‫المعهد التكنولوجي العالي – العاشر من رمضان‬

‫الفصل الدراسي ‪ :‬يناير ‪ /‬مايو ‪2020‬‬

‫قسم ‪Mechatronics :‬‬

‫البحث المرجعي الخاص بماده ‪ :‬نظم الرؤية وأجهزة االستشعار في مجال‬

‫الربوتات‬

‫كود ‪MTE E01 :‬‬

‫رقم المجموعه ‪61 :‬‬

 Higher Technological Institute
Tenth of Ramadan
Mechanical Engineering Department

Research Project
Camera system
Course Details
Term ‫ سبتمبر‬/‫اغسطس‬
Course Name Vision Systems & Sensors in Robots.
Course Code MTE E01
Group No. 61
Reviewers Committee
1
2
3

Total points
/100

Student Code
May
 Table of Contents
Chapter 1 ................................................................................................................................................................. 1

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. 1

Chapter 2 Camera Structure ................................................................................................................................... 2

2.1) Digital Single Lens Reflex (DSLR) Cameras .............................................................................................. 2

Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................................................................. 4

Camera Types ......................................................................................................................................................... 4

3.1) What type of digital camera ......................................................................................................................... 4

3.1.2) Waterproof camera features ...................................................................................................................... 5

3.1.3) Bridge camera features ............................................................................................................................. 5

3.1.4) Mirrorless camera features ........................................................................................................................ 6

3.1.5) DSLR camera features .............................................................................................................................. 7

Chapter 4 ................................................................................................................................................................. 8

DSLR Camera Working Principle .......................................................................................................................... 8

4.1) Digital Camera Parts and Functions ............................................................................................................ 9

4.2 DSLR Camera Shooting Modes .................................................................................................................. 16

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Table of figure
Figure 1 Digital Single Lens Reflex (DSLR) Cameras .......................................................................................... 2
Figure 2 Main mirror .............................................................................................................................................. 3
Figure 3 compact cameras ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 4 waterproof cameras .................................................................................................................................. 5
Figure 5 Bridge camera ........................................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 6 Mirrorless camera ..................................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 7 DSLR cameras .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 8 DSLR Camera Working Principle ............................................................................................................ 8
Figure 9 DSLR Camera Working Principle ............................................................................................................ 9
Figure 10 The Lens ............................................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 11 Focal Length ......................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 12 zoom lens .............................................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 13 Aperture ................................................................................................................................................ 12
Figure 14 Focusing .............................................................................................................................................. 13
Figure 15 Viewfinder ............................................................................................................................................ 13
Figure 16 Viewfinder ............................................................................................................................................ 14
Figure 17 Shutter................................................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 18 Sensor ................................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 19 ISO Sensitivity...................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 20 DSLR Camera Shooting Modes ........................................................................................................... 16

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 Chapter 1

Introduction
The First Cameras

The basic concept of photography has been around since about the 5th century B.C.E. It wasn't until an Iraqi
scientist developed something called the camera obscura in the 11th century that the art was born.

Even then, the camera did not actually record images, it simply projected them onto another surface. The
images were also upside down, though they could be traced to create accurate drawings of real objects such as
buildings.

The first camera obscura used a pinhole in a tent to project an image from outside the tent into the darkened
area. It was not until the 17th century that the camera obscura became small enough to be portable. Basic lenses
to focus the light were also introduced around this time.

The First Permanent Images

Photography, as we know it today, began in the late 1830s in France. Joseph Nicéphore Niépce used a portable
camera obscura to expose a pewter plate coated with bitumen to light. This is the first recorded image that did
not fade quickly.

Niépce's success led to a number of other experiments and photography progressed very rapidly.
Daguerreotypes, emulsion plates, and wet plates were developed almost simultaneously in the mid- to late-
1800s.

With each type of emulsion, photographers experimented with different chemicals and techniques. The
following are the three that were instrumental in the development of modern photography.

