed flow turbine It is an axial flow turbine
Medium head turbine, requires medium Low head turbine, requires large quantity
quantity of water of water
Number of guide vanes are around 16 to 24 Number of guide vanes are around 3 to 8
The runner is supported by a driving shaft The runner is the extension of the vertical
shaft
Guide vanes are assembled with the help Guide vanes are made adjustable for
of links and levers to act as valves smooth flow of water. They are so
designed and fixed around the hub
Requires large space Requires less space due to sloped vanes
Eddy losses are inevitable It is almost eliminated
Cavitation do not occur Cavitation is likely to occur
Draft tube is of simple elbow type Draft tube is of circular to rectangular type
2.4 Internal Combustion Engines

2.4.1 Introduction:
Any machine, which converts heat energy in to useful mechanical energy,
is known as an engine.
The machines may be a gas turbine, steam turbine and an engine.
All the engines comes under two classifications, they are
i) Internal combustion engine
ii) External combustion engine
Internal combustion engine:
If the combustion of fuel takes in a cylinder and the heat is converted in to
mechanical energy, is known as internal combustion engine, Ex. Engines of moped,
scooter, bikes, cars, bus, trucks etc;
External combustion engine:

If the combustion of fuel takes place in a combustion chamber and the heat
energy is taken to a machine through pipe line there the heat energy is converted in to
mechanical energy is known as external combustion engines. Ex, gas turbine and steam
engine.
2.4.2 Classification of internal combustion engines

Internal combustion engines are classified according to
1) According to thermodynamic cycle
i) Otto cycle ii) Diesel cycle iii) Dual combustion cycle
2) According to number of strokes
i) Two stroke ii) Four stroke
3) According to number of cylinders
i) Single cylinder engine ii) Multi cylinder engine
4) According to method of ignition i)Spark
ignition (petrol, gas engine)
ii) Compression ignition (diesel, vegetable oil)
5) According to type of fuel used
i) Petrol ii) Diesel iii) Gas
iv) Bio fuel (peanut oil, sunflower oil, linseed oil)
6) According to position of cylinder
i) Horizontal engine (hero Honda)
ii) Vertical engine (car, bus, truck engines)
iii) Vee engine
iv) Radial engine (old aeroplane engine)
v) Opposed cylinder engine
7) According to method of cooling
i) Air cooling ii) Water cooling iii) oil cooling

8) According to speed of engine
i) Slow speed engine ii) Medium speed engine iii) High speed engine
2.4.3 Parts of internal combustion engine

The parts of internal combustion engines are Cylinder, head, piston, piston rings
(compression rings and oil control ring), connecting rod and crankshaft.
Fig 2.14. Parts of internal combustion engine
Function of IC engine parts:

Cylinder: (cylinder block) The cylinder is the main part of an engine. The
combustion takes place in the combustion chamber and these gases exert pressure on the
piston, due to high gas pressures the piston reciprocates in the cylinder block. The
cylinder is designed to with stand high gas pressure. The temperature in the combustion
0
chamber (cylinder block) will reach up to 2800 C. The cylinder has to be cooled
properly either by air cooling or water cooling. In case of air cooled engines fins are
provided around the cylinder block (Scooter and bikes) in water cooled engines water
jackets are provided for the circulation of water to carry away the heat around the
cylinder block. The cylinder block material; is aluminium alloy
Head: (cylinder head) The head is fitted on the top of the cylinder block. In two
stroke engines only spark plug is fitted in the cylinder head.
In four stroke engine inlet valve , exhaust valve and spark is fitted in the cylinder head.-
The head is built with two ports, one port, which allows the charge in to the cylinder
block, is known as inlet port and the second port that allows the exhaust gases to leave
the cylinder block is known as exhaust port. In case of petrol engine spark plug is fitted
in the head, in diesel engines fuel injector is fitted to inject the diesel into the cylinder
block. The cylinder head material; is aluminium alloy
Piston: The piston is a cylindrical plug, which converts heat energy in to
mechanical energy. A two stroke piston is fitted with only compression ring. In four-
stroke engine both compression ring and oil control rings are fitted. The piston is
connecting to the small end of the connecting rod. The piston is made of aluminium
alloy. Functions of piston are
i) The piston will act as a seal
ii) To provide the passage for heat flow from piston to cylinder block through
rings.
iv) It transmits the force of explosion to the crankshaft through connecting
rod.
Piston rings: Near the top of the piston, a few grooves are provided to
accommodate the piston rings. There are two types of piston rings- compression
ring and oil ring.
compression rings press hard with the cylinder walls maintaining a tight seal
between the piston and the cylinder. This is required to prevent the high pressure
gases from escaping into the crankcase.
Oil rings are used to extract the excess lubricating oil from the cylinder walls and
send it back to the oil sump through the holes provided on the piston.
Connecting rod: The small end of the connecting rod is connected to the piston
and the big end of the connecting rod is connecting to the crankshaft. The connecting rod
converts the reciprocating motion of piston in to rotary motion of crankshaft. The
connecting rod is made of I-beam cross section to provide maximum rigidity with
minimum weight.
Crankshaft: The big end of the connecting rod is connected to the crankshaft.
The power transmission starts from the crankshaft. The crankshaft is rigidly fixed in the
crankcase. The other end of the crankshaft is connected to a clutch.
Crankcase: Crankcase is fitted at the bottom of the cylinder block. Two-stroke
engine crankcase is properly sealed and made airtight. Four stroke engine crankcase will
serve as a reservoir, filled with sufficient quantity of lubricating oil. This oil lubricates
the main bearings of crankshaft, big end bearings of connecting rod, lubricates the
cylinder liner, piston and piston rings.
Valves: The valves are the devices which controls the flow of the intake and the
exhaust gas to and from the cylinder. They are also called poppet valves. These
valves are operated by means of cams driven by crankshaft through a timing gear
and chain.
Fly wheel: It is a heavy wheel mounted on the crankshaft of the engine to maintain
uniform rotation of the crankshaft.
2.4.4 IC ENGINE TERMINOLOGY

Top dead center (TDC): The top most position of the piston at the cover end is
known as top dead center.
Bottom dead center (BDC): The
lower most position of the piston at the
crank end is known as bottom dead
center.
Rotate the crankshaft slowly, the
piston starts moving slowly towards the
top dead center, Further rotation of crank
shaft moves the piston towards the top
and suddenly it changes its direction (it
starts moving in down ward direction),
The momentary stopping of the piston
indicates the position of TDC.
Rotate the crankshaft further; the
piston starts moving in down ward
direction, this movement continues till
the piston reaches the bottom dead
center. Here also the piston reaches the
Bottom and suddenly it changes its direction, the point at which it stops is known as
BDC.
Bore: The diameter of the cylinder is called bore.
Stroke length (L): It is the distance travelled by the piston from TDC to BDC. It
is denoted by L.
Clearance volume: When the piston is at TDC position the cylinder volume above it,
it is known as clearance volume and it is denoted by Vc
Swept volume: The volume swept by piston while traveling from TDC to BDC
in known as swept volume and is denoted by Vs.
2 3
Vs = ( d / 4 ) L cm
Compression ratio: It is the ratio of total volume of cylinder (Vs.+ Vc) to the
clearance volume (Vc). it is denoted ‘ r’.
r = (Vs.+ Vc) / Vc
The compression ratio of petrol engine varies from 7 to 10.
The compression ratio of diesel engine varies from 15 to 24.
Piston speed: The total linear distance travelled by the piston per unit time is
called piston speed. It is expressed in m/min and is given by,
Piston speed = 2LN ……………m/min
L= length of stroke in m
N= speed of the engine in rpm.
2.4.5 Four stroke engines:

The cycle of operation is completed in four strokes of the piston or two revolution of the
crank shaft. Each stroke consists of 180˚of crank shaft rotation. The series of operations
are shown in figure:
Fig
2.4.5
.1 Four stroke Petrol engines
Working of four stroke petrol engine
The four-stroke petrol engine works on the principle of Otto (constant volume)
cycle. The parts of four-stroke petrol engine are cylinder, piston, head, crankcase,
connecting rod, crankshaft, spark plug, inlet and exhaust valve. The four-stroke petrol
engine may be air-cooled or water-cooled. The piston performs four strokes to complete
one cycle. The four different strokes are i) Suction stroke ii) Compression stroke iii)
Power or Expansion stroke iv) Exhaust stroke.
o
Suction stroke: The suction stroke is completed by rotating the crankshaft from 0 to
o
180 . During suction stroke the inlet valve opens and exhaust valve should kept in
closed condition. When the piston starts moving from TDC to BDC, The volume above
the piston increases, results in decrease in pressure (vacuum), This decrease in pressure
draws the petrol and air mixture from the carburetor and delivered it to the cylinder, this
process is continuous till the pressure inside the cylinder becomes equal to atmosphere.
At the end of suction stroke the cylinder is completely filled with petrol and air mixture.
At the end of suction stroke the inlet valve closes. The line AB in the PV diagram
represents suction stroke (volume of mixture filled in the cylinder).
Fig.2.16. four stroke petrol engine

0 0
Compression stroke: Rotation of crankshaft from 180 to 360 completes The
compression stroke. During compression stroke both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
In this stroke the piston travels from BDC to TDC. When the piston starts moving from
BDC to TDC the mixture is compressed, and the pressure increases in the cylinder. The
line BC represents the compression stroke.
At or near the before the end of the compression stroke, the spark occurs, this spark
ignites the petrol and air mix. The combustion of mixture releases hot gases, which will
increase pressure at constant volume. The line CD represents increase in the pressure at
constant volume.
0 0
Power stroke: Rotation of crankshaft from 360 to 540 completes the power stroke.
During power stroke (expansion stroke) both inlet valve and exhaust valve are in closed
position. The high-pressure gases produced due to combustion, will exert pressure on the
top face of the piston, the piston moves rapidly in the down ward direction performs
power stroke.
0 0
Exhaust stroke: Rotation of crankshaft from 540 to 720 completes the exhaust stroke.
At the beginning of exhaust stroke, the exhaust valve opens, and the upward movement
of the piston pushes the exhaust gases out the cylinder. At the end of the exhaust stroke
the exhaust valve closes.
0 0
Thus one cycle completes by rotating the crankshaft from 0 to 720 .
Fig.2.16a. four stroke petrol engine
2.4.5.2 Four stroke Diesel engines

Working of four stroke diesel engine
The four-stroke diesel engine works on the
principle of diesel (constant pressure) cycle. The
parts of four-stroke diesel engine are cylinder,
piston, head, crankcase, connecting rod, crankshaft,
fuel injector, inlet and exhaust valve. The four-
stroke diesel engine may be air-cooled or water-cooled. The piston performs four strokes
to complete one cycle. The four different strokes are i) Suction stroke ii) Compression
stroke iii) Power or Expansion stroke iv) Exhaust stroke.
Fig.2.17. four stroke diesel engine

o
i) Suction stroke: The suction stroke is completed by rotating the crankshaft from 0 to
o
180 . During suction stroke the inlet valve opens and exhaust valve should kept in
closed position. When the piston starts moving from TDC to BDC, The volume above
the piston increases, results in decrease in pressure (vacuum), This decrease in pressure
draws the air from atmosphere and fills the air in to the cylinder, this process is
continuous till the pressure inside the cylinder becomes equal to atmosphere. At the end
of suction stroke the cylinder is completely filled with air. At the end of suction stroke
the inlet valve closes. The line AB in the PV diagram represents suction stroke (Volume
of air filled in the cylinder).
o o
ii) Compression stroke: Rotation of crankshaft from 180 to 360 completes the
compression stroke. During compression stroke both inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
In this stroke the piston travels from BDC to TDC. When the piston starts moving from
BDC to TDC the air is compressed, both pressure and temperature of the air increases.
At the end of the compression stroke the temperature of the air reaches the ignition
temperature of diesel. The line BC represents the compression stroke.
Before the end of the compression stroke, the fuel injector starts injecting the diesel in to
the combustion chamber. The heat of the compressed air burns the injected diesel. The
combustion takes place at constant pressure. The line CD represents increase in the
pressure at constant pressure.
o o
iii) Power stroke: Rotation of crankshaft from 360 to 540 completes the power
stroke. During power stroke (expansion stroke) both inlet valve and exhaust valve are in
closed position. The high-pressure gases produced during combustion, will exert
pressure on the top face of the piston, the piston moves rapidly in the down ward
direction performs power stroke. The energy is supplied to the flywheel during power
stroke. This energy propels the vehicle.
o o
iv) Exhaust stroke: Rotation of crankshaft from 540 to 720 completes the exhaust
stroke. At the beginning of exhaust stroke, the exhaust valve opens, and the upward
movement of the piston pushes the exhaust gases out the cylinder. At the end of the
exhaust stroke the exhaust valve closes.
o o
Thus one cycle completes by rotating the crankshaft from 0 to 720 , i.e., two
revolutions of the crankshaft.
2.4.6 Two stroke engines

Two strokes engine: In two-stroke engine the cycle is completed in two strokes, i.e. one
revolution of the crank shaft. The difference between two-stroke and four-stroke engines
is in the method of filling the cylinder with the fresh charge and removing the products
of combustion.
2.4.6.1 Two stroke petrol engine.

The parts of two-stroke petrol engine are
Cylinder: The cylinder liner is made in the form of barrel (hollow cylinder).
The head is connected at the top of the cylinder. A crankcase is connected at the bottom
of the cylinder. The cylinder liner is provided with cooling fins for cooling purpose; an
exhaust port is located opposite to the transfer port. One end of the transfer port is
connected to the cylinder and the other end is connected to the crankcase through which
the charge enters.
Head: A spark plug is fitted at the top of the head. Fins are provided in the head
for cooling purpose.
Crankcase: The crankcase is fitted at the bottom of the cylinder. An inlet port is
provided in the crankcase to allow the charge from carburetor to the crankcase, another
port is known as transfer port, which transfers the charge from transfer port to the
cylinder. The crankcase of two-stroke engine should be an airtight chamber, which
prevents the leakage of air in or out of the cylinder.
Piston: The opening and blocking of the ports are done by the movement of the
piston in the cylinder. The piston is fitted with only compression rings (2 or 3 rings)
The two-stroke petrol engine works on the principle of Otto cycle. The parts of
two-stroke petrol engine are cylinder, piston, head, crankcase, connecting rod,
crankshaft, spark plug, inlet port, transfer port and exhaust port. The piston performs two
strokes to complete one cycle. The two strokes are i) First stroke or down ward ii)
Second stroke or upward stroke.
Upward stroke or working stroke: In two-stroke petrol engine some charge is present
either in the cylinder block or in the crankcase. To start a two-stroke engine, power is
supplied either by using a kicker or by electric start.
During upward stroke, the piston reciprocates from top dead center to bottom
dead center. As the piston moves upward volume below the piston increases results in
decrease in pressure in the crankcase. Due to pressure difference charge (petrol & air) is
drawn from the carburetor. As the piston moves further upwards covers both exhaust and
transfer port, now the charge is subjected to compression. Before the end of the
o
compression stroke the spark (crank angle 20 before TDC) occurs in the combustion
chamber. Due to combustion of charge, the pressure increase, which pushes the piston
downwards i.e. the working stroke of the piston. As the piston moves rapidly in the
down ward direction compress the charge present in the crankcase.
Down ward stroke or exhaust stroke: As the piston moves further down wards, first it
uncovers the exhaust port. Due to pressure difference the high-pressure gases leaves the
combustion chamber. As the piston moves further down wards, it uncovers transfer port,
which allows the compressed charge in the crankcase to the cylinder. The fresh charge is
deflected upwards by the deflector provided on the top of the piston and pushes the
remaining exhaust gases present in the cylinder. The process of removal of exhaust gases
from the cylinder is known as scavenging.
Fig.2.18. First stroke or down ward
2.4.6.2 Two stroke diesel engine

Construction:
Head- Only fuel injector is fitted in the head. In air-cooled engine fins are
provided in the head for cooling purpose. The head is fitted above the cylinder block.
Cylinder block- it consists of 3 ports namely exhaust port, inlet port and transfer
port. The piston reciprocates in the cylinder block. The exhaust port is located opposite
to transfer port. The piston is fitted with only compression rings. Around the cylinder
block fins are provided for cooling purpose.
Crankcase- The crankcase is fitted below the cylinder block. The crankshaft is
fitted inside the crankcase. The crankshaft is supported by two bearings (ball or roller
bearings) on either side of crankshaft.
Working
Upward stroke or working stroke: In two-stroke diesel engine some charge is present
either in the cylinder block or in the crankcase. To start a two-stroke engine, power is
supplied either by using a kicker or by electric start.
During upward stroke, the piston reciprocates from bottom dead center to top
dead center. As the piston moves upward volume below the piston increases results in
decrease in pressure in the crankcase. Due to pressure difference air is drawn from the
atmosphere. As the piston moves further upwards covers both exhaust and transfer port,
now the air is subjected to compression. The temperature of the air during compression
increases just above the ignition temperature of the diesel. Before the end of the
compression stroke the fuel is injected and begins to burn. Due to combustion of charge,
the pressure increases, which pushes the piston downwards i.e. the working stroke of the
piston. As the piston moves rapidly in the down ward direction compress the air present
in the crankcase.
Downward stroke or exhaust stroke: As the piston moves further down wards, first it
uncovers the exhaust port. Due to pressure difference the high-pressure gases leaves the
combustion chamber. As the piston moves further down wards, it uncovers transfer port,
which allows the compressed air in the crankcase to the cylinder. The fresh air is
deflected upwards by the deflector provided on the top of the piston and pushes the
remaining exhaust gases present in the cylinder. The process of removal of exhaust gases
from the cylinder is known as scavenging. As the piston reaches BDC pushes all the air
present in the crankcase, thus completes the down ward stroke.
In the next cycle again the piston moves from TDC to BDC.
2.4.7 Difference between petrol and diesel engine.

