Interference Introduction In the 17th century, the properties of light were explained by Sir Isaac Newton and Christian Huygens. Sir Isaac Newton was explained the properties of light by introducing Corpuscular theory in 1675. It explains reflection, reftaction, and dispersion properties of light. It fails to explain interference, diffraction, polarization, photo electric effect, and double refraction, In 1679, Christian Huygens proposed the wave theory of light. According to Huygens wave theory, each point on the wave front is to be considered as a source of secondary wavelets. It explains reflection, reffaction, dispersion, double reffaction, difftaction, interference, and polarization properties of light. It fails to explain, photo electric effect, black body radiation ete, Interference of light The best evidence for the wave nature of light is interference phenomenon. This was experimentally demonstrated by Thomas Young in 1800, through double slit experiment. Due to interference, we will observe many observations in our day today life, such as multiple colours on soap bubbles as well as on oil film when viewed under sun light. Interference concept is explained on the basis of superposition of wave’s concept. When two light waves superimpose, then the resultant amplitude or intensity in the region of superposition is different than the amplitude of individual waves, Definition: ‘The modification in the distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is known as interference. Principle of Superposition of waves "When two or more waves travel simultaneously in a medium, the resultant displacement at any point is due to the algebraic sum of the displacements due to the individual waves. This is known as Superposition of waves." Consider two waves travelling simultaneously in the medium superpose at a point. Let Y; and Y> are the individual displacements caused by the two waves respectively. According to the principle of superposition of waves, the resultant displacement is given by Y=VYit ) When the two waves reach the point are in phase, then the waves are said to be Constructive interference. ie., the crest of the first wave exactly fits over the crest of the second wave and trough of the first with second as shown in fig. Therefore the resultant displacement becomes ‘maximum and is given by Y= + Yo +=) When the two waves reach the point are in opposite phase (180°), then the waves are said to be Destructive interference, ie., the crest of the first wave exactly fall on the trough of the second wave and viceversa as shown in fig. Thus, the resultant displacement becomesminimum and is given by Y= Y1- Y2 ~(3) Note: 1) The resultant intensity of'a wave is proportional to the square of the resultant amplitude aa’ (or) a& 2) The ratio of maximum to minimum intensity is (WE), (aay Interference of light The best evidence for the wave nature of light is interference phenomenon. This ‘was experimentally demonstrated by Thomas Young in 1800, through double slit experiment. Due to interference, we will observe many observations in our day today life, such as multiple colors on soap bubbles as well as on oil film when viewed under sun light. Interference concept is explained on the basis of superposition of wave’s concept. ‘When two light waves superimpose, then the resultant amplitude or intensity in the region of superposition is different than the amplitude of individual waves. Definition:- The modification in the distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is known as interference. In case of interference pattern we observe two cases * Constructive interference + Destructive interference Constructive interference > The waves are reaching at a point are in phase constructive interference occurs. > Inconstructive interference, the resultant amplitude is always equal to the sum of the amplitudes of two individual waves, Condition The path difference between the two waves is equal to the integral multiple of wave length (A) the constructive interference occurs. pathdiference=nA Where n=0,1,2,3,4 wort DA AAPD - nesutntwowe > The waves are reaching at a point are in out of phase destructive interference occurs > In Destructive interference, the resultant amplitude is always equal to the difference of the amplitudes of two individual waves. Condition The path difference between the two waves is equal to the odd integral multiple of N2 destructive interference occurs, path diference =(2n— 1)4/2 Wheren=1,2,3,4..