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 Chapter 2
Camera Structure

2.1) Digital Single Lens Reflex (DSLR) Cameras

In the above figure, we can see that there are several key components in a DSLR camera, which are listed as
follows with their respective functions:

Figure 1 Digital Single Lens Reflex (DSLR) Cameras

1. Matte focusing screen: A screen on which the light passes through the lens will project.
2. Condensing lens: A lens that is used to concentrate the incoming light.
3. Pentaprism: To produce a correctly oriented and right side up image and project it to the viewfinder
eyepiece.
4. AF sensor: Its full name is autofocusing sensor, which is used to accomplish correct auto focus.
5. Viewfinder eyepiece: To allow us to see what will be recorded on the image sensor.
6. LCD screen: It’s full name is liquid crystal display, which is used to display the photos stored in its
memory card, settings and also what will be recorded on the image sensor in the live view mode.
7. Image sensor: A device that contains a large number of pixels for converting an optical image into electrical
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signals. The commonly used types are charge- coupled device (CCD) and Complementary Metal-oxide
semiconductor (CMOS).
8. AE sensor: It’s full name is auto exposure sensor, which is used to provide exposure information and adjust
the exposure settings after calculations under different situations.
9. Sub mirror: To reflect the light passes through the semi-transparent area on the main mirror to the autofocus
(AF) sensor.
10. Main mirror: To reflect incoming light into the viewfinder compartment. It must be in an angle of exactly
45 degrees. There is a small semi-transparent area on it to facilitate auto focus.
Having an overall idea about the internal structure of a DSLR camera and the functions of different
components, I will use the following figure to illustrate its working principle.

Figure 2 Main mirror

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 Chapter 3

Camera Types

3.1) What type of digital camera

There are four main types of digital camera: compact, bridge, DSLR and mirrorless cameras. DSLRs and
mirrorless models have interchangeable lenses. The type you go for will depend on a number of factors,
including what you want to photograph or film, how portable you want it to be and the image quality you're
looking for.
3.1.1) compact cameras
Typically called a point-and-shoot, a compact camera has a fixed lens and is small enough to carry in a pocket
or small bag. The best compact cameras offer a good compromise between features and price, and are often
ideal all-rounders. But choose the wrong model and you can end up with a flimsy camera that takes out-of-focus
snaps.
compact cameras:

• lightweight, compact and easy to carry

• simple to use with an LCD screen for composition
• have automatic shooting modes, which are perfect for beginners
• often inexpensive.

Figure 3 compact cameras

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3.1.2) Waterproof camera features
This is a sub-type of compact camera. Waterproof and shockproof, these are very tough cameras built to
withstand the outdoors. If you want to take pictures anywhere wet, whether the beach, by a waterfall or just out
in the great British weather, a compact waterproof camera is worth considering. They’re built inside a
waterproof, dustproof and usually shockproof casing, meaning you can take them to the pool, to the beach,
snorkeling or even scuba diving and still get good shots - although, this isn't always the case and we've found a
few with such awful picture quality that you might as well do without. Most will work at depths of up to 15
meters, although 10 meters will be good enough for all but the keenest divers.

waterproof cameras:

• easy to use with simple controls

• extremely tough
• can be used in outdoor conditions where other cameras fear to tread
• limited zoom
• can be more expensive than a basic compact camera
• picture quality isn't the best

Figure 4 waterproof cameras

3.1.3) Bridge camera features

Bridge cameras are halfway between a compact camera and a DSLR camera. They offer more advanced
features (such as manual controls to change ISO, shutter speed and aperture) than you get from a basic compact
camera, but typically aren't quite as advanced or expensive as DSLRs and mirrorless cameras. This is due to
their fixed-lens set-up, although the best bridge cameras will offer excellent zoom capabilities. Bridge cameras
are a budget-friendly compromise if you want to add a professional sheen to your holiday shots.

bridge cameras

• great all-rounder cameras

• huge zoom ranges and more manual controls
• viewfinder often built in

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 • compact sensor falls short of DSLR/mirrorless standards
• lenses are fixed and not interchangeable

Figure 5 Bridge camera

3.1.4) Mirrorless camera features

if you want superior image quality and interchangeable lenses, without the bulk of a DSLR, a mirrorless camera
- also known as a compact system camera - is a solid choice. Smaller and technically more advanced than a
DSLR, they offer professional-level features, such as 4K video or fast continuous shooting. However, they
don’t have as many lenses or accessories available compared with DSLRs.
mirrorless cameras:

• lighter and more compact than a DSLR

• in-camera image stabilization
• fast shutter speed and continuous shooting
speed
• quieter than a DSLR
• often better for video recording.
• fewer choices in lenses and accessories
when compared with DSLR cameras
• if using sensor-based autofocus, tracking
moving subjects can be slow.