i) The petrol engine works on the principle of Otto cycle and the diesel engine works
on the principle of diesel cycle.
ii) In petrol engine during suction stroke petrol and air mixture is fed in to the cylinder,
where as in diesel engine only air is fed in to the cylinder.
iii) In petrol engine, the carburetor prepares correct air fuel mix and is delivered to the
cylinder, In case of diesel engine fuel injector injects diesel directly in to the cylinder.
iv) In petrol engine the air fuel mix is ignited by the spark given by the spark plug. In
case of diesel engine, the heat of the compressed air burns the injected diesel in
cylinder.
v) The compression ratio of petrol engine varies from 6 to 9, whereas in case of diesel
engine the compression ratio varies from 15 to 24.
vi) The petrol engine is cheaper than a diesel engine.
vii) The maintenance cost of diesel engine is more than a petrol engine.
viii) The petrol engine gives more pollutants then a diesel engine.
ix) The petrol engine runs smoother than a diesel engine.

x) The petrol engine produces less vibration than a diesel engine.
xi) The diesel engine gives more mileage than a petrol engine.
2.4.8 Difference between two stroke and four stroke engines.

i) In 4 - stroke engine, one cycle is completed in two complete revolution of crankshaft
o
(720 ) where as, in a 2 - stroke engine one cycle is completed in one complete
o
revolution of the crankshaft (360 ).
ii) In 4 - stroke engine, the suction and exhaust ports are opened by valves, whereas in
2 - stroke engine the piston itself opens and blocks the ports during reciprocation.
iii) The crankcase of a 4 - stroke engine is a closed chamber, where as in 2 - stroke
engine the crankcase is closed pressure tight chamber.
iv)In 4 - stroke engine the turning moment is not uniform, so a heavy flywheel is
required. Whereas in 2 – stroke turning moment is uniform, so a lighter flywheel is
required.
v) In 4 - stroke engine During exhaust stroke the movement of the piston pushes all the
gases out of cylinder, whereas in 2 - stroke engine removal of exhaust gases is partly due
to pressure difference and partly due to scavenging.
vi) In 4 - stroke engine wear & tear is less because of one power stroke in two
revolutions of crankshaft, whereas in 2 - stroke engine wear & tear is more because of
one power stroke in one revolution of crankshaft.
vi) In 4 - stroke engine the volumetric efficiency is better, whereas in 2 - stroke engine
the volumetric efficiency is poor.
vii) In 4 - stroke engine the thermal efficiency is better, whereas in 2 - stroke engine the
thermal efficiency poor.
viii) In 4 - stroke engine due to one power stroke in two revolutions lesser cooling is
needed, whereas in 2 - stroke engine due to one power stroke one revolution of
crankshaft more cooling is needed.
ix) In 4 - stroke engine the charge directly enters into the cylinder, whereas in 2 - stroke
engine first the charge enters into crankcase then through transfer port it enters in to the
cylinder.
x) In 4 - stroke engine the oil consumption is less, whereas In 2 - stroke engine oil
consumption is more.
xi) In 4 - stroke engine number of components are more hence it is costly, whereas in
2 - stroke engine number of components are less hence it is cheap.
xii) The 4 - stroke engine needs more maintenance than a 2 – stroke engine.
xiii) The 4 – stroke engine needs more space than a 2 – stroke engine.
2.4.9 Simple calculations in internal combustion engines.

i) Mean effective pressure (pm): It is defined as the average pressure is acting
on the piston during the entire expansion (power stroke) stroke.
2
pm = Mean effective pressure N / m
ii) Indicated power (IP): The power developed within the piston –cylinder
arrangement by the combustion of fuel is known as the indicated power. The pressure
acting on the piston varies throughout the working cycle. To record the variation of
pressure for one cycle of operation, a device called piston indicator is mounted by
drilling a small hole on the cylinder cover. It mainly consists of a small plunger and a
cylinder. The plunger displacement is proportional to the pressure acting on it from
inside against the spring force on the other side. The movement of the plunger
transmitted to a stylus through linkages. The stylus traces out a graph on a recording
drum, which rotates at a constant speed. The graph thus obtained is called the indicator
diagram. The area of the indicator diagram is proportional to the work done in a cycle.
Mean effective pressure (pm):

The work done on the piston for one cycle of operation is given
by W = ∫ pdV,
Where the integration is carried out for one cycle,
p is the pressure,
V is the volume.
Indicator diagram. Mean effective pressure.
The right hand side of the equation is nothing but the area within the loop on the
pressure-volume diagram.
The mean effective pressure is defined as the equivalent constant pressure which
has to be acting on the piston during the expansion stroke, to give the same work output
as the varying pressure, in one cycle.
From the indicator diagram, the mean effective pressure can e calculated
as, pm =s.a/l.
where,
s = spring constant of the spring used in the piston
indicator, l = length of the indicator diagram, a = area of the
indicator diagram.
Note that, spring constant is the pressure required to cause unit deflection of the
spring.
i) When pm is expressed in N/
2
m IP =
ii) When pm is expressed in bar 100 pm L A n

IP = kW
60
Where,
pm = mean effective pressure,
L = stroke length,
A = area of cross-section of the piston,
n = number of cycles per minute,
= N/2 for a four stroke engine,
= N for a two stroke engine.
N = crank shaft speed, rpm
ii) Brake power (BP): The power available at the crank shaft is always less than
the power developed within the piston-cylinder arrangement because of frictional losses
in the moving parts. The power actually available at the crank shaft is called the brake
power. It can be measured using dynamometers. One such dynamometer is the brake-
drum dynamometer.
It consists of a drum, which is mounted on the crankshaft. A rope is wound on the

drum. One end of the rope is connected to a spring balance, and the other end, to a
weight-loading device.
The torque on the brake drum is given by,
T = (W - S) x R
Where,
W = weight on the rope, N.
S = spring balance reading, N.
R = mean radius of brake drum, m.
Brake power is given by,

2πNT
BP = kW
60 x 1000
iii) Frictional power: The difference between indicated power and brake power
is known as frictional power
FP = IP – BP kW
iv) Mechanical efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of brake power to indicated

power
Brake power
ηmech =
Indicated power
v) Thermal efficiency: In IC engines, energy is supplied to the engine by burning fuel.

But all of the energy that is supplied is not converted into useful mechanical work. Some
of the energy supplied is lost through hot exhaust gases, some due to the cooling of the
engine and some through radiation and convection heat losses. The fraction of the
energy supplied that is available as useful work determines the thermal efficiency of the
engine. The thermal efficiency can be calculated either for the indicated power, or for
the brake power. Accordingly they are referred to as indicated thermal efficiency, and
brake thermal efficiency.
Heat supplied to the engine per sec = mass of fuel burnt x calorific value.
Indicated power
η indicated thermal =
mf x CV
Brake power
η brake thermal =
mf x CV
Where,
mf = Mass of fuel used in kg / sec.
CV = Calorific value of fuel kJ / kg
vi) Specific fuel consumption (SFC):
It is the mass of fuel supplied per hour in order to get unit power output.
mf
SFC = kg/kW-hr
Power
SFC can be calculated on indicated power basis or on brake power basis.
Problem 1: The following observations were recorded during a test on a 4-stroke

engine. Bore = 25cm, stroke=40cm, crank speed=250 rpm, net load on the brake
drum=700N, diameter of brake drum=2m, indicated mean effective pressure=6bar,
fuel consumption=0.0013kg/s, specific gravity of fuel=0.78, calorific value of
fuel=43900kJ/kg. Determine (i) BP, (ii) IP, (iii) FP, and (iv) mechanical efficiency
(v) indicated and brake thermal efficiency. (VTU Jan 2003)
Given : d = 250 mm = 0.25 mt

L = 400 mm = 0.4 mt
N = 250 rpm n = N/2 for a 4 stroke engine = 250/2 = 125
cycles/min
(W – s) = 700 N
D=2m
Pm = 6 bar = 600 kPa
mf = 0.0013 kg/sec
Specific gravity = 0.78
CV= 43900 kJ/kg.
Solution:
i) Brake power (BP)
Torque, T = (W – S) R = 700 x 2/2 = 700 N-m.
ii) Indicated power (IP)
IP =
i = Number of cylinders
ii) Frictional power (FP)
FP = IP – BP
FP = 24.54-18.32 = 6.22 kW
iv) Mechanical efficiency
v) Indicated thermal efficiency
= 0.4299 or 42.99%
vi) Brake thermal efficiency
0.321 or 32.1%
Problem 2: The following are the details of a 4-stroke petrol engine. (i) diameter of
brake drum=60.03cm, (ii) full brake load on drum=250N, (iii) brake drum speed = 450
rpm, (iv) calorific value of petrol = 40MJ/kg, (v) brake thermal efficiency=32%, (vi)
mechanical efficiency=80%, specific gravity of petrol=0.82. Determine – (i) brake
power, (ii) indicated power, (iii) fuel consumption in liter per second, and (iv) indicated
thermal efficiency. (VTU -JAN 2004)
Given data: N = 450 rpm n = N/2 for a 4 stroke engine = 450/2 = 225 cycles/min
( W – s ) = 2500 N
D = 600.3 mm = 0.6003 m. 3
Specific gravity of petrol = 0. 82 Density ρ = 0.82 x 1000 kg/ m
3
CV= 40 MJ/ kg = 40 x 10 KJ/Kg.
ηbrake thermal = 0.32
ηmech = 0.8
Solution: i) Brake power (BP)
T = (W-S) / R = 250 x ( 0.6006 / 2) = 75.03 N-m.
ii) Indicated power (IP)
, =
iii) Indicated thermal efficiency
iv) Fuel consumption
= 0.2762 kg/sec
Volume =
Problem 3: A four-cylinder two-stroke petrol engine develops 30kW at 2500 rpm. The
mean effective pressure on each piston is 8bar, and mechanical efficiency is 80%.
Calculate the diameter and stroke of each cylinder, stroke to bore ratio is 1.5. Also
calculate the fuel consumption if brake thermal efficiency is 28%. The calorific value of
fuel is 43900 kJ/kg. (VTU – Feb 2005)
Given data : i = 4 cylinders

BP = 30 kW
N = 2500 for a 2 stroke engine n = 2500 cycles / min
CV= 43900 KJ/Kg.
ηmech = 80 % = 0.8
d / D = 1.5
ηbrake thermal = 28 % = 0.28
Solution:
i) , =
IP = where i = Number of cylinders
d = 0.062 mt = 62 mm
L =1.5d = 1.5
ii) Fuel consumption
= 0.00244 kg/sec
0.00244 kg/hr
Problem 4: A person conducted a test on a single cylinder two-stroke petrol engine and
found that the mechanical efficiency and brake thermal efficiency of the engine are 0.7
and 0.2 respectively. The engine with a mean effective pressure of 6bar ran at 300
rev/min consuming fuel at a rate of 2.2kg/hr. Given that the calorific value of fuel is
42500 kJ/kg and that the stroke to bore ratio of the engine is 1.2, find the bore and stroke
of the engine. (VTU – Jan 2006)
Given data: i = 1 cylinder

N = 300 rpm for a 2 stroke engine n = 300 cycles / min
CV= 42500 KJ/Kg.
ηmech = 70 % = 0.7
l / D = 1.2
ηbrake thermal = 20 % = 0.2
mf = 2.2 kg / hr = kg / sec
Solution:
= 0.2762 kg/sec
= ηbrake thermal
= 0.22
= 5.19 kW
, =

d = 0.138 mt = 138 mm
L =1.2d = 1.2
5. The following data are obtained on a 4-stroke petrol engine-Bore=250mm, stroke

length = 450mm, speed of the engine = 180 rpm, mechanical efficiency 80%, mean
effective pressure = 0.65 MPa. Find the fractional power loss for the engine.
(VTU- july 2006)
Given data: d = 250 mm = 0.25 mt

L = 450 mm = 0.45 mt
N = 180 rpm n = N/2 for a 4 stroke engine = 180/2 = 90
cycles/min
ηmech = 80 % = 0.8
Pm = 0.65 MPa = 650 kPa
i = Number of cylinders
iP LAN
IP m kW
60
2
1x 650 x ( 0.25 / 4) X 180
21.53 kW
60
BP
mech IP
BP = ηmech x IP = 0.8 x 21.53 = 17.53 kW
Frictional power (FP)

FP = IP – BP
FP = 21.53 – 17.24 = 4.29kW.
1-A two stroke gas engine has piston diameter of 150 mm, length of stroke 400 mm and
indicated mean effective pressure 5-5 bar. The engine makes 120 explosions per
minute. Determine the mechanical efficiency of the engine, if its BHP is 5 kW. [ans.:
64.2 %]
2 - A S.I. engine uses a fuel-air mixture consisting of 1 part fuel and 13-5 part air by
mass.
Calorific value of fuel is 44000 kJ/kg. The brake thermal efficiency of the engine
is 25%. Find its
(a) brake output for a fuel consumption of 1 kg/Hr
(b) brake specific fuel consumption
(c) air consumption/kW Hr.
[ans.; 3.06 kw, 0.327 kg/kw.hr, 4.41 kg]
3 - A 4 cylinder four stroke petrol engine develops indicated power of 14-7 kW at 1000
rpm. The mean effective pressure is 5-5 bar. Calculate the bore and stroke of engine if
the length of stroke is 1-5 times of the bore.
[ans.: 87.9 mm, 131.8 mm]
4 - An engine uses 8 kg of oil per hour of calorific value 42000 kJ/kg. If the brake
power of the engine is 40 kW and mechanical efficiency is 85%. Calculate:
(a) Indicated thermal efficiency
(b) Brake thermal efficiency
(c) Specific fuel consumption in kg/BP/Hr. [ans:
50.42%, 42.86%, 0.17 kg/ip.h, 0.2 kg/bp.hr]
5 - A single cylinder, 4-stroke diesel engine running at 1800 rpm has a bore of 85 mm
and a
stroke of 110 mm. It takes 0-56 kg of air per minute and develops a brake power
output of 6 kW while the air fuel ratio is 20 : 1. The calorific value of the fuel used is
3
42550 kJ/kg and the ambient air density is 118 kg/m . Calculate:
(a) The volumetric efficiency and
(b) Brake specific fuel consumption.
[ ans.:84.5%, 0.28 kg/bp.hr]
6 - A four cylinder, 4-stroke petrol engine is designed to develop 35 kW indicated

power at a
speed of 3000 rpm. The compression ratio used is 5. The pressure and temperature at
the
beginning of compression stroke are 1 bar and 27°C respectively. The maximum
pressure of the cycle is limited to 30 bar. Calculate the diameter and stroke of each
cylinder, assuming all

cylinder have equal dimensions. Take L/D = 1-5. Assume γ = 1-4.
[ans.:78.76 mm, 118.12 mm]
Outcomes:
• Student has understood the importance of turbines & I.C engines .
• Students are aware of the different types turbines i.e steam, gas and
water turbines and engines like 2, 4 stroke petrol and diesel engine.
Review Questions
1. Differentiate between impulse & reaction steam turbine.

2. Explain different types fuels.
3. Explain with neat sketch impulse steam turbine.
4. Explain with neat sketch reaction steam turbine..
5. Explain the working of Pelton wheel with neat sketch
6 Explain the working of Francis turbine with neat sketch
Machine Tools and Automation
Unit III
Machine Tools Operations:
Turning, facing, knurling, Thread cutting, Taper Turning by
swivelling the compound rest, Drilling, Boring, Reaming,
Tapping, Counter Sinking, Counter Boring, -Plane milling,
End milling, Slot milling. (No sketches of Machine tools,
sketches to be used only for explaining operations. Students to
be shown the available machine tools in the Machine Shop of
the college before explaining the operations)
Robotics and Automation:
Robotics: Introduction, classification based on robots
configuration; Polar, cylindrical, Cartesian Coordinate and
spherical. Application, Advantages, and disadvantages
Automation: Definition, types -Fixed, Programmable &

Flexible automation, NC/ CNC machines: Basic elements
with simple block diagrams, advantages and disadvantages.
10 hours
3.1 Machine Tools Operations
3.1.1 Introduction:
Production or manufacturing can be simply defined as value addition processes
by which raw materials of low utility and value due to its inadequate material properties
and poor or irregular size, shape and finish are converted into high utility and valued
products with definite dimensions, forms and finish imparting some functional ability.
The products are made by a combination of manual labor, machinery, tools and energy.
The word manufacturing is derived from the Latin word “ manu factus” meaning
made by hand; The word manufacture first appeared in AD 1567 and the word
manufacturing in 1683. The word production and manufacturing is used
interchangeably.
The conversion of resources into raw materials is normally taken care of by two
sub disciplines of engineering – mining and metallurgy. The real conversion starts from
the stage where the material is obtained in the raw form. There are many process
involved in converting an available raw material into final product. These processes of
conversation are known as manufacturing process.
3.1.2 Manufacturing Processes

This refers to science and technology of manufacturing products effectively,
efficiently, economically and environment-friendly through
• Application of any existing manufacturing process and system
• Proper selection of input materials, tools, machines and environments.
• Improvement of the existing materials and processes
• Development of new materials, systems, processes and techniques
It is extremely difficult to tell the exact number of various manufacturing
processes existing and are being practiced presently because a spectacularly large
number of processes have been developed till now and the number is still increasing
exponentially with the growing demands and rapid progress in science and technology.
However, all such manufacturing processes can be broadly classified in four major
groups as follows:
(a) Shaping or forming
Manufacturing a solid product of definite size and shape from a given
material taken in three possible states:
In solid state – e.g., forging rolling, extrusion, drawing etc.
In liquid or semi-liquid state – e.g., casting, injection moulding etc.
In powder form – e.g., powder metallurgical process.
(b) Joining process

Welding, brazing, soldering etc.
(c) Removal process
Machining (Traditional or Non-traditional), Grinding etc.
(d) Regenerative manufacturing
Production of solid products in layer by layer from raw materials in different
form:
Liquid – e.g., stereo lithography
Powder – e.g., selective sintering
Sheet – e.g., LOM (laminated object manufacturing)
Wire – e.g., FDM. (Fused Deposition Modeling)
Regenerative Manufacturing is the latest one, which is generally accomplished

very rapidly, and quite accurately using CAD and CAM for Rapid Prototyping and
Tooling.
3.1.3 Purpose of Machining