+ wer PP AAG Conditions for Sustained interference = Resultant wave Two light sources of emitting light waves should be coherent, Two sources must emit continuous light waves of same wavelengths or frequency. ‘The separation between the two sources should be small. The distance between the two sources and the screen should be large To view interference fringes, the background should be dark. The amplitude of light waves should be equal or nearly equal. The sources should be narrow. The sources should be monochromatic. SIOVSLH | For the formation of interference pattern, two coherent light sources are required. To get two coherent sources forma single light source, two techniques are used. They are 1. Division of wave fiont 2. Division of amplitude Division of wave front ‘The wave front from a single light source is divided into two parts using the phenomenon of reflection, reffaction, or difftaction, or grating. These two parts of the same wave front travel unequal distances and reunite at some angles, thus producing interference. Eg., Young’s double slit experiment, Fresnel's biprism Division of amplitude The amplitude of a single light beam is divided into two parts by parallel reflection or refiaction. These two parts travel unequal distances and reunite to produce interference. Eg., Newton's ring experiment, Michelson’s interferometer.Interference in thin film by reflection: In thin films interference is due to superposition of light reflected from the top and bottom surfaces fo the films. Let us consider a thin transpiration film of uniform thickness ‘t and refractive index ‘p’. Let XX’ and YY" be the two surfaces of film. Suppose a ray of light AB incident on the upper surface XX' at au angle i, This ray is pattly reflected along BC and partly refiacted along BD. Let ‘be the angle of refraction. ‘At the bottom surface YY", the refracted ray is partly reflected along DE and partly refracted (transmitted) along DK. After refraction at E, the ray finally emerges out along EF. The rays BC and EF constitute reflected system. Obviously EF is parallel to BC. In order to study the interference patter, we have to caloulate the effective path difference between BC and EF. For this purpose, a normal EP is drawn on the BC as shown in figure The pati difference (A) between BC and EF is given by 4 = Path(BD+DE) in film - Path (BP) in air = y(BD+DE) - BP (+, 1 =1, for air) @ In ABDQ, Cos r= DQ/BD = t/BD (or) BD = DE =t/Cosr ---(2) Tan r= Q/DQ —> BQ = DQ Tanr=tTan r (or) BQ = QE =tTanr-----(3) In ABPE, Sin i=BP/BE <=> BP=BE Sini (or) BP =(BQ+QE) Sin i=2tTanr Sin i=2tTanrpSinr (:p=sini/sinr) Sinr |g sin’ r BP=2t Sinr = 2ut —— ---- (4) Cos HSIBE= 2H Coe, @) From eq. (1) can be written as Que sin’ r 2ur es Quer > A= HE oy SP = EE Oy city = = cos cosr csr cosr cosr + Path difference A=2ptcosr ---------(5) This is known as cosine law. It should be remembered that a ray reflected at a surface backed by a denser medium undergoes a phase change of m which is equivalent to a path difference A/2. Hence, the effective path difference is given by Aem= 2urcosr+ 1/2 —-—----(6)Condition for bright ban The film will appear bright when the effective path difference is equal to the integral multiple ofh ‘Aea= nA (or) 2u1tcosr +2 =m (or) 2qr cosy = (2n-+1) H/2., where n=0, 1 Condition for dark band:- The film will appear dark when the effective path difference is equal to the (2n-1)M/2 2ptcosr-2/2= (2n-1)2/2(0r) 2ptcosr = ni, where n=1,2.3 Note: If the film thickness is extremely small when compared to A, then 2pteosr can be neglected and then the net path difference becomes 3/2. Hence, destructive interference will occur and film appears dark. NEWTON'S RINGS Newton's rings are in accordance with the interference of light waves. To form Newton's, a plano-convex lens of long focal length is placed on an optically flat glass pate. With this arrangement, a thin film of air is enclosed between the lower surface of the lens and the upper surface of the glass plate. The thickness of the film is zero at the point of contact and gradually increases when moved radially toward the edge of the lens. When the lens is illuminated nonmally with a monochromatic light source, a beautiful circular concentrate rings is observed. These rings are called Newton's rings. Experimental arrangement:L is a plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature and is place on an optically plane glass plate (G). The lens touches the glass plate at '0', S is a source of monochromatic light placed at a focus of the lens L1. A horizontal beam of light falls on the glass plate B held at 45° inclination. The glass plate B reflects a part of the incident light towards the