Figure 6 Mirrorless camera

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3.1.5) DSLR camera features
If you want to have more professional control over your photography and the best possible picture quality,
there’s no substitute for a DSLR camera. Also referred to as digital SLR (single-lens reflex) cameras, DSLRs
tend to be expensive but they're very flexible, allowing you to change lenses to suit and control every aspect of
your photography.

DSLR cameras:

• large image sensor means more detailed photos

• wide range of interchangeable lenses and accessories
• features plenty of manual controls (aperture, shutter speed and ISO levels)
• traditionally have faster autofocus and tracking subjects (although this is changing).

Figure 7 DSLR cameras

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 Chapter 4

DSLR Camera Working Principle

Getting better at photography involves knowing your camera gear in and out. Ever wondered what happens
inside your DSLR camera as soon as the shutter button is pressed? What all steps are involved and how the final
image is captured? As a photography beginner, it is completely normal to feel curious about what's inside your
digital camera. Even as a professional, it is always great to see all the fascinating stuff that happens inside a
digital camera. A few very similar questions related to the working of a DSLR camera include: How does a
DSLR camera work? DSLR camera working principle. DSLR camera working procedure. How does DSLR
shutter work? In this post, I will talk about various architectural parts of a DSLR camera and how they work
together in sync with each other to produce beautiful photos.

Without much delay, let's focus on the path travelled by the light inside a digital camera in default non-
operational state. At the very first step, it passes through the lens opening(aperture) and enters the DSLR
camera. The size of this lens opening goes bigger or smaller depending on the F value used. On entering inside
the DSLR camera, light hits a mirror. This mirror is at a 45-degree angle and reflects the incoming light from
the lens into the reflecting mechanism assembly.

There is a focusing screen located before reflecting mechanism assembly which helps to see focal points and
lock focus on a particular point. Those small red or green coloured dots that you see from the viewfinder are
coming from focusing screen. Once light enters the reflecting mechanism assembly, it changes direction 2
times. The role of reflecting mechanism is
to show real life photo in a proper
orientation and also direct the light from
mirror to viewfinder. This reflecting
mechanism assembly can either be made
of pentamirror or pentaprism as discussed
in the previous article. Viewfinder, as the
name suggests, helps the photographer to
see how the scene looks like and compose
the shot. Figure 8 DSLR Camera Working Principle

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As soon as the shutter button is pressed, the mirror flips up and goes out of the way of light. Due to this, light
begins to travel a straight path as there is no mirror involved. The shutter and digital camera sensor are now in
the way of light. Based on the value of shutter speed, the shutter will open, thus exposing the sensor for the
duration of shutter speed. The sensor unit senses the light and all the sensor circuitry comes in action. The
image below explains the mirror flip-up state and how the light rays hit the sensor. Mirror flip up leads to
darkness in the viewfinder. As a user, you won't be able to see anything through the viewfinder. This is easy to
notice during long exposure shots.

Once light hits the imaging sensor, it gets converted into mini bursts of charge. This is achieved with the help of
small photosites ( containing photodiodes )
located on the sensor. There are about
million photosites available on a given
camera sensor surface. The charge is then
converted into an analog signal, followed by
digitization of this signal to numbers that
computer can understand. This process is
done with the usage of an analog to digital
converter.
Figure 9 DSLR Camera Working Principle

4.1) Digital Camera Parts and Functions

Core Concept of Cameras
Aside from the very first pinhole cameras (which don’t have glass), the two main parts of cameras are
the lens and the light detector.
The camera lens collects light and projects it onto a light detector surface – film or digital sensor.
Then, through various ways of processing, you get your final image that is shaped to your taste.
Photography is all that happens between these steps – and even before that. And you, the photographer, have
control over it.

1-The Lens
The lens is the first encounter of the light with the camera. Light passes through the lens. Through different
optical formulas, it crafts the way the image is projected. It is one of your most powerful tools of expression –
so it’s vital that you understand how it works.

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- Optical Structure

Your camera lens is actually not one lens. It’s made up of numerous single lenses and lens groups. The structure
is the result of meticulous designing and testing. There are some standard formulas, like the 50mm f/1.8 or
f/1.4. These are very similar throughout different manufacturers and have been developed long ago. Some
advanced and extreme camera lenses have formulas that weren’t possible until only recently. The optical
formula of a lens determines the image it can project onto a sensor.

Figure 10 The Lens

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2- Focal Length

In simple terms, focal length defines the amount of zoom. A lower focal length gives a wider angle of view. A
higher – “longer” – focal length gives a narrower crop of the scene.