Most of the engineering components such as gears, bearings, clutches, tools,
screws and nuts etc. need dimensional and form accuracy and good surface finish for
serving their purposes. Pre – forming like casting, forging etc. generally cannot provide
the desired accuracy and finish. For that such preformed parts, called blanks, need semi-
finishing and finishing and it is done by machining and grinding. Grinding is also
basically a machining process.
Machining to high accuracy and finish essentially enables a product to
Fulfill its functional requirements
Improve its performance
Prolong its service
The general processes that a component undergoes before being converted into
final product are;
a) Casting
b) Primary and Secondary forming
c) Machining
d) Joining, assembly and finishing.
3.2 LATHE
Lathe: The lathe is one of the oldest machine tools and also known as the father of the
machine tool. The first basic lathe was designed by Henry Maudslay, in the year 1797.
Definition: Lathe is a machine tool used to remove metal from the work piece, to a
required shape and size.
The work is held in a work holding device know as chuck. Work is rotated about
its axis, against a single point cutting tool. The tool moves parallel to the axis of rotation
of the work piece to produce a cylindrical surface. The tool should be harder than the
material of the work piece, should be rigidly held on tool post of the machine and should
be fed in a definite way relative to the work.
Fig.3.1. working principals of lathe
Fig.3.2. Centre Lathe
3.2.1 Parts of a Centre Lathe

Bed: The bed is the main component of a lathe. All the major components are
mounted on the lathe bed, like tail stock, headstock, carriage, etc. Tailstock and
carriage move over the guide ways provided on top face of the bed. The bed
material should have high compressive strength and high wear resistance. Cast
iron alloyed with nickel chromium forms a good material for bed.
Headstock: Headstock is mounted on the left hand side of the lathe bed. The
head stock is hollow accommodates gear box, which helps to vary the spindle
speed. The gear box also transmits the power to other parts like feed rod and lead
screw. The chuck or face plate is attached to the spindle which provides
mechanical means clutching and rotating the work piece. The headstock contains
speed and feed changing levers. Head stock is also known as live center
Tailstock: The tailstock is mounted on the right hand side of the lathe bed. The
function of the tailstock is to support the work piece, and to accommodate
different tools like drill, reaming, boring and tapping, etc. The tailstock moves on
the guide ways over the bed, to accommodate for different length of work piece.
Tailstock is known as dead center.
Carriage: The carriage is mounted on the lathe bed, which slides on the guide
ways of the bed. The carriage has various other parts like, saddle, cross slide,
compound rest, tool post and apron.
i) Saddle
The saddle is mounted on the bed and slides along the ways. The cross
slide and tool post are mounted on the saddle. The movement of the
saddle is parallel along the axis of the lathe, it is also known as feed.
ii) Cross slide
The cross slide is mounted on the top of the saddle. This moves the tool at
perpendicular to the work piece or machine axis. The cross slide can be
moved either by rotating the cross slide hand wheel or engaged with the
apron mechanism (Automatic movement). The perpendicular distance

moved by the cross slide is proportional to the amount of metal removed
and it is known as depth of cut.
iii) Compound slide
The compound slide (compound rest) is mounted on the top of the cross
slide. The rest part of the compound slide has graduations in degree.
Compound slide is used to obtain taper on the work piece, even this helps
to fix the tool right angle to machine axis.
iv) Tool post
The tool post is mounted on top of the compound slide. The tool post
holds the tool rigidly.
v) Apron
The apron is fastened to the saddle and hangs over the front of the bed. It
apron is fitted with mechanism for both manual and powered movement
of the saddle and the carriage. Split nut engages the Apron with lead
screw, which is used to cut internal or external threads.
vi) Feed rod
Feed rod is a long shaft extending from the feed box. The power is
transmitted from a set of gears from headstock. The feed rod is used to
move the carriage or cross slide for turning, boring and facing operations.
vii) Lead screw
The lead screw is a long threaded shaft connected to the headstock. The
lead screw is used only when thread cutting operation is to be carried out
on the work piece. For normal turning operations the lead screw is
disengaged.
Fig.3.2a.
Centre Lathe
3.3 Lathe Operations:

Different types of operations that can be carried out
1. Turning
2. Facing
3. Chamfering
4. Knurling
5. Forming
6. Grooving and parting off
7. Drilling
8. Boring
9. Taper turning
10. Thread cutting
3.3.1 Turning
Straight Turning is the removal of metal from the outer diameter of a rotating
cylindrical work piece. Turning is used to reduce the diameter of the work piece, usually
to a specified dimension, and to produce a smooth finish on the metal. Often the work
piece will be turned so that adjacent sections have different diameters.Turning operation
shows in figure 3.3
Fig.3.3. Turning operation

3.3.2 Facing
Facing is the process of removing metal from the end of a work piece to produce
a flat surface. It is some time called squaring. The facing tool used is of round edge; if
the tool is pointed then the work piece will not have good finishing. The work piece
rotates about its axis and the facing tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of lathe. Most
often, the work piece is cylindrical, but using a 4-jaw chuck you can face rectangular or
odd-shaped work to form cubes and other non-cylindrical shapes.
Fig.3.4. Facing operation
3.3.3 Chamfering
It is a process of creating a slop or bevel type at the end of the work piece. This
process is carried out for removing the unwanted metals and burrs after turning
operation. The tool is fed perpendicular and parallel to the axis of the rotating work
piece. The process is generally carried out after knurling, rough turning, and thread
cutting.
Fig.3.5. Chamfering operation
3.3.4 Knurling
Knurling is the process of embossing a required shaped pattern on the surface of
the work piece. This diagram shows the knurling tool pressed against a piece of circular
work piece. The lathe is set so that the chuck revolves at a low speed. The knurling tool
is then pressed against the rotating work piece and pressure is slowly increased until the
tool produces a pattern on the work piece.
Fig.3.6. Knurling operation

3.3.5 Parting
Parting off is the operation of cutting a work piece after it has been finished to
the desired dimension and shape. This operation is carried out with a narrow cutting tool
known as parting tool. In parting operation both feed is fixed or locked and depth of cut
is controlled properly until the work is cut off in parts.
Fig.3.7. Parting operation

3.3.6 Drilling
Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a work piece using a drill. The
work piece is held in the chuck and the drill is held in the tailstock. The feed is provided
by means of moving the sleeve of the tailstock. The figure shows the drilling operation.
Fig.3.8. Drilling operation
Drill bit Drill Attachment
3.3.7 Boring
Boring is the operation of enlarging the previously drilled hole. The operation is carried
out by using a single point cutting tool known as boring tool. The tool is supported on a
tool post. The depth of cut is given by the cross slide and the feed is given by moving the
carriage. (Why boring is done in lathe or drilling machine. Example to drill a hole of
diameter 9.35 mm, the standard drill available in the market is 9 mm or 10mm. First 9
mm hole is drilled using a drill; afterwards using boring
tool 9mm hole is enlarged to 9.35mm using boring tool)
Fig.3.8. Boring operation

3.3.8 Taper turning

A taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter of work
piece measured along its length. Taper surface is generated on a cylindrical work piece.
The amount of taper in a work piece is usually specified by the difference in diameters
of the taper to its length.
D d
α
D-Large diameter of taper in mm.

d- Small diameter of taper in mm.
l- Length of tapered part in mm.
α- Angle of taper or half taper angle.
3.3.9 Taper Turning Methods

The taper turning is done on a lathe by different methods. The selection of
method depends on length of taper to be generated on the work piece. The different
methods of taper turning are
1. Taper turning by form tool method
2. Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest.
3. Taper turning by offsetting the tail stock

4. Taper turning by taper turning attachment.
3.3.10 Taper Turning by Form Tool Method

The form tool has a cutting edge formed at the desired angle. The form tool is a
replica of the shape (Taper angle) to be produced on the work piece. The form tool is fed
against a rotating work piece; the shape of the tool is reproduced on the work piece. The
form tool method is restricted only for short length tapers.
Fig.3.9. Taper Turning by Form Tool Method
3.3.11 Taper Turning by Swiveling Compound Rest

In this method of taper the half taper angle is calculated. The compound rest has
rotating base graduated in degrees, which can be rotated to any angle (according to the
taper angle). In this method the tool is advanced by rotating the compound rest and hand
wheel so that the tool moves according to set taper angle. This method produces taper
length larger than form tool method.
Fig.3.10. Taper Turning by Swiveling Compound Rest
Formula which is used to calculate taper angle is tan α = D - d 2L

α = Half taper angle
D= Large diameter
d= Small diameter
L= Length of taper
3.3.12 Taper turning by tailstock offset method

In a lathe the live center and dead center both lies on the same axis. The work is
held between the live and dead center. The dead center (tailstock) axis is shifted
(towards or away from the operator) to the required length on the lathe bed to get taper
on the work piece.
o.
In this method amount of set over is limited to a maximum of 8 In tail stock off
set method small taper angle is obtained for longer length work piece.
The tailstock off set method is as shown in figure. The work piece is held between
the centers and the carriage is moved on the bed. The tool traces the lathe axis, but the
work piece is offset by an angle. Hence taper is generated on the work piece.
Fig.3.11. Taper turning by tailstock offset method
(D – d) L
Off set, X =
2l
X = Set over
D= Large diameter
d= Small diameter
L= Length of work piece
l = Length of taper
3.3.13 Taper Turning by a Taper Turning Attachment

A taper turning attachment is fitted on the backside of the lathe bed. There is a
guide bar which guides the tool based on the taper required on the work piece. The guide
bar can be swiveled according to taper angle. The guide block is connected to the cross
slide. The guide block guides the tool. The cross slide is made free from the lead screw
by removing the binder screw.
Fig.3.12. Taper Turning by a Taper Turning Attachment
During taper turning the guide bar is tilted at an angle. The guide block follows
the path of the guide bar. The carriage is moved on the lathe bed, now the tool is guided
by the guide block. The tool traces the path of the guide bar. The required taper is
generated on the work piece.
3.3.14 Thread Cutting

Thread cutting is the operation of producing helical groove on a cylindrical
surface. Threads may be square or v threads can be cut on a cylindrical work piece. The
threads of any pitch, shape and size can be cut on a lathe. A single point cutting tool (V-
tool or square tool) is used to cut threads on the work piece.
For thread cutting operation, the tool is moved automatically in longitudinal

direction. The longitudinal feed should be equal to the pitch of the thread to be cut per
revolution of the work. The lead screw has a fixed pitch. So, ratio between the rotation
of work piece and the longitudinal feed is found out. The work piece and lead screw are
connected by a set of gears. The lead screw is engaged to the carriage by closing the half
nut lever.
Fig.3.13. Thread Cutting
During thread cutting, both work piece and lead screw rotate at the same speed. The
pitch of the lead screw is equal to pitch of work piece. To cut the threads, the tool is
brought in contact with work piece. The carriage is brought in contact with lead screw
by operating half nut lever. The tool is moved along the axis, generates the threads on
the work piece. This process is repeated several times till the required depth, pitch and
finish is obtained.
Turning processes (typically are carried on a lathe) are shown in figure 3.13
Fig.3.13. Lathe operations

3.4 Drilling Machine

3.4.1 Introduction
Any component manufactured has one or more cylindrical hole in them. Holes
form the fastening of the component. The process of making a hole is known a drilling.
It forms the most efficient and economical machining process for cutting a hole in a
solid metal. The cutting tool, which is used for making holes, is known as drill. The drill
is a multipoint cutting tool.
Definition: Drilling is the operation of making

holes in a work piece using a drill bit. The hole
generated by the rotating drill, which exerts large
force on the work piece clamped rigidly on the
machine table. The figure below illustrates a cross
section of a hole being cut by a common twist
drill.
The First drilling machine was designed to generate cylindrical holes (cavities) in
the work piece, later the was machine was redesigned to perform several operations like
drilling, reaming, boring, counter boring, deep hole drill, tapping, countersinking etc.
Holes up to 80 mm diameter can be machined from the solid on drilling machine, and
holes above 80 mm are cut using special drill head or it is performed in boring machines.
3.4.2 Types of Drilling Machines
1) Portable drilling machine
2) Bench Drilling Machine (Sensitive drilling machine)
3) Upright drilling machine
4) Radial drilling machine
5) Gang drilling machine

6) Multiple spindle drilling machine
7) Automatic drilling machine
8) Deep hole drilling machine.
In this heading portable, bench and radial drilling machines are considered; other types
of drilling machines are out of scope of the syllabus.
3.4.3 Portable drilling machine
It is a small and compact machine, which can be conveniently held by hand, and
drilling operations can be carried out. These machines are used to drill small holes in
large work piece. Portable machines run at high speeds, powered by electrical motor or
pneumatic. The maximum diameter of hole it can drill is 12 mm. The feed is applied by
hand.
Fig.3.14. Portable drilling machine
3.4.4 Bench Drilling Machine (Sensitive Drilling Machine)

Fig.3.15. Bench drilling machine
It is a lightweight-drilling machine mounted on a bench used to carry out light

drilling operations. These machines are also known as sensitive drilling machine. Bench
drilling machines can drill holes in the range of 0.35 mm to 15 mm in diameter. The drill
bit is fed into the work piece by hand using feed handle. The operator gets to know or he
can feel the travel of the drill into the work piece. Hence, the machines are known a
sensitive drilling machine. The main parts of the machine are base, column, table,
spindle, head and driving mechanism.
Column
It is a cylindrical post that stands vertical on the base. Column supports table,
spindle head, motor and the driving mechanism.
Table
Table is attached to the column, supports the work piece and the work holding
device. The table is adjustable vertically and radially along the column. T – Slots are
provided on the table for clamping work holding devices or the work piece. The table
can be rectangular or circular, depending up on the work piece shape and size.
Spindle head and driving mechanism

Spindle head and the driving mechanism are mounted on the column. An electric
motor is provided on one side and the other side spindle assembly. The power is
transmitted from motor to spindle assembly by a V belt. Stepped cone pulley
arrangement are provided for varying speed of the spindle. Usually there are 6 speeds
available in the range of 50 rpm to 2000 rpm. The spindle head holds the drill chuck.
Drill chuck is the clamping device for the drill bit.
3.4.5 Upright Drilling Machine
This type of drilling machine is very similar to the bench type drilling machine.
These machines are heavy duty machines which can drill holes up to 25 mm in diameter.
Machines have round column and are place on the floor. The feed mechanism is
automated and varying speeds are available for drilling holes. The parts of the upright
drilling machines are same as that of the bench drilling machine.
3.4.6 Radial Drilling Machine
Fig.3.16. Radial drilling machine

Base
Base is the main foundation; a heavy circular column is mounted on the base. The table
is mounted on the top face of the base. The base should be strong enough to with stand
the cutting forces, which are transmitted from the table to the base during operation.
Column
The column supports for the radial arm. The cylindrical portion of the column should
have very good surface finish. On the cylindrical portion the column the radial arm can
be lowered or raised, and even the radial arm can be swing to any desire angle on the
column. On the top of the column a motor is mounted which helps to raise or to lower
the radial arm on the vertical column.
Radial arm
The radial arm should be strong enough to carry drill head, motor and other accessories
mounted on the radial arm. The drill head can be moved to and fro on the face (guide
ways) of the radial arm. The drill head contains a spindle which can be raised or lowered
with respect to the work piece.
Table
The table is mounted on the base of the machine. The work piece may be mounted on
the table or when the work is very large it may be placed on the floor.
3.5 Drilling Operations

The different operations that can be performed in a drilling machine are
1) Drilling 2) Reaming
3) Boring 4) Counter boring
5) Counter sinking 6) Spot facing
3.5.1 Drilling
The drilling is one of the simplest methods of producing a hole. Before drilling a
hole, the center point of the hole has to be marked on the work piece. The center point of
the hole is marked by just drawing two cross lines or by using instruments.
Fig.3.17. drilling operation
The mark is indented using a center punch. The hole to be drilled may be a through hole
or a blind hole. Through hole can be drilled on any machine, but to drill a blind hole we
need a sophisticated machine.
3.5.2 Reaming
Reaming is a sizing and finishing operation performed on a previously drilled
hole. The tool used for reaming operation is known as reamer, which has multiple
cutting edges. The spindle speed is half compared to drilling operation. Reamers cannot
produce hole, but follow the path already defined by the drilling. The metal removed in
this process is small, range is about 0.35 mm.
Fig.3.18. Reaming operation
3.5.3 Boring
The boring operation is done to finish a drilled hole. It is a process of enlarging
the already drilled hole. Boring operation is carried out on a single point cutting tool.
This becomes necessary where suitable sized drill is not available or where diameter is
so large that it cannot be ordinarily drilled. Boring corrects the roundness of the hole to
accurate size.
Fig.3.18. Boring operation

The cutter is held in a boring bar which is connected to the spindle of the drilling
machine. The boring speed is one forth of the speed of the drilling. The process is very
slow compared to any other drilling operations.
3.5.4 Counter Boring

It is the operation of enlarging the top end of a hole cylindrically. This forms a square
shoulder to the original hole. This is necessary in some cases to accommodate the heads
of bolts, studs and pins. The counter boring tool is a multi point cutting tool. The counter
boring operation is carried out at much lesser speed compared to drilling. At the tip of
the tool a pilot, extends beyond cutting edge guides, the tool for proper alignment with
the work piece.
Fig.3.19. Counter Boring operation
3.5.5 Counter Sinking

Counter sinking is the operation of making a conical shaped at the top of the hole in a
previously drilled cylindrical hole. Countersinking is done to fit in a screw or a
countersink rivet. The top of the hole is conical in shape compared to square shape in
counter boring. Initially a hole is drilled in the work piece using a drill bit. Then the
counter sinking tool is used to make cone shaped hole at the top.
Fig.3.20. Counter Sinking operation
3.5.6 Spot Facing