air film enclosed by the lens L and the glass plate G. The reflected beam from the air film is viewed with a micoscope M. Due to the interference between the light reflected from the lower surface of the lens and the upper surface of the glass plate, bright and dark finges are produced as shown in above figure ‘Theory: Newton's rings by reflected rays Let R' is the radius of curvature of the ens'L' and 't is the thickness of air film at a distance of OQ =r, from the point of contact 'O', Here, the interference is due to reflected light Therefore, the 2 condition for dark ring is given by I ral) 2t=nd where n=1,2.3—— 2) From the property of circle, EP x EH-OE x (2R-OF) From the figure, EP=EH=1 and OE=PQ+t 2Rt => t= 17/2R (neglecting) Substituting the value of tin eq.(2), we get AR (or) VaR n=1,23-— --(3) IfD is the diameter of the dark ring, then D=2r=2naR ~- or re -—-(4) The central rings is not counted while counting the order of the dark rings, because D=0. VaR For the second dark ring, n=2 and D2=2J2AR and For the first dark ring, n=1 and D: For the n* dark ring, Dy =2 Vi -—-—---(5) Let us take the case of 16 and 9" rings Dio=2VI6AR =8VAR and Do =2V9AR = 6VER DieDs =2VAR —-() Similarly, De-D; =2VAR (7) From eqn. (6) and (7), it is clear that, the fringe width decreases with the order of the fringe and the fringes get closer with increase in their order as shown in figureDetermination of wavelength of sodium light: By forming the Newton's rings and measuring the diameter of the rings formed, we can calculate the wavelength of light used, Let 'R’ is the radius of curvature of the lens in contact, with the glass plate and 2 is the wavelength of sodium light used, We know that, ‘The diameter of the n'* dark ring, Da=2-J.R (ot) De? =4n)R --——~ (a) Similarly, the diameter of the (n+m)" dark ring Dy+m =2,f('m)AR (01) Daim =4(n+m)AR-- -2) Therefore, D’x-m-Ds? Hence, by measuring the diameter of the different orders and knowing the radins of curvature (R) of the lens, we can determine the wavelength of the given monochromatic source of light Diffraction Introduction The wave nature of light is first confirmed by the phenomenon of interference. Further it is confirmed by the phenomenon of diffraction. The word ‘diffraction’ is derived from the Latin word diffractus which means break to piece. When the light waves encounter an obstacle, they bend round the edges of the obstacle. The bending is predominant when the size of the obstacle is comparable with the wavelength of light. The bending of light waves around the edges of an obstacle is diffraction. It was first observed by Gremaldy Diffraction ‘When the light falls on the obstacle whose size is comparable with the wavelength of light then the light bends around the obstacle and enters in the geometrical shadow. This bending of light is called diffraction. When the light is incident on an obstacle AB, their corresponding shadow is completely dark on the screen. Suppose the width of the slit is comparable to the wavelength of light, then the shadow consists of bright and dark fringes. These fringes are formed due to the superposition of bended waves around the comers of an obstacle. The amount of bending always depends on the size of the obstacle and wavelength of light used. a lige baal 4 —> } Georetral shadow —‘Lupes of diffraction ‘The diffraction phenomena are classified into two ways 1. Fresnel diffraction 2. Fraunhofer diffraction. Fresnel diffraction:- In this difftaction, the source of light and the screen are at finite distance from the diffracting aperture or obstacle having sharp edge. The wave front incident on the aperture or obstacle is either spherical or cylindrical. No lens is used to make the rays parallel. Fraunhofer diffraction:- In this diffraction, the source of light and the screen are at infinite distance from the diffracting aperture or obstacle having sharp edge. This can be achieved by placing the light source at the focal plane of the convex lens and placing the screen at the focal plane of another convex lens. The wave front incident on the aperture or obstacle is a plane wave front Fraunhofer single slit diffraction: Consider a slit AB of width e, Let a plane wave front WW’ of monochromatic light of wavelength 2. propagates normally towards the slit is incident on it. The diffracted light is focused by means of a convex lens L on a screen placed in the plane of the lens, The diffraction phenomenon can be explained by Huygen's -Fresnel principle, According to this principle, every point on the wave front acts as a source of secondary wavelets