In technical terms, the focal length is the distance between the point of convergence of the lens and the sensor
or film.

Figure 11 Focal Length

It’s practically impossible to design a lens with its point of convergence before the front element, but it can be
behind that. This means that telephoto lenses must actually be longer (with the exception of mirror lenses).
Yet, wide-angle lenses can be surprisingly long. Zoom lenses change their point back and forth. Prime
lenses have theirs fixed, and the elements only move for focusing.

Figure 12 zoom lens

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3- Aperture
The diameter of the lens determines the maximum amount of light that can pass. In most lenses, there is an iris.
The iris is used to narrow down the diameter. It works like the pupil in your eye: the narrower it is, the less

light it lets in. Also, with tighter iris comes a deeper depth of field and less background separation. The
aperture value is given in the form of F-stops. The F-stop is a ratio. You can calculate it by dividing the focal
length with the diameter of the lens (at the iris). For example, the F-stop of a 50mm lens with a 25mm aperture
diameter is f/2.
Of course, when you zoom, focal length changes. In lenses with a constant minimum aperture value – for
instance, a 24-70mm f/2.8 – the aperture gradually opens up as you zoom in. This keeps the ratio the same
throughout.

Figure 13 Aperture

4- Focusing

Like your eye, a camera lens sees the world in focal planes. These planes are parallel to the front element of the
camera lens and (in most cases) to the sensor. The exceptions are tilt-shift and extremely wide-angle lenses. To
get a certain plane in focus, a lens element must move inside the lens. You can control this element
with autofocus or manually by turning the focusing ring. There is a focusing range that each lens is capable of.
The closer the focusing element gets to the sensor, the further it focuses. Except for macro-only lenses, most go
to infinity focus. Infinity is the plane beyond which practically everything is in perfect focus. Physically it’s
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possible to go further – but it doesn’t make sense since, after that, the image gets blurry again. When
shooting close-up, the focusing element gets away from the sensor. Hence, it’s possible to make any non-macro
lens capable of macro by adding extension tubes between the body and the lens. Usually, the focusing ring is
physically connected to the focusing mechanism inside the lens. In that case, manual focus gives you direct
control. In some lenses, there is only electronic control. This happens in heavy lenses (like Canon’s 85mm f/1.2

Figure 14 Focusing

II). In tiny constructions, where a normal focus ring would be impractical anyway (like the Canon 40mm
f/2.8 pancake lens), it’s also often used.

5- Viewfinder

All DSLRs and many mirrorless cameras have viewfinders. It can be optical or and electronic. In a DSLR
digital camera with the optical viewfinder, once the light arrives from the lens, it bounces onto a semipermeable

Figure 15 Viewfinder

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mirror. Most of the light then reflects up to a pentaprism and then to the viewfinder. Some of the light reflects
downwards through a secondary mirror into the autofocus sensor.

In a mirrorless camera, there is no optical connection between the lens and your eye. The light always goes
directly onto the sensor.

From the sensor, the live view is transmitted digitally to the electronic viewfinder (EVF) or to the back screen.

Figure 16 Viewfinder

6- Shutter

The shutter is the mechanism that lets the light onto the film or sensor for a set amount of time (the shutter
speed). Before the digital camera age, the only option was a mechanical shutter. They physically move an
obstacle in the way of light. Rolling mechanical shutter, which is found in most cameras, has two curtains.
When you press the shutter button, the first curtain slides up and lets the light onto the camera sensor. Then,
after the set time of the shutter speed, the second curtain shuts. The sensor is blocked again. One of the rolling
shutters’ disadvantages is that you can’t use a standard flash below a certain shutter speed. This is usually
around 1/200th of a second. Below that, they are not exposing the whole frame at the same time. There’s a
window between the curtains that travel from one side to the other. In turn, a flash is instantaneous, so if you
drop below that speed, only a band of the frame will be lit. You can avoid this problem by using High Speed
Sync.

Figure 17 Shutter

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7- Sensor

Digital sensors are composed of pixels. Pixels are tiny solar cells that convert light into electricity. Most digital
cameras feature a standard single-layer CMOS or CCD sensor. CMOS is a newer technology that allows for
individual pixel readout and low power consumption.
Pixels are laid out in an arrangement called
the Bayer mosaic using color filters. The
Bayer mosaic consists of blocks of four
pixels, two green, one red and one blue.
Since each pixel is only sensitive to its own
color, the end result is an image with
scattered red, green, and blue dots.