Spot facing is the operation of smoothing and squaring the surface around a hole
for the seat for bolt head or nut. This operation is done with a special tool called facing
tool.
3.6 Milling Machines
3.6.1 Introduction
Milling is one of the most versatile machining processes or a metal cutting
process for removing excess material from a work piece with a rotating multiple cutting
tools. Each tooth removes a small amount of metal in each revolution; hence metal
removal rate is high. Milling can be used to produce a very large variety of intricate
shapes and size.
A milling machine is a machine tool used to produce parts having flat as well as
curved shapes of metal and other solid materials. Its basic form is that of a rotating cutter
or endmill which rotates about the spindle axis (similar to a drill), and a movable table to
which the workpiece is affixed. That is to say the cutting tool generally remains
stationary (except for its rotation) while the workpiece moves to accomplish the cutting
action
A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed
against a rotating multipoint cutter (Milling cutter). The milling cutter is a multiple –
point tool, which has equally spaced peripheral teeth. The cutter rotates at a speed and
because of the multiple cutting edges on the cutter it removes metal at a very fast rate.
The machine can also hold one or more number of cutters at a time. This is why a
milling machine finds wide application in production work. This is superior to other
machines as regards accuracy and better surface finish.
Fig.3.21. working principle of milling

operation
3.5.2 Types of Milling Machines:
Milling machines are generally classified into two types. This classification is
done based on the orientation of the axis of rotation of the spindle or the cutter. The two
types are
a) Horizontal Milling Machine
b) Vertical Milling Machine
In horizontal milling machine the spindle is horizontal and in the same plain as
the table and in vertical milling machine the spindle is vertical to the table.
Milling machines are classified based on the construction features

a) Knee and column type milling machine
I. Plain or horizontal milling machine (horizontal spindle)
II. Universal milling machine (horizontal spindle with swivel table)
III. Omniversal milling machine (horizontal spindle with swivel table and
swivel knee)
IV. Vertical milling machine
V. Turret type milling machine
VI. Ram type milling machine
b) Bed type
Horizontal – spindle bed type milling machine
Vertical – spindle bed type milling machine
Simplex – duplex – triplex model (based on number of milling spindles)
c) Planar type
Fixed bridge milling machine
Moving bridge or Gantry type milling machine
d) Special type
Profilers
Duplicators
Rotary Millers
Planetary Millers
3.5.2 Milling Processes
Up – Milling
It is know as a conventional milling. Metal is removed when the cutter moves
upwards. The cutter rotates opposite direction of feed of work piece. At the beginning of
the cutting process the chip thickness is at
minimum as the process of cutting proceeds
the thickness of the chip increases.
Thickness of the chip would be maximum at
the end of the cut. Similarly in case of
stress, minimum at the initial stage,
increases and reaches maximum at the end
of the cut. The cutting force is directed upwards and this tends to lift the work from the
table, therefore greater need for good clamping device.
Down Milling
This type of milling is also known as climb
milling. The metal removed by the cutter is in the
downward direction. The cutter and feed are in the
same direction. In this type of milling the chip thickness is maximum at the beginning of
the cut and decreases as the cutting process progress. Thickness of the chip is least at the
end of the cut. The cutting force is maximum when the tooth begins its cut and it reduces
to minimum when the tooth leaves the work piece. The cutting action of the teeth press
the work piece downwards, this tends to seat the work firmly on the table. Hence, lesser
clamping force is required for the work piece.
3.5.3 Difference between up milling and down milling
Sl.
UPMILLING DOWNMILLING
No
The direction of rotation of the The direction of rotation of the cutter and
1 cutter and the work piece travel work piece travel are in the same direction.
are in the opposite direction.
The material removed by the The material removed by the milling cutter
milling cutter starts with a starts with a maximum thickness and ends
2
minimum thickness and ends with a minimum thickness.
with a maximum thickness.
The cutting force of the milling The cutting force of the milling cutter acts
cutter acts upwards tends to lift down wards, push the work piece in down
3 the work piece from the table, direction results in lesser clamping force.
results in greater clamping
force.
The chips accumulate at the Chips are disposed off easily and do not
4 cutting zone and interfere with interfere with cutting tool.
cutting tool.
It is difficult to pour the coolant The coolant can be poured directly at the
5
directly at the cutting zone. cutting zone.
In up milling greater speeds In down milling greater speeds and feeds
6
and feeds are not possible. are possible.
In up milling good surface In down milling good surface finish can be
7
finish can be obtained. obtained.
3.5.4 Column and Knee Type Milling Machine:

Knee and column milling machines are designed for general-purpose work and
can perform not only the straight milling of plane and curved surfaces but also gear
and thread cutting drilling boring and slotting.
3.5.5 Horizontal milling machine Knee and column type
Fig 3.22. Knee and column type Horizontal milling machine
The basic components of a knee and column type milling machines are
1. The base, which supports the other components.
2. The column, which contains the spindle and its driving mechanism
3. The over arm, which provides support for arbor – mounted cutters
4. The knee, a separate section attached to the column and can move vertically
over the column
5. The saddle, which is supported by and moves horizontally on the knee
6. The table, which supports the work piece and can move horizontally at right
angles to the saddle movement.
Base: The base of the machine is made of cast iron. The top and bottom surface are
machined accurately and serves as a foundation member for all other parts of the
machine. Base provides strength and rigidity to the machine. It may also contain a
reservoir for cutting fluids
Column: The column is the supporting frame mounted vertically on the base. The
column is hollow box shaped and incorporates all driving mechanisms, like the spindle,
the bearings, the gearbox, the clutches, the shafts, the pumps, and the shifting
mechanisms for transmitting power from the electric motor to the spindle at a selected
speed. The front vertical face of the column is accurately machined and contains a
dovetail guide ways. The over arm is supported at the top of the column.
Fig 3.22a. Knee and column type Horizontal milling machine
Knee: The knee is a rigid cast iron casing, which slides up and down on the vertical face
of the column over a dovetail guide ways. The guide ways are perpendicular to the front
face of the column. The elevating screw is used to raise or lower the knee (Z direction)
to accommodate the height of the workpiece. On top face of the knee a horizontal
dovetail guide ways are provided for saddle.
Saddle: The saddle can slides on the face of the knee, this movement is know as cross
feed. The saddle moves perpendicular to the face of the column (movement towards and
away from the column). The cross feed is obtained by hand or by power. The top surface
of the saddle is machined to high degree of accuracy and a dovetail guide ways are
provided for the table to be mounted. The guide ways are parallel to the face of the
column.
Table: The table rests on the saddle and travels longitudinally. The longitudinal travel of
the table is perpendicular to the axis of the spindle. The top and bottom of the table is
machined for high degree of accuracy, T – slots are provided on top face of the table,
which supports for work holding devices like vice. The table movement is either by hand
or power.
Over arm: The over arm is mounted on the top face of the column. One end of the arbor
is supported on vertical face of the column and the other end is supported by over arm,
which also acts as bearing for the arbor.
3.5.6 Principal Parts of a Vertical Milling Machine

Fig 3.23. Vertical milling machine
The basic components of a knee and column type Vertical milling machines are
1. The base, which supports the other components.
2. The column, which contains the spindle and its driving mechanism
3. The knee, a separate section attached to the column and can move vertically
over the column
4. The saddle, which is supported by and moves horizontally on the knee
5. The table, which supports the work piece and can move horizontally at right
angles to the saddle movement.
6. The spindle head, this hold the spindle which is normal to the machining
surface or the table
The base, column, knee, saddle and table of a vertical milling machine are very
similar to that of the Horizontal Milling machine. The difference is the positioning of the
spindle. The spindle axis is vertical or normal to the machining surface of the work
piece. The over – arm and the arbor are not present in vertical type. `The milling cutter is
directly mounted on to the spindle with spindle attachment.
The spindle head or Machine head is supported by the column, which is mounted
on the base of the milling machine. Spindle shaft one end is connected to a motor
through a gearbox for, varying speed of the spindle. The other end of the spindle shaft is
connected to the milling cutter. The spindle can move up and down relative to work
piece. In some vertical milling machines the spindle head can swivel, allowing the
milling cutter to machine angular surfaces.
Fig 3.23a. Vertical milling machine
Vertical milling machines are used for machining grooves, slots and flat surfaces.
The usual tools that are mounted on to the spindle are end mill and face mill.
3.6 Milling Operations

The different types of milling operations that can be carried out on a
milling machine are-
1) Slab or plain milling
2) Face milling
3) Straddle milling
4) Slotting
5) Angular milling
6) Gang milling
7) Form milling
3.6.1 Slab or plain milling

The slab milling is the operation of producing flat, horizontal surface parallel to
the axis of rotation of a slab-milling cutter. Slab milling is done to remove the material
from the upper surface of the work piece. The slab milling cutters is held in the arbor
and it may have straight or helical teethes. Both cutters can be used to generate flat
surfaces. The require depth of cut can be adjusted by raising the table or the knee and the
feed is given by moving the saddle.
Fig 3.24 slab or plain milling operation

Helical teeth mill
3.6.2 End milling or Face Milling

Face milling is the operation of milling flat surface on the face of the work piece.
The difference between the plain milling and the face milling is the axis of the milling
cutter. The operation is performed by a face-milling cutter rotated about an axis
perpendicular to the surface machined. The face-milling cutter is mounted on a vertical
milling machine. The cutter is directly mounted on to the spindle head. The depth of cut
is adjusted by raising or lowering the spindle head.
Fig 3.25 End milling or Face Milling operation
3.6.3 Slotting
The process of producing keyways grooves and slots of varying shapes and
sizes is known as slotting. The side milling cutter is mounted on to the arbor of a
horizontal milling machine when slotting had to be done on Horizontal milling
machine. T – Slots and dovetail slots are carried out on a veridical milling machine
Fig 3.26 Simple Slotting of key way using side milling cutter
3.6.4 Angular milling

The angular milling is a process of generation of angular surface on a work
piece. The angular groove may be single or double angle depends on the shape of groove
required. One simple example of angular milling is a v-block.
Fig 3.27 Angular Milling operation
3.6.5 Form Milling

It is a process of producing a required profile on the work piece. This process is carried
out on horizontal milling machine. The number of parallel and angular relationships that
can be machined by horizontal (peripheral) milling is limited almost solely by cutter
design. Form cutters are expensive, but it is the only way of obtaining complex profiles.
Fig 3.27 Form milling
3.6.6 Gang Milling

It is a process of milling a work piece with two or more cutter mounted on the same
arbor. There are no space collars provided. The size of the cutter can be same or
different depending up on the profile of the end product required. Gang milling is
commonly used to produce several different steps simultaneously in a work piece or to
produce sections of the same thickness from bars or extrusions.
Fig 3.28 Gang milling

3.6.7 Straddle Milling

The straddle milling is the operation of generating two flat vertical surfaces on
either sides of work piece at the same time. The side milling cutters are mounted on the
arbor of the horizontal milling machine. The space between the two side mills depends
of the width of the vertical surface and the distance is obtained by the spacing collars.
Fig 3.29 Straddle Milling

3.7 Robotics and Automation

3.7.1 Introduction to Robotics
Robotics is the art, knowledge base, and the know-how of designing, applying, and
using robots in human endeavors. Robotics is an interdisciplinary subject that benefits
from mechanical engineering, electrical and electronic engineering, computer science,
biology, and many other disciplines.
3.7.2 History of Robotics
• 1922 Czech author Karel Capek wrote a story called Rossum’s

Universal Robots and introduced the word “Rabota”(meaning worker)
• 1954 George Devol developed the first programmable Robot.
• 1955 Denavit and Hartenberg developed the homogenous
transformation matrices
• 1962 Unimation was formed, first industrial Robots appeared.
• 1973 Cincinnati Milacron introduced the T3 model robot, which
became very popular in industry.
• 1990 Cincinnati Milacron was acquired by ABB
• 21C: Walking Robots, Mobile Robots, Humanoid Robots
•
3.7.3 Robot Definition
“A re-programmable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move

material, parts, tools or specialized devices through variable programmed
motion for a variety of tasks”
3.7.4 Classification of robot based on physical configuration

Coordinate system types determine position of a point with measurements of distance or
angle or combination of them. A point in space requires three measurements in each of
these coordinate types. It must be noted that the same point can be found in any system.
Different coordinate systems are merely to cater for a different situation. Four major
coordinate systems used in the study of robotics are:
I. Cartesian Coordinate system

II. Cylindrical Coordinate system
III. Polar or Spherical Coordinate system
IV. Jointed arm or articulated Coordinate system
3.7.5 Cartesian configuration

These Robots are made of 3 linear joints that orient the end effector, which are usually
followed by additional revolute joints. The arm movement of a robot using the Cartesian
configuration can be described by three intersecting perpendicular straight lines, referred
to as the X, Y, and Z axes (Figure3.30). Because movement can start and stop
simultaneously along all three axes, motion of the tool tip is smoother. This allows the
robot to move directly to its designated point, instead of following trajectories parallel to
each axis.One advantage of robots with a Cartesian configuration is that their totally
linear movement allows for simpler controls, Figure 2-34. They also have a high degree
of mechanical rigidity, accuracy, and repeatability. They can carry heavy loads, and this
weight lifting capacity does not vary at different locations within the work envelope. As
to disadvantages, Cartesian robots are generally limited in their movement to a small,
rectangular work space.
Fig 3.30. Cartesian configuration
3.7.6 Cylindrical Configuration
Cylindrical (R2P): Cylindrical coordinate Robots have 2 prismatic joints and one
.
revolute joint A cylindrical configuration consists of two orthogonal slides, placed at a
90° angle, mounted on a rotary axis. Reach is accomplished as the arm of the robot
moves in and out. For vertical movement, the carriage moves up and down on a
stationary post, or the post can move up and down in the base of the robot. Movement
along the three axes traces points on a cylinder, shown in Figure3.31. A cylindrical
configuration generally results in a larger work envelope than a Cartesian configuration.
These robots are ideally suited for pick-and-place operations. However, cylindrical
configurations have some disadvantages. Their overall mechanical rigidity is reduced
because robots with a rotary axis must overcome the inertia of the object when rotating.
Their repeatability and accuracy is also reduced in the direction of rotary movement. The
cylindrical configuration requires a more sophisticated control system than the Cartesian
configuration.
Fig 3.31. Cylindrical configuration
3.7.7 Polar or Spherical configuration
The spherical configuration, sometimes referred to as the polar configuration,

resembles the action of the turret on a military tank. A pivot point gives the robot its
vertical movement, and a telescoping boom extends and retracts to provide reach,
Figure 3.32. Rotary movement occurs around an axis perpendicular to the base.
The spherical configuration generally provides a larger work envelope than the Cartesian
or cylindrical configurations. The design is simple and provides good weight lifting
capabilities. This configuration is suited to applications where a small amount of vertical
movement is adequate, such as loading and unloading a punch press. Its disadvantages
include reduced mechanical rigidity and the need for a more sophisticated control system
than either the Cartesian or cylindrical configurations. The same problems occur with
inertia and accuracy in this configuration as they do in the cylindrical configuration.
Vertical movement is limited, as well.
Spherical joint (2RP): They follow a spherical coordinate system, which has one
Fig 3.32. Polar configuration
3.7.8 Articulated or jointed arm configuration
Articulated/anthropomorphic(3R) :An articulated robot’s joints are all revolute, similar to a

human’s arm.
Fig 3.32. Jointed arm or revolute configuration
The revolute configuration, or jointed-arm, is the most common. These robots are
often referred to as anthropomorphic because their movements closely resemble
those of the human body. Rigid segments resemble the human forearm and upper
arm. Various joints mimic the action of the wrist, elbow, and shoulder. A joint
called the sweep represents the waist. A revolute coordinate robot performs in an
irregularly shaped work envelope. There are two basic revolute configurations:
vertically
articulated and horizontally articulated.
The vertically articulated configuration, shown in Figure 3.32, has five

revolute (rotary) joints. A vertically articulated robot is depicted in Figure 2-28.
The jointed-arm, vertically articulated robot is useful for painting applications
because of the long reach this configuration allows.
The horizontally articulated configuration generally has one vertical (linear)

and two revolute joints. Also called the SCARA (selective compliance assembly
robot arm) configuration, it was designed by Professor Makino of Yamanashi
University, Japan. The primary objective was a configuration that would be
fairly yielding in horizontal motions and rather rigid in vertical motions. The
basic SCARA configuration,is an adaptation of the cylindrical configuration.
The SCARA robot shown in Figure 3.33 is designed for clean-room
applications, such as wafer and disk handling in the electronics industry.
SCARA robots are ideally suited for operations in which the vertical motion
requirements are small compared to the horizontal motion requirements. Such an
application would be assembly work where parts are picked up from a parts
holder and moved along a nearly horizontal path to the unit being assembled.
The revolute configuration has several advantages. It is, by far, the most
versatile configuration and provides a larger work envelope than the Carte-sian,
cylindrical, or spherical configurations. It also offers a more flexible reach than
the other configurations, making it ideally
suited to welding and spray painting operations.
However, there are also disadvantages to the revolute configuration. It

requires a very sophisticated controller, and programming is more complex than
for the other three configurations. Different locations in the work envelope
Fig 3.33. Jointed arm or revolute configuration

3.7.9Advantages of Robots
Robots can work in hazardous environments without the need.

Robots need no environmental comfort.
Robots work continuously without experiencing fatigue of problem.
Robots have repeatable precision at all times.
Robots can be much more accurate than human.
Robots replace human workers creating economic problems.
Robots can process multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously.
Robots increase productivity, safety, efficiency, quality, and

consistency of products.
3.7.10 Disadvantages
Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies.