which spread out to the right in all directions. The secondary waves travelling in the direction parallel to OP. via Ao and BB, come to focus at Po. Thus, Py is a bright central image. Now, consider secondary wavelets travelling in AA: inclined at an angle @ to the direction OP, All the secondary wavelets travelling in this direction reach the point Py on the screen, Depending on path difference, the Pi may have maximum = or minimum intensities. In order to find the path difference, draw AC perpendicular to BB: The path difference between the wavelets fiom A & Bin the direction 0 is BC InAABC, sing ="© =" ; Path difference, BC =e sin@ ae e Phase difference corresponding to BC, esin@ ——— Let the width of the slit is divided into 'n’ equal parts and the amplitude of the wave fiom each part is ‘a’. Let 'd’ be the phase difference between any two successive waves. Therefore, d~ Total phase difference(S)/n =*" esin® ey Using the method of vector addition of amplitudes, the resultant amplitude. asinnd/2 _asin(n/Aesin®) Let a= he Sin0 ( net phase difference) sin d/2 sin(m/nA esin8)” asina . . R ; Since a/n is very small, sin (a/n) = a/n. sina/n asina __ sina _ = =na = ~(5) a/n a ‘When n— oo, a0, but product na = A remains finite Now the resultant intensity is given by , I= R= A? 2° “)? (or) I= Le) = © Where Ip = A* Condition for principal maximum The resultant amplitude R can be written in ascending power of a as We know that, When R is maximum, the intensity I will be maximum, Ifthe negative turns vanish, R will be maximum, i.e. & = 0. From equ. (4), wehave a=nheSin0=0 (or) Sind=0 (or) 0=0 The condition @~0 means that the maximum intensity is formed at Po and is known as Principal maximum Condition for minimum intensity positions: When the path difference (BC) is equal to integral multiple of 4, then we get minimum. intensity positions ie., ¢ Sind =m), m=1,2,3---- From equ. (4), we have a~n/h ¢ Sind ~ 1/2, mA ma, where m=1,2,3—- a= @, 20. 3a---- mt When these values are substituted in eq. (6), we have ,1=Io(*=*)* =0 (or) Sina =0 ‘Thus, we obtain the points of minimum intensity on either side of the prineipal maximum.Condition for secondary maxima: In addition to prineipal maximum at a =0, there are weak secondary maxima between the minimum intensity points. The directions of secondary maxima are given by the equation eSin® = (2m+1) M2, m=1,2,3--- From equ. (4), we have a= n/A ¢ Sind ~ nih (2m+1) W2 (or) a= /2 (2mr+1) , where m=1,2,3--- (or) a= +30/2, +502, +7/2+-- The position of the secondary maxima can be obtained by differentiating Intensity (I) w.rst a and equating zero ie t-4 [VEZ)71=0 =A? 2sinwa ( Here either Sin a =0 or (a cosa - sin a) = 0 ‘We know that sin a =0 refers the positions of minimum intensity points. Hence, the positions of secondary maxima are given by (asina-sina)=0 (or) a=Tana a The values of « satisfying eq.(7) are obtained graphically by plotting the curves Y = a and Y= Tan a. on the same graph as shown in figure, The points of intersection of the two curves gives the values of a (+3n/2, +5n/2, +7n/2+-)4. Fraunhofer double fraction Let us consider two slits Sand Sz having equal width e and separated by a distance d. The distance between the two slits is (e +d). Let a plane wave front of monochromatic light of wavelength Ais incident on the two slits. The diffracted light from these slits is focused on the screen by using a lens, The diffraction of a two slits is a combination of diffraction and interference. When the plane wave front is incident on the two slits, the secondary wavelets from these slits travel in all directions. The wavelets travelling perpendicular to the slit is focused at point Po. The wavelets travelling at an angle 6 with the incident light are focused at point Py From Fraunhofer single slit experiment, the resultant amplitude is R = ame So the amplitude of each secondary wavelet travelling with an angle @ can be taken as A These two wavelets interference and meet at point P; on the screen. Double slit Lens Screen To find out the path difference between the two wavelets, let us draw a normal s;k to the wavelet Sp Path difference = S,k Sak _ Sik SiS. @+d) Path dif ference = S, k = (e +d) sind From as; Sk sind z phase dif ference = = (path dif ference) 2: phase dif ference = =e +d)sind=65 By using vector addition method, we can calculate the resultant amplitude at point P; by taking the resultant amplitudes of the two slits S,and Sz as sides of the triangle. The third side gives resultant amplitude From the figure AC? = AB?