8- ISO Sensitivity
Figure 18 Sensor
In film cameras, you swap the film for a
different sensitivity film. In digital cameras, it’s a different process.
When you (or your camera) set the ISO value, multiple things can happen depending on your camera and the
exact ISO value.
Cameras with CMOS sensors (most digital cameras) have a tiny amplifier for each individual pixel. After the
frame is exposed, it amplifies the pixels to a higher level, according to the ISO. Until a certain value, usually
ISO 1600, this is the only amplification. Beyond that, ISO is a digital tag that is embedded in the raw file or a
digital amplification for jpg files.

Figure 19 ISO Sensitivity

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4.2 DSLR Camera Shooting Modes

Figure 20 DSLR Camera Shooting Modes

1- Auto Mode:
This mode as it says on the dial does everything automatically. In Auto Mode, the camera will set everything
from your aperture and shutter speed right through to your white balance and ISO.
If your camera has built-in flash, it will also automatically fire your pop-up flash, when needed. Auto mode
helps you, while you familiarize yourself with your camera, and it is useful when you don’t have time to set the
camera settings manually.

2- Program Mode (P)

When you choose the Program Mode, the camera still controls most of the functions, but you are able to control
ISO, white balance, and flash. We can say it is a semi-automatic mode.
In Program Mode, you can use high ISO for in-door low light conditions and stop the camera pops-up the flash
for you. Program Mode is the second step to use when you start to learn the functions of your camera. It is great
for beginners to explore more of the camera features.

3- Aperture Priority Mode (A or AV)

Aperture Priority Mode is a setting on some cameras that allows the user to choose a specific aperture value
while the camera selects a shutter speed to match for proper exposure. In Aperture Priority Mode, you have
control over the f-stop to control both the amount of light that comes through the lens and the depth of field.
The main purpose of using aperture-priority mode is to control the depth of field. Aperture priority is useful in
landscape photography and portrait photography.

4- Shutter Priority Mode (S or TV)

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In Shutter Priority Mode you have control over the shutter speed, and the camera will set the appropriate
aperture for you to ensure correct exposure.
If you are photographing kids or want to freeze fast moving objects you can use shutter priority mode It’s also
ideal for times when you want to use long exposures. For example, a waterfall will appear blurred and fuzzy.
Shutter Priority Mode is useful in sport and wildlife photography.

5- Manual Mode (M)

Manual mode allows the photographer to control shutter speed, aperture and ISO independently.
Professional photographers use the manual mode most of the time. In Manual mode you can adjust all functions
to suit lighting conditions and it needs to have a proper usage especially between shutter speed and aperture.

Scene Modes Explained When you buy a digital camera, it will also come with a selection of Automatic camera
modes. These are pre-programmed settings that allow you to choose the optimum shutter speed and aperture
value for the photograph you want to take. In general they are Action or Sport mode, Landscape mode, Portrait
mode and Night mode. Other scene modes found on many cameras include Fireworks, Snow, Natural
light/Night snapshot, Macro/Close-up, and Movie mode

6- PORTRAIT

As the name implies, use this for photographing individual or small groups of people. This setting will set the
camera to have a reduced depth of field, keep everyone in reasonably sharp focus, and let the background go
blurry. In other words, it will favor your camera to focus on the subject closer to the camera and will allow the
background to be less focused. Depending on the lighting situation the camera will put a priority on a small
f-stop number. That gives you a sharp subject and visually separate it from the slightly blurred background.

7- LANDSCAPE CAMERA SETTING

It's usually desirable to have a large range of things in focus for landscape photography. This camera setting
prioritizes a large depth of field and using a small aperture. Holding the camera very steady is important
because the shutter speed may be a little slower to get a properly exposed photograph. You will want to avoid
any motion blur so a tripod is always a good idea, particularly if you are not shooting a bright scene. Higher
ISO settings are another way to stop motion blur because your camera can use a higher shutter speed and still
have enough light to get a good exposure.

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 REFERENCES
[1] https://www.thesprucecrafts.com/brief-history-of-photography-2688527

[2] https://www.which.co.uk/reviews/compact-cameras/article/which-type-of-digital-camera-should-you-choose

[3] https://expertphotography.com/how-does-a-camera-work/

[4] https://www.better-digital-photo-tips.com/digital-camera-settings.html

[5] https://www.dailycameranews.com/2014/09/dslr-camera-shooting-modes/

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