Robots, although superior in certain senses, have limited capabilities in Degree of
freedom, Dexterity, Sensors, Vision system, real time response.
Robots are costly, due to Initial cost of equipment, Installation costs, Need for
Peripherals, Need for training, Need for programming.
3.7.11 Robot Applications
Machine loading
Pick and place operations
Welding
Painting
Sampling
Assembly operation
Manufacturing
Surveillance
Medical applications
Assisting disabled individuals
Hazardous environments
Underwater, space, and remote locations
Fig 3.34. A Staubli robot loading and unloading
Fig 3.35 . Staubli robot placing dishwasher tubs

Fig 3.36. An AM120 Fanuc robot
Fig 3.37. A P200 Fanuc painting automobile bodies
Fig 3.38. A P200 Fanuc painting automobile bodies

Fig 3.39. Staubli RX FRAMS robot in a BMW
Fig 3.40. A Fanuc LR Mate 200i robot removal operation
Fig 3.41. Medical Robot of German

Fig 3.42. Sony (AIBO) – Toy robot
Fig 3.43. Robots as Humanoids

3.8 Automation
3.8.1 Definitions
Numerical Control (NC) refers to the method of controlling the manufacturing operation
by means of directly inserted coded numerical instructions into the machine tool. It is
important to realize that NC is not a machining method; rather, it is a concept of
machine control. Although the most popular applications of NC are in machining, NC
can be applied to many other operations, including welding, sheet metalworking,
riveting, etc. Because of the introductory character of this chapter, we will restrict our
discussion only to two dimensional machining operations (e.g. turning), which are
among the most simple applications of NC. Nevertheless, most of the principles and
conclusions here are also valid for more advanced NC
3.8.2 Brief relevant history NC
1947 - US Air Force needs lead John Parsons to develop a machine able to Produce parts describes
in 3D.
1949 - Contract with Parsons Corporation to implement to proposed method.
1952 - Demonstration at MIT of a working machine tool (NC), able to produce parts resorting to
simultaneous interpolation on several axes.
1955First NC machine tools reach the market
1957 - NC starts to be accepted as a solution in industrial applications , withfirst machines starting

to produce.
197x - Profiting from the microprocessor invention appears the CNC.
3.8.3 Advantages
The major advantages of NC over conventional methods of machine control are as follows:
higher precision: NC machine tool are capable of machining at very close

tolerances, insome operations as small as 0.005 mm;
machining of complex three-dimensional shapes: this is discussed in Section

6.2 in connectionwith the problem of milling of complex shapes;
better quality: NC systems are capable of maintaining constant working

conditions for all parts in a batch thus ensuring less spread of quality characteristics;
higher productivity: NC machine tools reduce drastically the non machining

time.Adjusting the machine tool for a different product is as easy as changing the
computer program and tool turret with the new set of cutting tools required for the
particular part.
multi-operational machining: some NC machine tools, for example machine

centers are capable of accomplishing a very high number of machining operations
thus reducing significantly the number of machine tools in the workshops.
low operator qualification: the role of the operation of a NC machine is simply to

upload the workpiece and to download the finished part. In some cases, industrial robots
are employed for material handling, thus eliminating the human operator.
3.8.4 Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is a specialized and versatile form of Soft

Automation and its applications cover many kinds, although it was initially developed to
control the motion and operation of machine tools.
Computer Numerical Control may be considered to be a means of operating a machine

through the use of discrete numerical values fed into the machine, where the required 'input'
technical information is stored on a kind of input media such as floppy disk, hard disk, CD
ROM, DVD, USB flash drive, or RAM card etc. The machine follows a predetermined
sequence of machining operations at the predetermined speeds necessary to produce a
workpiece of the right shape and size and thus according to completely predictable results.
A different product can be produced through reprogramming and a low-quantity

production run of different products is justified.
Fig 3.44. CNC Machine Centre
3.8 .5 Elements of a CNC System
A CNC system consists of the following 6 major elements:
a. Input Device
b. Machine Control Unit
c. Machine Tool
d. Driving System
e. Feedback Devices
f. Display Unit
Fig 3.44. Working Principles of CNC Machines
3.8.6 Input Devices
a. Floppy Disk Drive
Floppy disk is a small magnetic storage device for CNC data input. It has been the most
common storage media up to the 1970s, in terms of data transfer speed, reliability,
storage size, data handling and the ability to read and write. Furthermore, the data within
a floppy could be easily edited at any point as long as you have the proper program to
read it. However, this method has proven to be quite problematic in the long run as
floppies have a tendency to degrade alarmingly fast and are sensitive to large magnetic
fields and as well as the dust and scratches that usually existed on the shop floor.
b. USB Flash Drive A USB flash drive is a removable and rewritable portable hard
drive with compact size and bigger storage size than a floppy disk. Data stored inside the
flash drive are impervious to dust and scratches that enable flash drives to transfer data
from place to place. In recent years, all computers support USB flash drives to read and
write data that make it become more and more popular in CNC machine control unit.
c. Serial communication
The data transfer between a computer and a CNC machine tool is

often accomplished through a serial communication port. International standards for
serial communications are established so that information can be
exchanged in an orderly way.
Ethernet communication
Due to the advancement of the computer technology and the drastic reduction of the cost of the
computer, it is becoming more practical and economic to transfer part programmes between
computers and CNC machines via an Ethernet communication cable. This media provides a
more efficient and reliable means in part programme transmission and storage. Most companies
now built a Local Area Network (LAN) as their infrastructure. More and more CNC machine
tools provide an option of the Ethernet Card for direct communication within the LAN.
3.8.7 Machine Control Unit (MCU)
The machine control unit is the heart of the CNC system. There are two sub-units
in the machine control unit: the Data Processing Unit (DPU) and the Control Loop
Unit (CLU).
a. Data Processing Unit
On receiving a part programme, the DPU firstly interprets and encodes the part programme into
internal machine codes. The interpolator of the DPU then calculate the intermediate positions of
the motion in terms of BLU (basic length unit) which is the smallest unit length that can be
handled by the controller. The calculated data are passed to CLU for further action.
b. Control Loop Unit
The data from the DPU are converted into electrical signals in the CLU to control the driving
system to perform the required motions. Other functions such as machine spindle ON/OFF,
coolant ON/OFF, tool clamp ON/OFF are also controlled by this unit according to the internal
machine codes.
3.8.8 Machine Tool
This can be any type of machine tool or equipment. In order to obtain high accuracy and
repeatability, the design and make of the machine slide and the driving leadscrew of a
CNC machine is of vital importance. The slides are usually machined to high accuracy
and coated with anti-friction material such as PTFE and Turcite in order to reduce the
stick and slip phenomenon. Large diameter recirculating ball screws are employed to
eliminate the backlash and lost motion. Other design features such as rigid and heavy
machine structure; short machine table overhang, quick change tooling system, etc also
contribute to the high accuracy and high repeatability of CNC machines.
3.8.9 Driving System
The driving system is an important component of a CNC machine as the accuracy and
repeatability depend very much on the characteristics and performance of the driving
system. The requirement is that the driving system has to response accurately according
to the programmed instructions. This system usually uses electric motors although
hydraulic motors are sometimes used for large machine tools. The motor is coupled
either directly or through a gear box to the machine leadscrew to moves the machine
slide or the spindle. Three types of electrical motors are commonly used.
3.8.10 Feedback Device
In order to have a CNC machine operating accurately, the positional values and speed
of the axes need to be constantly updated. Two types of feed back devices are normally
used, positional feed back device and velocity feed back device.
3.8.11 Display Unit
The Display Unit serves as an interactive device between the machine and the
operator. When the machine is running, the Display Unit displays the present status
such as the position of the machine slide, the spindle RPM, the feed rate, the part
programmes, etc.
In an advanced CNC machine, the Display Unit can show the graphics simulation
of the tool path so that part programmes can be verified before the actually
machining. Much other important information about the CNC system can also
displayed for maintenance and installation work such as machine parameters, logic
diagram of the programmer controller, error massages and diagnostic data.
3.8.12 Advantages:
To reduce the production/delivery time.

To reduce costs associated to parts and other auxiliary.
To reduce storage space.
To reduce time to start production.
To reduce machining time.
To reduce time to market (on the design/redesign and production).
3.8.13 Disadvantages
High initial investment
Specialized maintenance required
Does not eliminate the human errors completely.
Requires more specialized operators.
Not so relevant the advantages on the production of small or very small series.
3.8.14 Applications of CNC Machines

CNC machines are widely used in the metal cutting industry and are best used to
produce the following types of product:
Parts with complicated contours

Parts requiring close tolerance and/or good repeatability
Parts requiring expensive jigs and fixtures if produced on

conventional machines
Parts that may have several engineering changes, such as
during the development stage of a prototype
In cases where human errors could be extremely costly
Parts that are needed in a hurry
Small batch lots or short production runs
Some common types of CNC machines and instruments used in industry

are as following:
• Drilling Machine
• Lathe / Turning Centre
• Milling / Machining Centre
• Turret Press and Punching Machine
• Wire cut Electro Discharge Machine (EDM)
• Grinding Machine
• Laser Cutting Machine
• Water Jet Cutting Machine
• Electro Discharge Machine
• Coordinate Measuring Machine
• Industrial Robot
Engineering Materials and Joining Processes
Unit- IV
Engineering materials and joining processes:
Engineering Materials:
Types and applications of Ferrous & Nonferrous metals and alloys,
Composites: Introduction: Definition, Classification and applications(Air craft and
Automobiles)
Soldering, Brazing and Welding:
Definitions, classification and method of soldering, Brazing and welding. Differences between soldering,
Brazing and Welding. Description of Electric Arc Welding and Oxy Acetylene Welding.
10 hours
4.1 Introduction to Eng. Materials
Since the earliest days of the evolution of mankind , the main distinguishing features between human begins
and other mammals has been the ability to use and develop materials to satisfy our human requirements.
Nowadays we use many types of materials, fashioned in many different ways, to satisfy our requirements for
housing, heating, furniture, clothes, transportation, entertainment, medical care, defense and all the other
trappings of a modern, civilized society.
Most materials doesn't exist in its pure shape, it is always exist as a ores. During the present
century the scope of metallurgical science has expanded enormously, so that the subject can
now be studied under the following headings:
a) Physical metallurgy
b) Extraction metallurgy
c) Process metallurgy
In the recent years studying the metallurgy science gave to humanity an ever growing range of
useful alloys. Whilst many of these alloys are put to purposes of destruction, we must not
forget that others have contributed to the material progress of mankind and to his domestic
comfort.
This understanding of the materials resources and nature enable the engineers to select the
most appropriate materials and to use them with greatest efficiency in minimum quantities
whilst causing minimum pollution in their extraction, refinement and manufacture.
Evolution of Materials
Fig.4.1 Evolution of Materials

4.1.2 Selection of materials:

Let’s now start by looking at the basic requirements for selecting materials that are suitable for
a particular application.
The plastic casing has been partly cut away to show the metal connector. Plastic is used for
the outer casing because it is a good electrical insulator and prevents electric shock if a person
touches it. It also prevents the conductors touching each other and causing a short circuit. As
well as being a good insulator the plastic is cheap, tough, and easily moulded to shape. It has
been selected for the casing because of these properties - that is, the properties of toughness,
good electrical insulation, and ease of moulding to shape. It is also a relatively low cost
material that is readily available.
The metal joining piece and its clamping screws are made from brass. This metal has been
chosen because of its special properties. These properties are good electrical conductivity,
ease of extruding to shape, ease of machining (cutting to length, drilling and tapping the
screw threads ), adequate strength and corrosion resistance. The precious metal silver is an
even better conductor, but it would be far too expensive for this application and it would also
be too weak and soft.
For example figure 4.2 shows the connecting rod of a motor car engine. This is made from a special steel
alloy. This alloy has been chosen because it combines the properties of strength and toughness with the
ability to be readily forged to shape and finished by machining.
Figure 4.2. The connecting rod of motor car engine.
Thus the reasons for selecting the materials in the above examples can be summarized as :
Commercial factors such as:
Cost, availability, ease of manufacture.
Engineering properties of materials such as: Electrical conductivity, strength, toughness, ease of
forming by extrusion, forging and casting, machinability and corrosion resistance.
4.1.3 Engineering materials:

Almost every substance known to man has found its way into the engineering workshop at some time
or other. The most convenient way to study the properties and uses of engineering materials is to
classify them into ‘families’ as shown in figure below:
Figure 4.3. Classification of engineering materials.
4.2 Metals
4.2.1 Ferrous metals
These are metals and alloys containing a high proportion of the element iron.
They are the strongest materials available and are used for applications where high strength is required at
relatively low cost and where weight is not of primary importance.
As an example of ferrous metals such as : bridge building, the structure of large buildings, railway
lines, locomotives and rolling stock and the bodies and highly stressed engine parts of road vehicles.
The ferrous metals themselves can also be classified into "families', and these are shown in figure 3.
Figure. 4.4. Classification of ferrous metals.
The following are ferrous metals and the kind of uses to which they are usually put:
Mild Steel – Carbon content of 0.1 to 0.3% and Iron content of 99.7 – 99.9%. Used for engineering purposes and in
general, none specialised metal products.
Carbon steel – Carbon content of 0.6 to 1.4% and Iron content of 98.6 to 99.4 %. Used to make cutting tools such as
drill bits.
Stainless Steel – Made up of Iron, nickel and chromium. Resists staining and corrosion and is therefore used for
the likes of cutlery and surgical instrumentation. See our infographic celebrating 100 years of stainless steel usage
in buildings or the different types of stainless steel.
Cast Iron – carbon 2 – 6% and Iron at 94 to 98%. Very strong but brittle. Used to manufacture items such as engine
blocks and manhole covers.
Wrought Iron – Composed of almost 100% iron. Used to make items such as ornamental gates and fencing. Has fallen
out of use somewhat.
High Carbon Steel

Nails
Figure. 4.4. High Carbon Steel Nails
Figure. 4.5 Stainless Steels

Figure. 4.6 M- series steel drill bits coated with titanium
4.2.2 Non - ferrous metals
The non-ferrous metals which are most commonly used by engineers, it also refers to the 38 metals other
than iron that are known to man.
Two of the most important non-ferrous metals are Aluminum (Al) and Copper (Cu). They are not only
form the bases of many important alloys, but they are widely used in their own right as pure metals.
A list of non-ferrous metals would be complete without mention of the 'new metals' . Although known
for many years, these metals have only been available in bulk for engineering applications since the
Second World Ware. Further with the development of supersonic aircraft and the nuclear power industry,
that there has been a large - scale commercial demand for these materials.
These 'new metals' are very expensive compared with the more conventional engineering
materials and they are only used where their special properties can be fully exploited.
The pure non-ferrous metals are used mainly where their properties of corrosion resistance and high
electrical and thermal conductivity can be exploited. They are not widely used as structural materials
in mechanical engineering because of their relatively low strengths.
These materials refer to the remaining metals known to mankind.

The pure metals are rarely used as structural materials as they lack mechanical strength.
They are used where their special properties such as corrosion
resistance, electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity are
required. Copper and aluminum are used as electrical conductors and, together with sheet zinc
and sheet lead, are use as roofing materials.
They are mainly used with other metals to improve their strength.
Some widely used non-ferrous metals and alloys are classified as shown in figure 5.
Fig. 4.7.Classification of non-ferrous metals and alloys.

4.2.3 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys:
An alloy of aluminum, copper and manganese.

Very lightweight and easily worked.
Most abundant metallic element (8% crust)
High strength to weight ratio
Resistant to corrosion
High thermal and electrical conductivity
Nonmagnetic
Easy formability and machinability
Used in aircraft manufacture, window frames and some kitchen ware.
4.2.4 Copper and Copper Alloys
First produced in 4000 BC

Properties:Best conductors of electricity and heat, good corrosion resistance, and easily processed.
Uses:Electronics, springs, cartridges, plumbing, heat exchangers, and marine equipment.
Common alloys:Brass, Bronze, Beryllium copper
Magnesium
Copper
Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys

Lightest of all metals
Not sufficiently strong in pure form but alloyed to increase strength.
Uses:Aircraft and missile components, bikes, luggage, portable power tools…
4.2.5 Nickel and Nickel Alloys:

Major alloying element for strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance.
Offers a wide range of strength at different temperatures.
Uses: High temperature applications, food handling, chemical processing, coins, marine applications.Magnetic properties-
electromagnetic
Used in solenoids
4.2.6 Refractory Metals and Alloys:
Four refractory metals: Molybdenum, Niobium, Tungsten, and Tantlum.

Called refractory because of their high melting points.
Discovered about 200 years ago.
Used in steels and super alloys because they maintain their strength at high temperatures.
Temperature range of 1100 to 2200° C (2000 to 4000° F).
4.2.7 Titanium and Titanium Alloys:
Has the highest strength to weight ratio

Uses:Jet engines, race cars, golf clubs, submarines, and armor plates.
Pure state: strong and light
Alloys: improved workability, strength, hardenability
High cost due to long production process
4.2.8 Molybdenum (Mo):
A silvery-white metal.
Discovered in the 18th century.
Has high melting point, high modulus of elasticity, good resistance to thermal shock, and good electrical and thermal conductivity.
Needs a protective coating because of low resistance to oxidation at high temperatures.
Used in solid-propellant rockets, jet engines, honeycomb structures, electronic computers, heating elements, and dies for die casting.
Principle alloying element for titanium and zirconium.
4.2.9 Tungsten (W):
First identified in 1781.

Most abundant of all refractory metals.
Highest melting point of any metal at 3410° C (6170° F).
High strength at high temperatures.
Has high density (which makes it brittle at low temperatures).
Used in hottest part of missiles and rockets, weldinging electrodes, spark-plug electrodes, and the wire filament in incadescent
bulbs.
Processed from ore concentrates by chemical decomposition and is then reduced.
4.2.10 Lead (Pb):
High density, resistance to corrosion, softness, low strength, good ductility and workability.
Alloying it with antimony and tin make it usable in piping, collapsible tubing, bearing alloys, cable sheathing, roofing and lead-acid
storage batteries.
Also used for damping sound and vibrations, radiation shielding against x-rays, ammunition, as weights, and in the chemical
industry.
Poisonous; major efforst are being made to replace it with other elements.
Source mineral is galena (PbS).
4.2.11 Zinc (Zn):
Bluish-white in color.
4th most utilized metal in industry.
Not developed until 18th century.
Used for galvanizing iron, steel sheet, and wire and as an alloy base for casting.
Alloyed with aluminum, copper, and magnesium.
Zinc-based alloys are used for making fuel pumps and grills for automobiles, components for household appliances, kitchen
equipment, various machinery parts and photoengraving equipment.
Used in superplastic alloys.
Comes from a principle source mineral called zinc sulfide.
4.2.12 Tin (Sn):
Silvery-white, lustrous metal.