+BC? + 2(AB)(BC) cos 8 Re (95S) + AS) 42 (5) (Aes ne = 2(aS28) +2(a2) cos dé sinay? sina’ =2(a—*) 2 (ae cos 6 @ @2 / , sine 22 Re =2(4 ) [1 +cos 6] sina? 6 a =2(a28S) [14 200s 3] @ 2 sinay? 9 2 2 R a( ~ ) [20524] sinay? w= 4(a22 coe! 7 : 2, fiewe rie-td) sind ol net+d)sing since B = i 2 The resultant intensity 1 = R? = 4(aee cos? B From the above equation, it is clear that the resultant intensity is a product of two factors i.e., sina)? t. (4 a ) Represents the diffraction pattern due to a single slit. 2. cos? B Represents the interference pattern due to wavelets from double slit. Diffraction effect In diffraction pattern the variation of J w.r.t a as shown in figure. The diffraction pattern consists of central principal maximum for a = 0 and @ = 0 value. The secondary maximum of decreasing intensity is present on either side of the central maxima for a= + 4,47 values. zen gene Between the secondary maxima the minima values are present for ¢ = +1, +2m,+ a ShInterference effect In interference pattern the variation of cos* £ w.r.t 6 as shown in figure. cos? f represents the interference pattern. Interference maximum will occur for cos? = 1 B=imn — wherem=0,1,2,3,4 B= 40, 420,430,440... n(e+d) sind noe a etme ne +d)sin6 =m Interference minima will ocour for cos? # = 0 B=tQm+D"/2 m(e+d)sing a x(e+d)sind = t(2m+1)4/, +Qm+1)™/, The resultant intensity variation due both interference and diffraction patterns is shown in figure. Due to interference the resultant minimum in not exactly equal to zero. B UNIT I- WAVE OPTICSPOLARIZATION ‘The Phenomena of Interference and Diffraction established the wave uature of light. But they do not indicate whether light waves are longitudinal or transverse Maxwell's electromagnetic theory predicts light waves to be transverse. ‘According to Maxwell, light is electromagnetic in nature, it consists of oscillatory electric and magnetic field vectors that are perpendicular to cach other and also perpendicular to the ditection of propagation of the wave as shown in figure. ‘Maxwell prediction was supported by experiments conducted by Young and his contemporaries. In one of the experiment these scientist allowed a beam of light to be incident on a caleite crystal The beam gets splits up into two components. Though these two components are coherent they could not produce interference. From this observation, Young concluded that light ‘wave is transverse in nature, Since the planes of vibrations of the two waves are perpendicular to each other, they called not produce interference. The phenomenon of polarisation shows the transverse nature of light waves. POLARISATION: "The process of restricting the vibration of the electric field vector in a particular plane is called Polarisation. " UNPOLARISED LIGHT: Ween UNROLARISED LIGHT: Ke tps In electromagnetic waves, the electric vector at any given point is always perpendicular to the direction of propagation. But there are infinite number of direction which are perpendicular to the direction of propagetion. So, the electric vector changes its direction randomly. As such, ordinary or unpolarised light can be represented as shown in figure. In the above figure, errow represents the electrie veetors with vibrations parallel to the plane of the paper and dots represent the vibrations perpendicular to the plane of the paper Dicom of Bientin sf RS = eeeeeoues Mol PLANE POLARISED LIGHT: Ifthe vibrations are confined to a single plane (either in the direction along the plane of the paper or in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper). then it is called plane polarized light or linearly polarized light. A plane polarized light is represented as shown in figures. 4 UNIT I- WAVE OPTICSWhen unpolarised light is passed through a pair of angles to the direction of propagation of light(fig.1), the wee intensity is maximum in this position. But when the plane a HEE td PARTIALLY POLARISED LIGHT: Ifthe plane polarized light contains small additional components of unpolarised light, it becomes partially plane polarized light. Then it is represented by either more arrows and less dots or vice versa as shown in fignre O-PRR In circular polarization, the electric vector of constant amplitude, no longer oseillates but rotates while propagating in the form of helix. The projection of a wave on a plane intercepting the axis of propagation gives a circle with the amplitude of the vector remaining constant CIRCULARLY POLARISED LIGHT: If the vector rotates in the clockwise direction w.rt the direction of propagation, it results in Right circularly polarised light, while the rotation in the anticlock wise direction results in