Developed in the 15th century.
Used mainly as a protective coating on steel sheets called tin plating which is used to make tin cans.
Low shear strength.
Unalloyed tin is used as a lining material for water distillation plants and as a molten layer of metal over which plate glass is made.
Tin is usually alloyed with copper, antimony, lead, titanium, and zirconium.
Can be used in journal-bearing materials because of its low friction coefficient.
4.2.13 Platinum:
Soft, ductile. Grayish-white metal.

Good corrosion resistance at any temperature.
Used as electrical contacts, for spark-plug electrodes, as catalysts for automobile pollution-control devices, in filaments, in
nozzles as jewelry, and in dental work.
4.2.14 Brass :
A combination of copper and zinc,
Usually in the proportions of 65% to 35% respectively.
Is used for ornamental purposes and within electrical fittings.
4.2.14 Silver :
Mainly a natural substance, but mixing with copper creates sterling silver.
Used for decorative impact in jewellery and ornaments, and also to solder different metals together.
4.2.15 Lead :
Lead is a naturally occurring substance.

It is heavy and very soft and is often used in roofing, in batteries and to make pipes.
4.2.16 Shape-Memory Alloys:
Can be deformed into any shape at room temperature but when heated will return to original shape.
A typical one is 55% Nickel – 45% titanium.
Used as sensors, eyeglass frames, stents, relays, pumps, switches, connectors, clamps, fasteners, and seals.
4.2.17 Amorphous Alloys (Metallic Glasses):
No long-range crystalline structure. Have no grain boundaries and the atoms are packed randomly and tightly.
First obtained in the 1960s.
Typically contain iron, nickel, and chromium, which are alloyed with carbon, phosphorus, boron, aluminum, and silicon.
Have excellent corrosion resistance, good ductility, and high strength.
Being developed to have twice the strength has high strength steels so they can be used in large structures.
Some of the nonferrous alloys shown in figure

Brass Components
4.2.18 Applications of nonferrous alloys
Aluminium Smelter (Norway)

Cast Structure of Al Ingot
Aluminium boat hulls offer corrosion resistance and light weight.

Aluminium Engine Blocks (Lupo)

Forged Aluminium Wheels
Aluminium Roofing
Copper Roofing
Tin Bell Metal

Magnesium Wheel
Titanium heat-exchangers
Nickel-based super alloys

4.3 Composite Materials

A composite material may be defined as two or more materials (phases or constituents) integrated to form a new one.
The constituents keep their properties and the overall composite will have properties different than each of them. Most
composite materials consist of a selected filler or reinforcing material and a compatible resin binder to obtain the
specific characteristics and properties desired. Usually, the components do not dissolve in each other, and they can be
physically identified by an interface between them. Composites can be of many types. Some of the predominant types
are fibrous (composed of fibers in a matrix) and particulate (composed of particles in a matrix)
. Many different combinations of reinforcements and matrices are used to produce composite materials. For example,
the matrix material may be a metal such as aluminum, a ceramic such as alumina, or a polymer such as epoxy.
Depending of the type of matrix used, the composite may be classified as a metal matrix composite (MMC), ceramic
matrix composite (CMC), or a polymer matrix composite (PMC). The fiber or particulate materials may also be
selected from any of the three main classes of materials with examples such as carbon, glass, aramid, silicon carbide,
and others. The combinations of materials utilized in the design of composites depend mainly on the type of
application and the environment in which the material will be used.
Composite materials have replaced numerous metallic components especially in aerospace, avionics, automobile, civil
structural, and sports equipment industries. An average annual gain of about 5 percent is predicted for the future usage
of these materials. One reason is due to their high strength and stiffness-to-weight ratio. Some advanced composites
have stiffness and strength similar to some metals but with significantly lower density, and therefore lower overall
component weight. These characteristics make advanced composites extremely attractive in situations were
component weight is critical. Generally speaking, similar to ceramic materials, the main disadvantage of most
composite materials is their brittleness and low fracture toughness. Some of these shortcomings may be improved, in
certain situations, by the proper selection of the matrix material.
Two outstanding types of modern composite materials used for engineering applications are fiberglass-reinforcing
material in a polyester or epoxy matrix and carbon fibers in an epoxy matrix. Figure 4.7 shows schematically
where carbon-fiber-epoxy
Fig.4.7.Overview of the wide variety of composite parts used in the Air Force’s C-17 transport. This
airplane has a wingspan of 165 ft and uses 15,000 lb of advanced composites.
4.3.1 Classification of Composites
Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

• The first level of classification is usually made with respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes
include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites
(CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon carbon
composites.
• The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form fibre reinforced composites, laminar
composites and particulate composites. Fibre Reinforced composites (FRP) can be further divided into those
containing discontinuous or continuous fibres.
• Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is
considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other
hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic
modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter
and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be
supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling.
• Laminar Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix.
Sandwich structures fall under this category.
• Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may
be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.
4.3.2 Advantages and Limitations of Composites Materials
Advantages of Composites
Summary of the advantages exhibited by composite materials, which are of significant use in aerospace industry
are as follows:
• High resistance to fatigue and corrosion degradation.
• High ‘strength or stiffness to weight’ ratio. As enumerated above, weight savings are significant ranging from
25-45% of the weight of conventional metallic designs.
• Due to greater reliability, there are fewer inspections and structural repairs.
• Directional tailoring capabilities to meet the design requirements. The fibre pattern can be laid in a manner
that will tailor the structure to efficiently sustain the applied loads.
• Fibre to fibre redundant load path.
•Improved dent resistance is normally achieved. Composite panels do not sustain
damage as easily as thin gage sheet metals.
•It is easier to achieve smooth aerodynamic profiles for drag reduction. Complex double-curvature parts with a
smooth surface finish can be made in one manufacturing operation.
•Composites offer improved torsional stiffness. This implies high whirling speeds, reduced number of
intermediate bearings and supporting structural elements. The overall part count and manufacturing & assembly
costs are thus reduced.
•High resistance to impact damage.
•Thermoplastics have rapid process cycles, making them attractive for high volume commercial applications
that traditionally have been the domain of sheet metals.Moreover, thermoplastics can also be reformed.
•Like metals, thermoplastics have indefinite shelf life.
•Composites are dimensionally stable i.e. they have low thermal conductivity and low coefficient of
thermal expansion. Composite materials can be tailored to comply witha broad range of thermal expansion
design requirements and to minimize thermal stresses.
•Manufacture and assembly are simplified because of part integration (joint/fastener reduction) thereby reducing
cost.
•The improved weatherability of composites in a marine environment as well as their corrosion resistance
and durability reduce the down time for maintenance.
•Close tolerances can be achieved without machining.
•Material is reduced because composite parts and structures are frequently built to shape rather than machined
to the required configuration, as is common with metals.
•Excellent heat sink properties of composites, especially Carbon-Carbon, combined with their lightweight
have extended their use for aircraft brakes.
•Improved friction and wear properties.
•The ability to tailor the basic material properties of a Laminate has allowed new approaches to the design
of aeroelastic flight structures.
The above advantages translate not only into airplane, but also into common implements and equipment such as a
graphite racquet that has inherent damping, and causes less fatigue and pain to the user.
Limitations of Composites
Some of the associated disadvantages of advanced composites are as follows:

• High cost of raw materials and fabrication.
• Composites are more brittle than wrought metals and thus are more easily damaged.
• Transverse properties may be weak.
• Matrix is weak, therefore, low toughness.
• Reuse and disposal may be difficult.
• Difficult to attach.
• Repair introduces new problems, for the following reasons
• Materials require refrigerated transport and storage and have limited shelf life.
• Hot curing is necessary in many cases requiring special tooling.
• Hot or cold curing takes time.
4.3.3 Applications of composite materials
The first application of wood - composite laminates in -Havilland Mosquito Fighter/Bomber of British Royal
Air-Force
Use of Modern (Polymer) Composites: During World War II -Attack on Pearl Harbour by Japanese Torpedo bomber
70% of Wet Areas Made with Composite Materials

A new generation of commercial aircraft such as the Boeing 777 and Airbus 380 has used a large quantity of
advanced composite for its primary structures.
Boeing 777 Airbus 380
F-18 External Fuel Tank Being Made By Filament Winding Technique
Chemical Container Electric Car Body High Speed Train

Composite Tie for Rail Track
Military applications
Traditional application of composite

The composite houseboat

Jute-coir composite boards
Composite artificial limbs

Modular FRP toilets for railway coaches

Composite piping system
The train made up of FRP composites

4.4 Metal Joining Processes

4.4.1 Introduction:
Joining process is where two or more pieces of parts are joined together to
produce a single product of required shape and size. The parts required for joining are
produced by any other manufacturing technique. There are different methods used to
join the parts. The joining process can be classified as
a) Permanent joining process
b) Semi – permanent or temporary joining process
Permanent joining process is done by fusing the metal together. In this process
the metal is heated to its melting state and then it is fused to become one. Some of the
examples for permanent joining process are welding soldering and brazing
Temporary joining process is where the metal is not heated. The joining process
is carried out at room temperature. Temporary joining process can be done using nuts,
bolts, screws and adhesives.
4.4.2 Soldering
It is defined as “a joining process wherein coalescence is produced by heating to
a suitable temperature and by using a filler metal having a melting point not exceeding
o
427 C and below the solidification temperature of the base metals”. The filler metal fills
in the gap of the joint by capillary action. Soldering uses fusible alloys to join metals
know as solder. Ordinary gas flames or electric soldering iron is used to supply the heat
to melt the solder. Fluxes are used with solder in soldering process.
Fluxes are defined as any solid, liquid or gaseous material when heated
accelerates the wetting of metal with the solder. Due to wetting molten solder flow into
the joint and fills the space between the two pieces to be soldered. At elevated
temperature flux is highly reducing in nature preventing the formation of metal oxides.
Fluxes that are generally used in soldering are Rosin, Zinc Chloride and Aluminum
Chloride.
The kind of solder used depends on the metals to be joined. There are two
different types of solders -
Hard solders are called spelter and hard soldering process is called silver solder
brazing. The hard solder has lead and silver as it constituents. The melting point of the
0
hard solder is in the range of 350 C and above. This process gives greater strength and
will stand more heat than soft solder.
Soft solder is used for joining most common metals with an alloy that melts at a
0
temperature below that of the base metal, and always below 427 C. The melting range
0 0
of soft solder is 150 C to 200 C. The solder contains tin and lead as it constituents.
Advantages
1. The process is done at low temperatures hence, no metallurgical damage to
the base metal.
2. The soldering joint can be dismantled by simple heating of the solder.
3. It is cost effective
Disadvantage
1. The strength of the joint is not good compared to welding.
2. Flux material has to be cleaned after soldering, as most of the fluxes
are corrosive in nature.
4.4.3 Brazing
Brazing is a joining process, which produces coalescence of materials by heating
to a suitable temperature and using a filler metal having a melting temperature above
427°C and below the solidification temperature of the base metals being joined. The
filler metal is distributed between the closely fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary
attraction. Brazing is distinguished from soldering in that soldering employs a filler
metal having a melting point below 427°C.
Brazing procedure: The metal to be joined is cleaned for oxides, dust and oil. Fluxes
are applied on the entire surface where the brazing is carried out. The parts are aligned in
position for brazing. The joint is heated using a gas torch with a Carburising flame.
Filler metal is added into the space where the metal is to be joined. Due to the wetting
action of the flux, the molten filler metal fills the space by capillary action. The joint is
allowed to cool and then the fluxes are cleaned from the surface.
The fluxes used in brazing are borax, boric acid, borates, chlorides and
fluorides. Some of the filler metal alloys used for brazing are Aluminum – Silicon,
magnesium, copper and copper zinc etc.,
Advantages
1. It can be used to join dissimilar metals.
2. It provides good pressure tight joints.
3. Different cross sectional thickness material can be brazed.
4. Brazing avoids metallurgical damage to the metal.
Disadvantages
1. Size limitations of the parts to be brazed. As the outer area has to be elevated to
the higher temperature, in large sections increasing the temperature is difficult.
2. Tight mating parts are necessary for capillary action.
3. Flux are corrosive in nature, they have to be cleaned properly after brazing.
4.4.4 Welding Process
At one time, the simple definition of welding was "joining metals through
heating them to a molten state and fusing them together." As technical progress in
welding processes has advanced, the definition has had to change.
Welding is defined as “a localized coalescence of metals, wherein coalescence is

obtained by heating to suitable temperature, with or without the application of pressure
and with or without the use of filler material. This filler material has the melting point
same as the base material.” It is also know as a metallurgical joining process of two
metal pieces, to produce a single piece of product. .
For today's definition of welding to be all encompassing, it would have to read,

"the joining of metals and plastics without the use of fasteners."
4.4.5 Welding Terminologies

Base Metal – Work pieces that are needed to be joined
Weld Bead - A weld bead is a weld deposit produced by a single pass of the
welding processes. It is also known as bead
Puddle – The molten base metal at the joint during the welding operation
Weld pass – Movement of weld torch from one end of the joint to the other
end. Tack Weld – it is the temporary joint done before welding to keep the
work pieces to be welded in place during welding. The joints are done at the
ends of the work piece.
4.4.6 Classification of Welding Process

The welding process can be classified based on the source of energy to heat
the metal and the state of metal at the joint.
1. Pressure Welding
2. Fusion Welding
4.6.7 Pressure Welding

The surfaces of the joint to be welded is heated to a plastic state and forced
together with external pressure to finish the joint.
Pressure welding depends on the application of pressures and temperatures,

resulting in a plastic state with local deformation of the pieces to be joined in the weld
area so that a bond between both pieces is made.
ISO – 857 defines Pressure welding process as “Welding in which sufficient

outer force is applied to cause more or less plastic deformation of both the facing
surfaces, generally without the addition of filler metal. Usually, but not necessarily, the
facing surfaces are heated in order to permit or to facilitate bonding”
Some of the common welding processes that can be grouped under this category are
1. Resistance welding
2. Friction Welding
3. High Frequency welding
4. Ultrasonic Welding
5. Explosion Welding
6. Magnetic Pulse welding
7. Cold pressure welding
8. Diffusion Welding etc.,
4.6.8 Fusion Welding

The piece to be joined is heated to molten state and allowed to solidify to form
joint with or without the addition of filler material. The process is carried out with out
the application of pressure.
ISO – 857 defines fusion welding “Welding without application of outer force in
which the facing surface(s) must be melted. Usually, but not necessarily, molten filler
metal is added”.
Some of the fusion welding processes are

1. Gas welding
2. Electric are welding
3. Thermit Fusion Welding
The welding Process can also be classified based type of filler material added
1. Autogeneous
2. Homogeneous
3. Heterogeneous
In autogeneous, there is no filler material added to join the work pieces. Some of
the pressure welding processes like electric resistance welding, hot and cold pressure
welding filler material are not added to the base material.
In Homogeneous, the filler material is added to compensate for the gap between
the two work pieces. The filler material that is added is of the same type as that of the
base material. Example – Welding of 70 – 30 brass with a 70 – 30 brass welding rod.
In Heterogeneous, the filler material added is of different composition to that

of the base material.
The most effective classification based on pressure and fusion welding is shown
in the figure 4.8
Fig.4.8 welding classification
4.6.9 Arc Welding

Arc welding is one of several fusion welding processes for joining metals. By
applying intense heat through a electric arc, metal at the joint is melted and caused to
intermix - directly, or with an intermediate molten filler metal. Upon cooling and
solidification, a metallurgical bond is created. Since the joining is an intermixture of
metals, the final weldment potentially has the same strength properties as the metal of
the parts
Fig.4.9 arc welding
What is an arc?
Welding arc can be defined as a “Sustained electrical discharge through an
ionized gas”.
There are two methods in which the arc formation can be
explained Ion exchange theory method
Electron theory of arc column
In arc welding the electrons are emitted from the cathode and ions from anode.
The electrons at cathode get accelerated and gain energy due to passage of high current
and low voltage. As these electrons enter the arc column, they lose their energy by
colliding with gas molecules in the air gap between the cathode (electrode) and the
anode (work piece). Due to the collision, electrons give out their kinetic energy and
break the gas atoms into electrons and positive ions. The electrons and ions move
towards cathode and anode respectively, concentrate at anode and cathode regions, get
condensed and absorbed. This produces good amount of heat energy which is employed
for joining various metals and alloys by fusion.
In electron theory, when an electric arc is struck between the anode and the
cathode, flow of electrons takes place from cathode to anode. The electrons mass is very
less and they attain high velocities. High velocity electrons strike the anode giving out
their kinetic energy into heat energy. The positive charge ions move from the anode to
cathode encircling the stream of electrons at the center. The maximum heat energy
released from an electric arc column is at the anode when DC arc welding is done.
In electron theory, when an electric arc is struck between the anode and the
cathode, flow of electrons takes place from cathode to anode. The electrons mass is very
less and they attain high velocities. High velocity electrons strike the anode giving out
their kinetic energy into heat energy. The positive charge ions move from the anode to
cathode encircling the stream of electrons at the center. The maximum heat energy
released from an electric arc column is at the anode when DC arc welding is done.
Fig4.10. Electron theory of arc column
4.6.10.Arc Welding Equipment

For Arc welding DC and AC welding supply, electrode holder, and welding cables are
used
Fig.4.11. Arc Welding Equipment

DC Power Supply
DC arc welding equipment has AC transformer and a rectifier or a DC generator.
In DC supply the open circuit voltage ranges from 30 to 75 volts and 150 to 600 Amps
current. There are 6 standardized rating for general purpose. The machines with 150 and
200 amps with a voltage of 30 volts are used for general purpose job shop work. The
machines rated with 200, 300 and 400 amps with 40 volts are used for general welding
purpose. Machines rated with 600 amps and 40 volts are generally used in specialized
arc welding.
4.6.11 DC Welding
In DC arc welding, the welding current circuit may be hooked up as either
straight polarity (DCSP) or reverse polarity (DCRP).
In DCSP (Direct Current Straight Polarity) the machine connections are electrode
negative and work piece is positive. The electrons flow from electrode to work piece.
Electrons hitting the plate are at high velocity; they exert a considerable heating effect
on the plate. In DCSP the weld would be narrow and deep in nature when compared to
DCRP.
Fig.4.12. DC Welding
In DCRP (Direct Current Reverse Polarity) the machine connections are positive
and work piece negative. The electrons move from the work piece to the electrode. The
electrodes get extra heat; this melts the electrode leading to faster consumption. Hence,
bigger diameter electrodes are used when DCRP welding is done. DCRP gives a wide
and relatively shallow weld to that of DCSP.
AC Power Supply
The most commonly used power source for welding is AC supply. The
equipment used is a Transformer, which changes high voltage, low amperage power to
low voltage, high amperage welding power. High current supply is used in the circuit.
The transformer used can be connected to single, two and three phase connection. When
connected to single phase the current in the circuit is less hence used for welding thinner
sections of work piece with smaller diameter electrode. Two phase and three phase
supply, transformers can operate at high current hence used for welding thicker sections
of the work piece. The transformers are equipped with arc stabilizing capacitors. They
are either air-cooled or oil cooled depending upon their ampere rating. Generally current
is in the range of 150 – 400 Amps with open circuit voltage varying from 30 to 100
volts.
AC welding
AC welding is theoretically a combination of DCSP and DCRP welding. The
current rises from zero to maximum (DCSP), return to zero, increase in opposite
direction to maximum and return to zero (DCRP). By this it completes one cycle which
0 0 0
is of 360 . The maximum value that it reaches is 90 on one side and 270 on the
opposite side. With the alternate flow of current, the arc is extinguished during each half
– cycle as the current reduces to zero and re-ignites as the voltage increases in the
circuit. By this the polarity of the electrode and the base metal change in every cycle.
The arc energy liberated is equal is equal on work surface and the electrode. The
penetration of the weld in AC welding is approximately midway between the two DC
types.
Electrode Holder
It is a device use to hold the electrode and conduct electricity from the power
cables to the electrode. The holder has jaws in which the electrode can be fixed. The
jaws may not be insulated. Electrode holders are available from a working range of 100
to 600 amps. The holder should have a heat and electricity resistant handle for working.
The holder should be light, sturdy and easy to fix electrode.
Welding Cables
Cables conduct current from the power source through the electrode holder, the
arc, and the work piece and back to the welding power source. Cables are of copper or
aluminum. The cables are well insulated with rubber and woven, fabric reinforced layer.
The cable that connects the electrode holder to the power source is know as the electrode
lead and the cable that connects the work piece to the power source is know as ground
lead.
4.6.12 Welding Electrodes

It is a piece of rod or wire, which is made of metal or alloy, with or without flux
coated. The electrode one end is connected to the electrode holder and at other end arc is
set up. Electrodes come in different diameter and length. The diameter and length
depends upon the amount of weld to be deposited and the type of joint to be welded.
Generally thin and large diameter electrodes are of short in lengths and medium size
electrodes have bigger lengths. The types of electrodes that are generally used for
welding are
Consumable Electrode – it melts and supplies filler metal to the weld

Non – Consumable Electrode - it does not melt but separate filler metal is to be added
to the weld.
4.6.13.Consumable Electrode
It is a made of low melting point metal or alloy. When arc is struck electrode
starts to melt and transfer to the work piece in the form of droplets. These droplets fill
the space between the two metals to be joined. The thermal efficiency of consumable
electrode system is about 85 % when compared to non – consumable electrode of 55 %.
Consumable electrodes can be further classified into bare electrodes and flux covered
electrodes.
Bare electrodes are those, which consist of metal or alloy wire without any flux
coating.
Flux covered electrodes are those which have flux covering the metal or alloy.
The flux acts as a shield to protect the arc and also to protect the weld pool. Flux
when it gets melted during arc, forms a inert gas shield around the arc and the
chemical present reacts with the molten metal to form slag. .
4.6.14.Non – Consumable Electrodes

These electrodes are made up of high melting point metals like carbon, pure
tungsten etc. These electrodes do not melt during welding process. They generate arc,
which melts the work piece. Generally these metals do undergo vaporization and
oxidation during welding. In this kind of welding filler material addition depends up on
the thickness of the plate to be welded.
4.7 Gas Welding

Gas welding is one of the oldest methods of fusion welding process and, for
many years, was the most widely used method of metal melting. The equipment is
relatively simple and cheap. Heat is generated by the combustion of combustible gas
with oxygen. Required gas ratio is mixed in the hand held torch. Combustion takes place
at the nozzle or the outlet of the torch. This process of welding is generally known as
Oxygen – Fuel Gas welding (OFT). Some of the commercial gas that is used for welding
is acetylene, hydrogen, propane, butane and commercial LPG.
4.7.1 Oxy – Acetylene Gas welding

This is a common gas welding process. Acetylene is the fuel gas used. Acetylene
0
produces high heat content in the range of 3200 C than other fuel gases. Acetylene gas
has more available carbon (92.3 %) and hydrogen (7.7 %) by weight. The heat is
released when the carbon breaks away from hydrogen to combine with O2 and burn.
C2H2+O2 = 2CO+H2+Heat
Depending up on the gas pressure required for welding or cutting oxy acetylene
welding is classified into two
Low pressure System and
High-pressure system
Low-pressure system
Acetylene required for welding is manufactured at the place of welding using an
acetylene generator. Acetylene is produced by reacting calcium carbide with water.
Ca C2 + 2H2O = Ca (OH)2 + C2H2 + 127.3 kJ per mol
Acetylene produced is stored in the generator; it is then passed through a purifier

and sent to welding torch at a low pressure. The pressure range at the nozzle is in the
range of 0.5 to 3.5 bars
High Pressure System

O2 and C2H2 are supplied in high-pressure cylinders. Acetylene is chemically
unstable under pressure, even without the presence of air and, under certain conditions;
it can explosively decompose to its constituents (carbon and hydrogen). Acetylene
ignites very easily, and produces an explosive mixture in air over a wide range of
concentrations. Pure acetylene cannot be compressed to a pressure more than 0.1Pa
above atmosphere. To enable the gas to be stored, the cylinders are filled with a porous
mass, saturated with acetone, which absorbs the gas when it is filled. The pressure in the
bottles is 2MPa. However, explosive decomposition can occur in the pipes from the
bottle if the pressure exceeds 1.5MPa.
4.7.2 Gas welding equipment
The equipments for a gas welding are gas cylinders, pressure regulating valves, gas
hoses and fittings, flash back arrestors and blowpipes or welding torch,
Cylinders
Acetylene cylinders are filled with porous materials such as balsa wood,
charcoal, corn pith, or Portland cement. Acetone, a colorless, flammable liquid, is added
to the cylinder until about 40 percent of the porous material is saturated. The porous
material acts as a large sponge which absorbs the acetone, which then absorbs the
acetylene. In this process, the volume of acetone increases as it absorbs the acetylene,
while acetylene, being a gas, decreases in volume. Acetylene cylinder is painted in
Maroon and it is maintained at 2MPa pressure. The outlet pressure should be below
1.5MPa
Oxygen cylinder is made of steel and it is stored at a pressure of 20MPa. The

cylinder consists of an outlet valve, a removable metal cap for the protection of the
valve, and a low melting point safety fuse plug and disk. Generally oxygen cylinders are
painted in black.
Pressure Regulating Valve

The purpose of the pressure regulator is to reduce the high and variable pressure
in the cylinder to a suitable working pressure. The pressure in an oxygen cylinder can be
as high as 2200 psi (15,169 kPa), which must be reduced to a working pressure of 1 to
25 psi (6.90 to 172.38 kPa). The pressure of acetylene in an acetylene cylinder can be as
high as 250 psi (1724 kPa) and must be reduced to a working pressure of from 1 to 12
psi (6.90 to 82.74 kPa). Regulators keep the gas flow rate constant throughout the life of
the cylinder charge, despite any variations in back pressure caused by the heating of the
welding torch.
Hose and Hose fittings

The cylinder regulators and torch are usually
connected together by double line rubber hoses.
Double line hose is known as type VD. The rubber hose is used for flexibility. The hose
has to be of highest quality. The Oxygen line is green in color and the Acetylene line is
red in color.
The hose fittings are provided at the end of the hose for necessary attachment of
the hose to the blowpipe and to the pressure regulating valve. The nuts provided in both
the hose are different to each other. The oxygen hose connection nut is a right hand
threaded and where as acetylene hose connection nut is left handed.
Flashback Arrestor:
A flashback means that the flame burns backwards into the torch with a popping
sound. It occurs if the combustion speed of the flame exceeds the speed at which the gas
is being supplied, so that the flame front moves backwards. A flashback arrester fitted at
the regulator prevents a flashback from going any further back. The reason for a
flashback occurring is that a mixture of oxygen and acetylene has occurred in the hoses,
e.g. by oxygen having entered the acetylene hose and formed an explosive mixture. The
flashback arrester prevents the flame from reaching the acetylene bottle and triggering
an explosive decomposition.
Blowtorch or Welding Torch

The oxyacetylene welding torch is used to mix oxygen and acetylene in
proportions required. The torch controls the volume of these gases burning at the tip, and
also controls the type of flame.
The torch consists of a handle or body, which contains the hose connections for
the oxygen and the fuel gas. The torch also has two needle valves, one for adjusting the
flow of oxygen and other one for acetylene, mixing head and a tip. The tip is made up of
hard drawn electrolytic copper or 95 % copper and 5 % tellurium. The diameters of the
tip orifices differ in order to control the quantity of heat and the type of flame.
Generally, a number is designated to the tip size, smaller the number, smaller the tip
orifice. A mixer is provided to ensure correct flow of mixed gas for each size tip. Mixer
is situated between the tip and the needle valve.
Welding torch is classified based on pressure available at the outlet. There are
two types
1. Injector torch
2. High pressure torch
In high pressure torch the acetylene and oxygen are supplied from the cylinder,
mixed in the mixer provided in the torch. Where as in low-pressure torches the oxygen
flows into the torch through a central jet producing a suction effect that draws acetylene
from the acetylene generator. From there on the gas continues to the mixing section and
then to the tip.
4.7.3 Types of Flames

One volume of Acetylene gas requires 2.5 times the volume of oxygen for its
complete combustion. Depending up on the ratio of oxygen supplied for combustion we
can classify flames into 3 types. This ratio is known as gas ratio. These flame types have
a great effect on the melt pool chemically. There are 3 types of flames and they are-
Neutral Flame,
Carburising flame, and
Oxidizing Flame.
Neutral Flame
Neutral flame is the one that is used the most. This flame is obtained by
supplying equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene. The flame can be distinguished by its
zones of combustion. The innermost zone, the cone, is white in color and extends a short
distance from the tip of the torch. Acetylene burns in this zone to form carbon monoxide
0
and hydrogen. The approximate temperature of the inner cone is 3200 C.
The outer cone or envelope is faintly luminous and bluish is color. Carbon
monoxide and hydrogen burn with oxygen in air forming carbon dioxide and water
vapour hence preventing the atmospheric oxygen coming in contact with the molten
metal pool.
Carburizing Flame
In this flame acetylene proportion is increased in the gas ratio of 0.95 to 1.0. The
flame has three zones a) inner white zone b) intermediate whitish cone and c) bluish
outer envelope. The inner zone which is sharply defined and white in color. In this zone
there is insufficient oxygen to burn surplus acetylene. Cone temperature is
0
approximately about 3100 C.
The remaining acetylene continues to the second zone known as the intermediate
cone of whitish color. This intermediate zone extends in length depending up on the
amount of acetylene present in the gas. The inner
Oxidizing Flame
In this flame there is excess of oxygen. The flame has a small inner cone and
outer envelope. The inner cone is not sharply defined as in neutral flame and carburising
flame. The inner cone is purplish is color. The temperature of the inner cone is
0 0
approximate of 3350 – 3400 C.
4.7.4 Welding Defects
Some of the welding defects are

1. Cracks: These are formed when the base metal is not allowed to expand when
subjected to heating. They are also formed due to poor ductility of the base metal
2. Distortion: It is the change in shape and difference between the positions of the
two plates before the welding and after the welding. This is due to number of
passes with small diameter electrode, slow travel speed and type of joint as Vee
joint requires more metal to fill when compared to U joint.
3. Incomplete penetration: It is the distance from the base plate (work piece) top
surface to the maximum extent of the weld nugget. This is generally caused due
to improper joint selection, faster weld arc travel speed, improper weld angle,
large electrode diameter, longer arc length,
4. Inclusions: Slag or foreign material, which get entrapped in the weld metal
during solidification. These are caused due to large or low arc current, long arcs,
large electrode diameter, improper cleaning of slag during previous pass and
improper angle of the joint.
5. Porosity and Blow holes: Porosity is a small hole where as blow holes are gas
pocket and are bigger in size compared to porosity. Blowholes occur due to
entrapped gasses. The base metal (work piece) during welding melts and reacts
with the flux and the atmospheric air releasing gas. These gas entrap in the weld
and lead to blow holes. General case of blow hole causes are improper
electrode, longer arcs, fast rate of arc travel, too high or too low welding current,
damped electrode, oil and dust present on the surface of the work piece.
6. Poor fusion: Molten metal deposited by the electrode does not fuse properly
with the cold work piece. This is caused due to improper welding technique,
unclean job surface and small-included angles in the joint.
7. Spatter: Small metal particles that come out of during welding is know as
spatter. These metal particles get settled around the area of the weld on the base
metal. These are caused due to excessive arc current, damp electrodes, due blow
holes etc.
8. Under cutting: It is the excess melting of the base metal. This reduces the
strength of the joint. These are caused due to higher currents, wrong inclination
of the electrode and excessive weaving
4.7.5 Difference between Soldering and Brazing:
Brazing Soldering
0 0
Filler metals melting point is above 427 C Filler metals melting point is below 427 C
Brazed joints are stronger Solder joints are less stronger
Brazed joints can be used for service in Solder joints can not be used in elevated
elevated temperature temperature
Brazed joint resist corrosion to some extent The joints do not resist corrosion
4.7.6 Difference between Soldering Brazing and Welding:
Parameters Soldering Brazing Welding

Direct melting of base metal NO NO Yes
Flow of filler material Capillary action Capillary action Deposition
Joining metals Dissimilar Dissimilar Same metals
Needs surface finishing
Surface finishing Good Good
operations
Joint strength Low Medium High
0 0
Filler metal melting Below 427 C Above 427 C Same as the base metal
temperature
Heat affected zone (HAZ) Nil or negligible Less High
Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
Unit - V
Refrigeration, Air-Conditioning
Refrigerants: properties of refrigerants, list of commonly used refrigerants.
Refrigeration -Definitions - Refrigerating effect, Ton of Refrigeration, Ice
making capacity, COP, Relative COP, unit of Refrigeration. Principle and
working of vapor compression refrigeration and vapor
absorption refrigeration: Principles and applications of air conditioners,
Room air conditioner.
5.1 Introduction:
Refrigeration is the art and science of maintaining a space at a temperature lower
than the surrounding temperature. The device, which is used for this purpose, is the
refrigerator. Refrigeration is useful in the preservation of foodstuff, medicines, high
precision industries, air conditioning, etc.
Refrigeration and air conditioning is used to cool products or a building environment.
The refrigeration or air conditioning system (R) transfers heat from a cooler low-energy
reservoir to a warmer high-energy reservoir (see figure 1).
Fig.5. 1. Schematic representation of refrigeration system
5.1.2
Refrigerants are specially selected substances that have certain important

characteristics including good refrigeration performance, low flammability
and toxicity, compatibility with compressor lubricating oils and metals, and
good heat transfer characteristics. They are usually identified by a number
that relates to their molecular composition.

A medium called Refrigerant continuously extracts the heat from the space within the
refrigerator which is to be kept cool at temperatures less than the atmosphere and finally
rejects to it to the surroundings.
Some of the fluids like, Ammonia, Freon, Methyl Chloride, Carbon dioxide are the
commonly used refrigerants.
1. Ammonia
Ammonia as a refrigerant is employed in refrigerators operating on the

absorption principles. Because of its high latent heat (1300 kJ/kg at -15°C) and
low specific volume (0.509mVkg at -15°C) it produces high refrigeration effects
even in small refrigerators.
Since ammonia will not harm the ozone, it is environmental friendly. It is widely
used in cold storage, ice making plants, etc.
Its toxic, flammable, irritating and food destroying properties makes it unsuitable
for domestic refrigerators.
2. Carbon dioxide
The efficiency of the refrigerators using carbon dioxide refrigerant is low.