Left circularly polarized light - ELLIPTICALLY POLARISED LIGHT: ODQDoer— If the amplitude of the electtic vector is not a constant but varies periodically then it results in clliptically polarised light. For example, if the electric vector has minimum amplitude while oscillating vertically and rotates while propagating to have maximum amplitude when oscillating horizontally as shown in figure, then it results ellipticelly polarized light. PRODUCTION OF PLANE POLARISED LIGHT: tourmaline Crystal plate P1 and P2 with airplane of right pf gy 0 saan P2 is rotated through 90° ic., the plane of P2 who is a perpendicular to the plane of PI(fig.2),, the intensity is minimum in this position. This shows that light is a transverse wave motion. It is also clear that after passing through the Crystal P1, the light vibrates only in one direction ie., it is said to be polarizer because it has acquired the property of oue sideduess. 15 UNIT I- WAVE OPTICSPLANE OF VIBRATI AND PL. The plane containing the direction of vibrations of electric vector as well as the direction of propagation is called plane of vibration. The plane passing through the direction of propagation and perpendicular to the the plane of vibration is known as plane of polarization, PLANE POLARISED LIGHT BY REFLECTION In 1808, French scientist Malus found that when a beam of mpolarised light is reflected from the surface of a transparent medium like Glass or water, the reflected light is partially or completely polarized. The degree of polarization change it with angle of incidence. For a particular angle of incidence called polarising angle (ip), the reflected beam is completely plane polarised with plane of vibration perpendicular to the plane of incidence. The angle of polarisation is also known as Brewster's angle In figure an unpolarised light AB is incident on glass surfice XY. BC is the reflected ray, it contains a light wave whose plane of vibration is. perpendicular to the plane of ineident(wvith all dot components).Thus, the reflected light is, although week, is plane polarised. For ordinary glass the angle of polarisation is 57.5° Brewster's Law ‘The tangent of the angle of polarization (ip) is numerically equal to the refractive index (11) of the medium. This is known as Brewster's Law. n= Tan (ip) Applying Snell's law at the surface XY, we get, sin ip sin r~ yw! jlo From fig (ip +1) = 90? ==1=(90-iy) W Jlo=sin jp /sin (90- ip) = sin iy'cos ip= Tan ip Forair = 1, = Tan ip We know that varies with incident wavelength. Hence, the angle of polarization will be different for different wavelengths, 16 UNIT I- WAVE OPTICSPLANE POLARIZED LIGHT BY DOUBLE REFRACTIO! ‘A In 1669 , Erasmus Bartholinus discovered that when I" a Ray of light is incident on the calcite crystal, the «?? ray is split into two reffacted rays as it enters the V/ crystal, This phenomenon is known as "double a b refiaction" or "birefringence" Fal ees Consider a calcite crystal place on an ink dot made on a white paper. When viewed through the top of the crystal two images of the ink dot are seen, Ifthe crystal is rotated, one of the image of the ink dot remains stationary, while the other rotates about the former in the direction of rotation. The stationary image is known as ordinary image (O) and the rotated one is, called extraordinary image (e) Ordinary ray and extra ordinary ray: The ray which obeys Snell's law is called ordinary ray (o-ray). It travels though the erystal with the same velocity Vo in all directions. Hence, for the o-ray the secondary waveftont is spherical and the value of refractive index jo remains constant for all the angles of incidence, ‘The ray which does not obeys Snell's law is called extraordinary ray (e-tay). It travels with a velocity Ve which varies with direction. For the e-ray the secondary wavefront is ellipsoidal and the value of refractive index pte varies with the angles of incidence. Along the optic axis both o-ray and e-ray travel with the sound velocity and the difference is maximum along the direction perpendicular to the optke axis as shown in figure In some crystals such as quartz, in a direction perpendicular to the optic axis. The velocity of e-ray is less than that of o-ray. The ellipsoidal wavefiont of e-ray lies with in the spherical out of o-ray(Fig-a). Such crystals are known as positive uniaxial crystal. In other crystals, such as calcite, the ellipsoidal wavefiont of e-ray lies outside the spherical wavefront of o-ray(Fig. b). Such crystals are known as negative uniexial erystals. NICOL PRISM Nicol Prism is an optical device used to produce and analyse plane polarized light. It was invented by William Nicol in 1820. It is made from a double refracting calcite crystal. It was designed in such a way that it can transmit the extra ordinary rays and cut off the ordinary rays. ‘Thus, the emergent light ffom a nicol prism is a plane polarised light. 7 UNIT I- WAVE OPTICSConstruction: Nicol prism was constructed using a calcite crystal having a length three times that of its breadth. Consider a calcite crystal in which blunt comers. It is a rhombohedran shaped. The plane is the principal section of the crystal with 71° and 109° and it consists of optic axis. The upper and lower faces are grounded, so that the angles are reduced from 71° to 68°. The crystal is cut into two and ent faces are highly polished until they are optically flat and the cemented together with canadabalsam. The refractive index of candabalsam for sodium light (4=5893A) is 1.550 and is in between the refractive index of ordinary (\1s=1.658) and extra ordinary (}1e=1.486) rays in calcite crystals Production of Polarised light Above figure shows the BDFH. Now Piecon(h) sono) consider a ray of light SM and is made tt 44—~ tobe incident on the front face DB of vy the nicol prism, The incident ray is splitted into two rays namely ordinary (o-ray) and extra ordinary (e-ray) rays. The canadabalsem layer acts as rarer medium for the o-ray. Thus, the o-ray travels from a denser medium (calcite) to rarer medium (canadabalsam) When the angle of incidence for o-ray at the canadabalsam layer 1s greater than the critical angle, it undergoes totel internal reflection. The critical angle for the o-ray for caleite crystal to canadabalsam layer is 69.2° (0.=sin ¥(1.550/1.658)) In order to make the angle of incidence made by the o-ray at the caleite-candabalsam interface more than the critical angle, the angle between the upper and lower surfaces of the caleite crystal is reduced fiom 71° to 68° and the length of the crystal is taken as thee times larger as that of its breadth. For the e-rays, the canadabalsam layer acts as denser medium. Therefore it travels from a rarer medium to denser medium and hence it travels in a straight line and emerged out from the nicol prism. The emergent light is a plane polarized light 18 UNIT I- WAVE OPTICSicol Prism as analyser ‘When a nicol prisin, P is place in the path of umpolarised light, il trausuuils the extraordinary rays. If another nicol prism, Analyser (A) is placed parallel to the first one the extraordinary ray is passed through it. If the second nicol prism is rotated through 90° taking the incident beam as an light axis is extinguished, The emergent beam from the second nicol prism is extinguished two times and it has minimum intensity two times within one complete rotation. The first nicol prism is known as analyser. Thus, a nicol prism can be used as polarizer as well as analyser. QUARTER AND HALF WAVE PLATE: A Wave plate is an optical device made from a double refracting crystals like calcite or quartz. Let us consider a caleite crystal plate ents with optic axis parallel to the surface. When a plane polarized light of wavelength 2 falls normally on the crystal surface. The light split up into o-ray and e-ray as shown in figure P2"t Both ordinary and extra ordinary rays travel along the same path “"“¢ with different velocities. We know that in the case of a calcite crystal. the velocity of e-ray is greater than the o-ray. As a result, a phase difference is introduced between them. Let Homa fle be the reffaction indices of ordinary and extraordinary rays respectively. If t is the thickness of the plate then Optical path of O-ray = jist ; Optical path of e-ray = jut Optical path difference between o-ray and e-ray (jlo He)t If the thickness of the plate is cut in such a way that it can produce a path difference of 2/4 or a phase difference of n/2 between o-ray and e-ray, then the plate is called Quarter Wave plate (io He JE=2/4 (or) t= 2/4(do jhe) If the thickness of the plate is cut in such a way that it can produce a path difference of 2/2 or a phase difference of x between o-1ay and e-ray, then the plate is called Half Wave plate (Uo. He Jt =W2 (Or) t= A/2(Ho. tte) Applications: 1) Wave plates are very usefil in production and analysis of polarized light of different kinds 2) A Quarter wave plate is used to produce citcularly polarized light, if the incident light makes an angle of 45° with the optic axis and elliptically polarized light for other incidence angles 3) The emergent light from a Half wave plate is a plane polarized light 19 UNIT I- WAVE OPTICS