Therefore it is seldom used in domestic refrigerators, but is used in dry ice
making plants.
It is colourless, odourless, non-toxic, non inflammable and non-corrosive.
3. Sulphur dioxide
Earlier sulphur dioxide was one of the most commonly used refrigerants in
domestic refrigerators. Although it has better thermodynamic properties, it has
low refrigerating effect and high specific volume, therefore large capacity high
speed compressors are required.
Since it combines with water and forms sulfurous and sulfuric acids which are
corrosive to metals, the refrigerators using sulphur dioxide as refrigerant are
seldom used.
4. Methyl Chloride
Methyl chloride was used earlier in domestic and small scale industrial
refrigerators. Since it will burn under some conditions and slightly toxic, is not
generally used.
5. Freon
Freon group of refrigerants is used almost universally in domestic refrigerators.
These refrigerants are colourless, almost odourless, non-toxic, non-inflammable,

non-explosive and non-corrosive, Freon-12 and Freon-22 are the two freon
refrigerants commonly used in domestic refrigerators and air conditioners.
Although these refrigerants are being now used extensively in the refrigerators
and the air conditioners, it has been found that these refrigerants posing a major
threat to the global environment through their role in the destruction of the ozone
layer.
5.1.3 Properties of a good refrigerant:
The desirable properties of an ideal refrigerant are as follows-

1. High latent heat of vapourization at evaporator pressure-which would result in
more heat absorption for a given mass flow rate of refrigerant.
2. High latent heat of vapourization at the condenser pressure.
3. Low specific volume of vapour-Power input to the compressor is directly related
to the volume of vapour compressed. Low specific volume means less work
input.
4. Low specific heat in liquid and high specific heat for vapour are desirable in that
both increase the refrigerating effect.
5. A high coefficient of conductance-which result in improved heat transfer rates
and reduce the size of the condenser.
6. Low freezing point at evaporator pressure-the refrigerant should not free at low
temperatures after throttling.
7. It should not corrode the pipes and other parts of the machinery.
8. It should be non-toxic.
9. It should not react with the lubricant used in the machinery.
Commonly used refrigerants:

Some of the most commonly used refrigerants are listed below-
A. Halocarbon compounds:
1. Refrigerant 11 – Trichloromonoflouromethane CCl3F
2. Refrigerant 12 – Dichlorodiflouromethane CCl2F2
3. Refrigerant 13 – Monochlorotriflouromethane CClF3
4. Refrigerant 14 – Carbontetraflouride CF4
5. Refrigerant 134a – Tetraflouroethane CF3CH2F
B. Cyclic organic compounds:
1. Refrigerant 1112a – Dichlorodoflouroethylene CCl2=CF2
2. Refrigerant 1113 – Monochlorotriflouroethylene CClF=CF2
3. Refrigerant 1114 – Tetraflouroethylene CF2=CF2
Apart from these, ammonia is also used extensively because of its excellent
thermal properties.
The halocarbon family of refrigerants are obtained by replacing one or more of
the hydrogen atoms in methane (CH4) or ethane (C2H6). But most of the halogenated
hydrocarbons contribute to the greenhouse effect and depletion of ozone layer in the
earth’s stratosphere. Completely halogenated hydrocarbons, commonly referred to as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are the ones which cause the highest damage because of
their prolonged atmospheric life.
Another group of halogenated hydrocarbons called hydrochloroflourocarbons
(HCFCs) retain one or more of the hydrogen atoms. They have shorter atmospheric life
than CFCs, and hence are more environmental friendly.
Still another group of halogenated hydrocarbons called hydroflourocarbons
(HFCs) contain no chlorine atom at all, and therefore, do not deplete the ozone layer,
and most of them have minimum greenhouse effect. Most significant among them is R-
134a.
5.1.4 Coefficient of performance of refrigerator (COP):

Coefficient of performance of refrigerator is the ratio of heat absorbed in the
refrigerated chamber to the work input to the compressor.
COP = Heat absorbed/ work input.
COP as the name indicates is a measure of the performance of the refrigeration
cycle. It is similar to the efficiency term associated with any work developing device.
Efficiency or COP cab be loosely defined as the ratio of the output to input. In a
refrigerator, the output is the desired effect which is the heat absorbed in the refrigerated
chamber, and input is the work input to the compressor.
Refrigerating effect: It is the amount of heat absorbed in the refrigerated chamber per
unit mass of the refrigerant. More refrigerating effect means less mass of refrigerant
required.
5.1.5 Ton of Refrigeration
The capacity of a refrigeration system is expressed in tons of refrigeration which is the

unit of refrigeration. A ton of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat absorbed in
order to form one ton of ice in 24 hours when the initial temperature of the water is 0°C.
In S.I. System,
1 Ton of Refrigeration = 210 kJ/min
= 3.5 kW
5.1.6 Refrigeration capacity:

Refrigeration capacity is the rate at which heat is absorbed from the refrigerated
chamber. Refrigeration capacity is expressed in tons of refrigeration.
One ton of refrigeration is the rate at which heat is absorbed to ne ton (1000 kg)
o o
of water at 0 C into ice at 0 C, in one day.
1 ton of refrigeration = latent heat of ice x 1000 kJ/day.

= latent heat of ice x 1000/24 kJ/hr.
= latent heat of ice x 1000/(24x60) = 210 kJ/min.
= latent heat of ice x 1000/(24x60x60) = 3.5 kJ/s
5.1.7 Principle of refrigeration:

Refrigeration chamber has to be maintained at a temperature lower than the
surrounding temperature. Due to temperature difference there is a tendency for the heat
to flow from the surrounding to the refrigerated chamber, which result in an increase in
the temperature of the chamber. In order to maintain low temperature in the chamber,
heat has to be removed from the chamber to the surroundings at a rate equal to the rate at
which heat is leaking into it. But heat cannot flow from a hot body to a cold body
spontaneously.
Atmosphere (Surroundings)
Tatm
Heat leakage
Refrigerated
Chamber
T < Tatm
We need to have a third body which acts as a medium for heat transfer between
the chamber and the surrounding. When the medium comes in contact with the chamber
its temperature should be less than the temperature of the chamber so that it can absorb
heat from chamber. Similarly when the medium comes in contact with the surrounding,
its temperature should be greater than the atmospheric temperature, so that it can reject
heat to the atmosphere. The medium is usually a fluid which is referred to as refrigerant.
Heat transfer usually changes the phase of the refrigerator, i.e., when it absorbs heat it
changes its phase from liquid to vapour and when it rejects heat, it changes its phase
from vapour to liquid. In other words the refrigerant absorbs or rejects heat in the latent
heat region.
The temperature of the refrigerant, which comes out of the refrigerated chamber,
is well below the atmospheric temperature. In order to reject heat to the atmosphere, the
temperature of the refrigerant should be raised above that of the surrounding. We can
achieve this either b compressing the refrigerant to a high pressure (vapour compression
cycle), or by dissolving the vapour in a liquid, increasing the pressure of the liquid and
then heating the liquid to give off vapour at high pressure and temperature (vapour
absorption refrigeration cycle).
5.1.8 Ice Making Capacity
Ice making has marked the history of refrigeration, which for long time had just one
goal: making ice. Ice can be made on any refrigerator that cools below 0 ºC (it is usually
handled at about −5 ºC to −1 ºC), but we here study special-purpose devices intended
just to produce ice, either in batch or in continuous mode. However, the elements are
nearly the same as for common refrigerator (e.g. the same compressors are used). Air-
cooled condensers are mostly used, because of its simplicity, but water-cooled models
are more efficient, and the heat removed in ice making can be discharged outside the
building in a cooling tower (one-pass discarded water cooling is too wasteful), thereby
not adding to air-conditioning costs.
The segregation associated to the phase change may be used to get ice that is more pure
than the original water supply, with an impurity-concentrated water purge, but most of
the times there is an active-carbon intake-filter to remove odours and other impurities
and all used water is converted to ice. If the supply water has more than 500 ppm total-
dissolved-solids, a water-treatment pre-stage should be installed.
Nowadays, every restaurant, hotel, hospital, supermarket, ship and other facilities
operate ice-making machines, and even at home, there are more and more refrigerators
with chill water and ice dispensers. Small domestic units, using R134a, with some 0.5
kg/h of ice-making capacity have low energy efficiency (some 0.5), whereas industrial
units, using R404A, usually have efficiencies above unity.
Heavy duty ice makers may use additional amount of water (up to three times that
needed for the ice) to self-clean the machinery, saving maintenance labour but
increasing the water bill.
Sun-driven ice-making plants have been developed, but although there is a favourable
coupling between sun isolation and ice production needs, there is the unfavourable
circumstance that it is cheaper to produce ice by night (when there is no sun) because of
the cooler ambient (photovoltaic systems with a battery bank have been demonstrated).
Ice makers may be classified according to the size of ice produced. Large ice bars of 1.5
m long and 0.2 m side, produced in large ice-factories with ammonia absorption plants
using metal moulds immersed in a brine pool, were the standard in the first half of the
20th c., but nowadays the typical shapes are the familiar ice cube and the industrial flake
ice (slurry ice is gaining markets).
An interesting application of ice making is as a cold storage, to level (or for the
optimization of) cooling loads, as when making ice by nigh to help with air-conditioning
the following day, saving in the electricity bill.
Ice has been used even for sculptures (e.g. weddings banquets); large crystal-clear ice
blocks up to 1 m wide have been carved with a chisel like marble sculptures.
Fig.5.2 Making the ice sheet in an ice rink
5.2 Vapour Compression Refrigerator
1- Low temperature, low

pressure liquid
2- Low temperature, low
pressure vapour
3- High temperature, high
pressure vapour
4- High temperature, high
pressure liquid
Fig.5.3.Vapour Compression Refrigerator

Vapour compression refrigerator consists mainly of four components – (i)
Evaporator or refrigerated chamber, (ii) compressor, (iii) condenser or cooler, and (iv)
Throttle valve or pressure reducing valve.
A low pressure, low temperature liquid enters the refrigerated chamber. It
absorbs heat in the chamber and changes its phase from liquid to vapour. At the exit of
the refrigerated chamber we have a low pressure, low temperature vapour. This vapour
is taken by the compressor, which compresses it to a high pressure. Due to high
compression, the temperature of the vapour rises above that of the atmosphere.
The high temperature, high pressure vapour passes through the condenser. It
looses heat to the atmosphere and changes its phase from vapour to liquid. At the exit of
the condenser we have high pressure liquid at moderate temperature. The liquid passes
through a throttle valve where it suddenly expands to a low pressure. There is a sudden
decrease in temperature due to decrease in pressure, and at the inlet to the refrigerated
chamber we have a low pressure, low temperature liquid. Thus the cycle is completed.
5.4 Vapour Absorption refrigerator:

In vapour absorption refrigeration system, we choose a combination of a
refrigerant and solvent in such a way that the solvent absorbs large quantities of vapour
refrigerant at low temperatures and gives off vapour when heated to higher temperature.
Ammonia and water are such a combination.
Low pressure, low temperature ammonia liquid enters the evaporator chamber. It
absorbs latent heat in the evaporator and becomes vapour. The ammonia vapour, which
is at low temperature, is absorbed in water in the absorber. A pump pressurizes the
ammonia solution and supplies it to the generator. The solution is heated in the generator
and water gives off ammonia vapour at high temperature and pressure. This vapour is
condensed in the condenser by rejection of heat to the atmosphere. The high-pressure
high temperature liquid is suddenly expanded in the throttle valve to a low pressure.
Sudden drop in pressure results in drop in temperature of the liquid. Then the low
pressure, low temperature liquid ammonia enters the evaporator chamber, and the cycle
is repeated.
1- Low temperature,
low pressure liquid 2-
Low temperature,
low pressure
vapour
3- High temperature,
high pressure
vapour
4- High temperature,
high pressure
liquid
5- Strong ammonia
solution
6- Weak ammonia
solution
Fig. 5.4 Vapour Absorption refrigerator
In the heat exchanger, the pressurized strong ammonia solution passing from the pump
to the generator recovers some amount of heat from the weak ammonia solution, which
is passing from the generator to the absorber. A pressure-reducing valve is provided
between the heat exchanger and the absorber to reduce the pressure of the weak
ammonia solution to that of the evaporator pressure.
5.5 Comparison between Vapour Compression and Absorption refrigerators:
Sl. Parameter. Vapour compression Vapour absorption refrigerator.

No refrigerator.
It requires large quantity of Pump requires very less mechanical
mechanical work to run the work, because it is pumping liquid. In
1 Energy input. compressor, because it the generator heating can be achieved
involves compression of large either by employing coils or by any
volumes of vapour. other form of heating.
Noise is more due to the Less noisy due to the presence of
2 Noise. presence of a large pump.
compressor.
Not suitable for large Well suited for large capacities.
3 Plant capacity. capacities.
Maintenance is more due more Maintenance is less due to less
4 Maintenance.
number of mechanical parts. number of moving parts.
No contamination of Water vapour some times enters the
Contamination refrigerant because only one condenser and other parts along with
5
of refrigerant. substance is used. the refrigerant, which would reduce
the refrigerating effect.
5.6 Air Conditioning:

Air conditioning is the process of controlling and maintaining the moisture
content and temperature of air as per prescribed limits. Air conditioning is broadly
divided into two categories – comfort air conditioning and industrial air conditioning.
Comfort air conditioning is the controlling of humidity and temperature of air to give
maximum comfort to the human beings. Industrial air conditioning is required in
controlling the humidity and temperature in processing and manufacturing industries.
The branch of science which deals with properties of air and water vapour
mixture is called psychrometry. Some of the commonly used terminologies in
psychrometry are explained below.
Atmospheric air is a mixture of mainly oxygen, nitrogen and other gases along
with water vapour. Air which does not contain any water vapour in it is called dry-air,
and if there is any water vapour in the air, then it is called moist-air or humid-air. Air
always contains moisture in varied proportions, and pure dry air does not exist in
atmosphere.
The ratio of mass of water vapour, to the mass of dry air in a given quantity of
the mixture is called absolute humidity, or specific humidity.
Absolute humidity = mw / ma.
Where,
mw = mass of water vapour in the mixture.
ma. = mass of dry air in the mixture.
(mw + ma) = total mass of the mixture.
Capacity of air to hold water in vapour state is a function of temperature and
atmospheric pressure. When the maximum possible quantity of water vapour is present
in the air, then the air is said to be saturated.
The ratio of the actual quantity of moisture present in the air, to the maximum
quantity of water vapour the air can hold at the given temperature and pressure, is called
relative humidity.
Suppose that the air is already saturated at the given temperature and pressure. If
the pressure or temperature suddenly drops, then the air is unable to hold water in vapour
state, and water begins to condense. This phenomenon is usually observed during winter
season as dew formation.
Dry bulb temperature is the temperature of air as measured by an ordinary
thermometer. Wet bulb temperature is measured by a thermometer, which is covered
with a wick saturated with water and placed in moist air stream.
Air conditioning processes: The function of air conditioner is to increase or decrease

the temperature and humidity according to the requirement.
(i) Conditioning of hot-dry air: the air is first cooled to the required temperature by
refrigeration process. The cold air is then mixed with required quantity of water vapour.
(ii) Conditioning of hot-humid air: the air is cooled below the dew point temperature and
some quantity of water vapour is condensed. Then the air is heated by a heater to the
required temperature.
(iii) Conditioning of cold-dry air: the air heated by a heater to the required temperature,
and then required quantity of water vapour is added to the air.
(iv) Conditioning of cold-humid air: the air is further cooled below the dew point
temperature to condense some quantity of water vapour. It is then heated to the required
temperature.
5.7 Room air conditioner:
Fig.5.5. Room air conditioner:
The room air-conditioner mainly consists of a refrigerator unit, air-filter, two fans, and
thermostat. The unit is fitted partly in the window, inside the room and ousts side the
room. In the refrigerator unit, the pressure reducing valve is replaced by a capillary. Two
fans are provided – one each on the evaporator side and condenser side. Both the fans
are usually run by a common motor.
Air from the room is circulated with the help of the fan fitted at the evaporator
side. The fan sucks air from the sides and blows over the evaporator coils and through
the filter. A thermostat is used to switch off the motor when the room temperature
reaches a pre-set value. The refrigerant after compression is made to pass through the
condenser fitted out side of the room, where, it looses heat to the circulating air drawn
with the help of the fan. This type of air-conditioner is used to cool only a small space.

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ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL

DEPARTMENT OFMECHANICAL ENGINEERING

To impart excellent technical education in mechanical engineering to develop technically

To provide an ambience to impart excellent technical education in

To engage students in co-curricular and extra-curricular activities to impart social

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’S)

The Mechanical engineering program students will attain:

PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems

PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’S)

After successful completion of program, the graduates will be

PSO 3: To apply modern management techniques and manufacturing techniques to produce

MODULE-1 ENERGY AND STEAM

Secondary energy resources: Secondary fuels produce no net energy. Though it

1.1.1 Renewable sources of energy

4. Direct solar energy

1.2 Calorific Value of Fuels

Higher Calorific Value (H.C.V.):

Oxygen (O2) is one of the most common elements on earth making

This nitrogen also can combine with oxygen (particularly at high

C + O2 → CO 2 + 8084 kCals/kg of Carbon

Each kilogram of CO formed means a loss of 5654 kCal of heat. (8084-2430).

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS:

Fig .1 Classification of fuels

1.4.1 SOLID FUELS

Mainly consists of Carbon, Hydrogen and water.

(c) Lignite or Brown Coal:

It is very soft, inferior quality coal.

(d) Bituminous Coal:

It is soft & shiny black in appearance.

(e) Anthracite Coal

It is very hard & brittle.

It’s Calorific. Value is approx. 36,000 kJ/kg.

(a) Wood Charcoal

(c) Briquetted Coal

(d) Pulverised Coal

(a) Wood Charcoal

This increases heating value of coal & decreases the losses.

It is powder form of coal.

(1) Natural Liquid fuels

(2) Artificial Liquid fuels

(b) Fossile fuels.

(a) Crude Petroleum:

(b) Vegetable matter (Alcohol)

Hydrocarbon is a substance having Carbon & Hydrogen as basic constituents.

(1) Paraffins (CnH2n+2)

(2) Olefines (CnH2n) /Ring compound

(3) Naphthenes (CnH2n) /Chain compound

(4) Aeromatics or Benzenes (CnH2n - 6)

(b) Vegetable matter (Alcohol)

Petrol or Gasoline is obtained by distillation of crude oil from 65º to 220ºC.

(b) Kerosene/Paraffin oil:

Kerosene or Peraffin oil is obtained by distillation of crude oil from 220º

(c) Fuel oil:

Fuel oil is obtained by distillation of crude oil from 345º to 470ºC.

It is formed by fermentation of vegetable matter.

1.4.3 GASEOUS FUELS:

(1) Natural Gaseous fuels

(2) Artificial Gaseous fuels

(1) Natural Gas:

(2) Artificial Gaseous Fuel:

Artificial gaseous fuels are prepared gases of fixed composition like

(i)Coal Gas/Illuminating Gas: