Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 99 (2021) 103873

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Food Composition and Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jfca

Short communication

Carotenoid and phenolic compound profiles of cooked pulps of orange and

yellow peach palm fruits (Bactris gasipaes) from the Brazilian Amazonia
Renan Campos Chisté a, b, *, Evellyn Laís Neves Costa a, Sara Fonseca Monteiro a,
Adriana Zerlotti Mercadante c
a
Faculty of Food Engineering (FEA), Institute of Technology (ITEC), Federal University of Pará (UFPA), 66075-110, Belém, Pará, Brazil
b
Graduate Program of Food Science and Technology (PPGCTA), Institute of Technology (ITEC), Federal University of Pará (UFPA), 66075-110, Belém, Pará, Brazil
c
University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Department of Food Science, 13083-862, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Peach palm fruits are native from the Amazonia biome and available as different varieties with distinct colour of
Amazonian fruits the fruit peel. Although peach palm fruits have been known to exhibit high bioactive compound content, the
Bioactive compounds carotenoid profile of some varieties, but not all, was reported, while the phenolic compounds of all varieties
β-Carotene
remain unknown until now. In our study, the carotenoid and phenolic compound profiles were scrutinized for the
Flavones
Schaftoside
first time in cooked pulps of orange and yellow peach palm fruits by HPLC-DAD-MS. The major carotenoid in
Vicenin-2 pulps of both orange and yellow peach palm fruits was β-carotene (20% and 24%, respectively), and lutein
accounted for 14% in the yellow variety, which may explain the colour difference between the fruits. Both pulps
of peach palm fruits presented the same phenolic compounds profile, mostly composed by di-C-glycosyl flavones,
with schaftoside the major compound in yellow (45%) and orange (32%) varieties, while vicenin-2 was detected
at high relative concentration (21%) in the pulp of orange peach palm fruits, in contrast to 6% found in the
yellow fruits. Therefore, orange and yellow peach palm fruits exhibited a promising composition of bioactive
compounds for the research and development of high-quality derived food products with claimed health benefits.

1. Introduction
Peach palm (Bactris gasipaes Kunth) (Brazilian name: pupunha) is a
palm tree (Arecaceae) native to the Amazonia biome, in which the small
elliptical fruits can be from different varieties depending on the colour of
the peel at full ripe stage (green, yellow, orange and red). The fruit pulp
usually accounts for 72% of the fruit weight, followed by seeds (21%)
and peel (6%) (Chisté and Fernandes, 2016). In Northern Brazil, the
consumption of peach palm fruits is traditionally done after cooking in
salty water. In addition, studies show the potential use of peach palm
fruits to produce flour (Carvalho et al., 2010; Rojas-Garbanzo et al.,
2011) that showed potential to be used in extruded (Carvalho et al.,
2010) and baked products (Pires et al., 2021).
Like other Amazonian fruits, peach palm has a promising composi­
tion of bioactive compounds, mainly carotenoids and phenolic com­
pounds (De Rosso and Mercadante, 2007; Matos et al., 2019). According
to the literature, the frequent intake of these compounds has been
associated with a decrease in the incidence of chronic degenerative
diseases (Luna-Guevara et al., 2018; Britton, 2020). Although the total
content of phenolic compounds is higher than that of total carotenoids in
peach palm fruits (Rojas-Garbanzo et al., 2012, 2016), to the best of our
knowledge, the phenolic composition of peach palm fruits remains un­
known in the scientific literature until this moment.
The carotenoid composition of the raw pulp of peach palm,
comprising major and minor compounds determined by HPLC-DAD-MS,
was reported in the literature for the first time by De Rosso and Mer­
cadante (2007), being β-carotene, δ-carotene and γ-carotene the major
compounds. Before that, previous researches with supplementation
studies in rats only mentioned the high carotenoid content in peach
palm fruits, especially β-carotene, and the carotenoids were separated
by open column chromatography, followed by total quantification by
spectrophotometry (Yuyama et al., 1991; Yuyama and Cozzolino, 1996).
Rodriguez-Amaya (1999) compiled information concerning Latin
American food sources of carotenoids and stated that δ-carotene was the
major carotenoid in the boiled pulp of peach palm fruits, followed by β-
and γ-carotene. However, none of these studies provided information

* Corresponding author at: Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos (FEA), Instituto de Tecnologia (ITEC), Universidade Federal do Pará (UFPA), Rua Augusto
Corrêa, 01-Guamá, CEP 66075-110, Belém, Pará, Brazil.
E-mail address: rcchiste@ufpa.br (R.C. Chisté).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2021.103873
Received 18 December 2020; Received in revised form 23 February 2021; Accepted 27 February 2021
Available online 2 March 2021
0889-1575/© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
R.C. Chisté et al.
regarding the fruit varieties.
Thenceforward, following the previous carotenoid identification (De
Rosso and Mercadante, 2007), some studies have been published, such
as the changes in the carotenoid composition of boiled peach palm pulps
of six varieties (red, light orange and light yellow) (Jatunov et al., 2010),
alterations during flour processing (red fruits) (Rojas-Garbanzo et al.,
2011) and application of carotenoid extract in oil-in-water food emul­
sion to improve carotenoid bioaccessibility (Mesquita et al., 2020). In all
these studies, the carotenoid profiles were confirmed and monitored
only by HPLC-DAD.
Therefore, in our study, we are reporting for the first time the profiles
of the major and minor carotenoids and phenolic compounds, by HPLC-
DAD-MS, in the cooked pulps of orange and yellow peach palm, which
are fruits highly accessible and consumed in Northern Brazil. This in­
formation is of paramount importance due to the increased number of
studies aiming the valorisation and sustainable use of peach palm fruits
for the development of high-quality derived food products with claimed
health benefits.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Chemicals
Acetonitrile, methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), methanol and aceto­
nitrile, all of chromatographic grade, were obtained from J. T. Baker
(Phillipsburg, USA). Formic acid, apigenin, caffeic acid, schaftoside,
vicenin-2, (all-E)-lutein and (all-E)-β-carotene were acquired from
Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC (St. Louis, USA). Acetone, methanol, potassium
hydroxide (KOH), diethyl ether, petroleum ether and all other chemical
Fig. 1. HPLC-DAD chromatograms representing the profiles of carotenoid and phenolic compounds of cooked pulps of orange and yellow peach palm fruits. Peak
characterization of carotenoids and phenolic compounds are given in Tables 1 and 2, respectively (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend,
the reader is referred to the web version of this article).
2
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 99 (2021) 103873
salts and solvents of analytical grade were purchased from Synth (São
Paulo, Brazil). Ultrapure water was obtained from a Milli-Q system
(Millipore, Billerica, USA). The standards showed at least 95% of purity,
as determined by HPLC-DAD. For the chromatographic analysis, sam­
ples and solvents were filtered using membranes of 0.22 and 0.45 μm,
respectively, both from Millipore.
2.2. Peach palm fruits
The peach palm fruits (Bactris gasipaes Kunt) were acquired from
local farmers in a small street market in Belém, Pará State, Brazil (lati­
tude 01◦ 27’21’’S and longitude 48◦ 30’16’’W) and two varieties were
selected based on the colour of the peel at full ripe maturity: orange and
yellow (2 kg each). The access to the selected fruits was registered in the
Brazilian National System for the Management of Genetic Heritage and
Associated Traditional Knowledge (SisGen, ACC7773). The peach palm
fruits were sanitized in a sodium hypochlorite solution (100 mg/L) for
10 min before cooking in water under pressure in a pressure cooker for
30 min, following the traditional procedure in Northern Brazil. The
cooked pulps of both orange and yellow peach palm fruits were manu­
ally separated from the peel and seed, freeze-dried (Liobras, model
L101, São Paulo, Brazil), ground in a knife mill (Tecnal, model Willye
TE-650, São Paulo, Brazil), vacuum-packed and stored at -20 ◦ C, pro­
tected from light, until use.
2.3. Determination of carotenoid and phenolic compound profiles
The identification of carotenoids and phenolic compounds in the
cooked pulps of both orange and yellow peach palm fruits was carried
R.C. Chisté et al. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 99 (2021) 103873

Table 1
Carotenoid profile of cooked pulps of orange and yellow peach palm fruits (Bactris gasipaes) by HPLC-DAD-APCI-MS.
Peaka Carotenoidb Relative tR (min)c λdmax %III/ %AB/ [M+H]+ MS2 (m/z)f
concentration II AII (m/z)

Orange Yellow
1 (all-E)-Neochrome nd 1% 7.0− 7.1 293, 398, 421, 448 81 0 583e 565 [M+H-18]+, 547 [M+H-18− 18]+, 491
[M+H-92]+, 221
2 (9Z)-Neochrome nd 1% 7.5− 7.6 293, 306, 398, 420, 75 8 601 583 [M+H-18]+, 565 [M+H-18− 18]+, 547
447 [M+H-18− 18-18]+,
509 [M+H-92]+, 491 [M+H-18− 92]+, 221
3 5′ ,6′ -Epoxy-lutein nd 3% 9.0.9.1 260, 422, 444, 472 23 0 585 567 [M+H-18]+, 549 [M+H-18− 18]+, 511
[M+H-18− 56]+, 221
4 13Z-Epoxy-carotenoid nd 3% 10.2− 10.3 270, 330, 412, 439, 18 45 601 583 [M+H-18]+, 565 [M+H-18− 18]+, 477
465 [M+H-18− 106]+, 221
5 (all-E)-Lutein 2 14% 12.5− 12.6 266, 420, 444, 472 63 0 551c 533 [M+H-18]+, 495 [M+H-56]+, 459
[M+H-92]+
6 (all-E)-Zeaxanthin 1 5% 14.6− 14.7 272, 420, 450, 476 28 0 569 551 [M+H-18]+, 533 [M+H-18− 18]+, 477
[M+H-92]+
7 (all-E)-Phytoene < 1% < 1% 17.2− 17.3 276, 286, 300 0 0 545 461 [M+H-84]+, 406 [M+H-137]+, 340
[M+H-205]+
8 9Z-Lutein nd 2% 19.0− 19.1 265, 330, 420, 444, 37 7 569 551 [M+H-18]+, 533 [M+H-18− 18]+, 477
472 [M+H-92]+
9 (all-E)-Phytofluene < 1% <1% 19.5− 19.6 270, 330, 347, 366 72 0 543 461 [M+H-82]+, 406 [M+H-137]+, 338
[M+H-205]+
10 (all-E)- 1% 4% 22.2− 22.3 273, 420, 450, 476 28 0 553 535 [M+H-18]+, 461 [M+H-92]+, 400
β-Cryptoxanthin [M+H-153]+
11 Z-β-Carotene 1% 1% 22.6− 22.8 272, 338, 420, 447, 10 9 537 456 [M-80]+, 444 [M-92]+, 413, 399 [M-
472 137]+
12 Not identified Z- 3% 3% 24.3− 24.4 282, 348, 425, 450, 0 31 553 535 [M+H-18]+, 497 [M+H-56]+
carotenoid 474
13 (13Z)-β-Carotene 6% 4% 25.4− 25.5 274, 338, 420, 444, 11 42 537 456 [M-80]+, 444 [M-92]+, 413, 399 [M-
469 137]+
14 9Z,13Z-β-Carotene 2% 2% 27.8− 27.9 273, 338, 420, 440, 12 21 537 456 [M-80]+, 444 [M-92]+, 413, 399 [M-
465 137]+
15 (all-E)-β-Carotene 20% 24% 31.9− 32.0 276, 420, 451, 477 28 0 537 456 [M-80]+, 444 [M-92]+, 413, 399 [M-
137]+
16 Not identified Z- 3% 7% 32.6− 32.7 280, 350, 431, 454, 50 7 553 535 [M+H-18]+, 497 [M+H-56]+, 429
carotenoid 482 [M+H-18− 106]+, 221
17 (9Z)-β-Carotene 8% 3% 33.6− 33.8 276, 338 420, 447, 28 nc 537 456 [M-80]+, 444 [M-92]+, 413, 399 [M-
472 137]+
18 di-Z-δ-Carotene 3% nd 37.6− 37.8 280, 349, 431, 454, 33 26 537 481 [M+H-56]+, 467 [M-69]+, 444 [M-92]+,
482 413, 399 [M-137]+
19 Not identified nd 5% 39.3− 39.4 282, 293, 440, 470, 50 0 537 467 [M-69], 455, 444 [M-92]+, 413, 399 [M-
500 137]+
20 Z-γ-Carotene (isomer 5% 11% 40.2− 40.3 285, 350, 437, 460, 40 nc 537 467 [M-69]+, 455, 444 [M-92]+, 413, 399 [M-
1) 490 137]+
21 (all-E)-δ-Carotene 11% 3% 41.6− 41.7 281, 432, 455, 484 50 0 537 481 [M+H-56]+, 467 [M-69]+, 444 [M-92]+,
413, 399 [M-137]+
22 di-Z-γ-Carotene 3% nd 42.4− 42.5 285, 338 428, 452, 45 9 537 467 [M-69]+, 455, 444 [M-92]+, 413, 399 [M-
(isomer 2) 481 137]+
23 (all-E)-γ-Carotene 11% 1% 48.4− 48.5 285, 296, 436, 461, 61 0 537 467 [M-69]+, 455, 444 [M-92]+, 413, 399 [M-
491 137]+
24 9Z-γ-Carotene (isomer 14% 3% 49.1− 49.3 285, 350, 437, 460, 66 5 537 467 [M-69]+, 455, 444 [M-92]+, 413, 399 [M-
3) 492 137]+
25 Z-Lycopene 6% 1% 56.2− 56.3 285, 296, 360, 440, 70 7 537 467 [M-69]+, 455, 444 [M-92]+
466, 497
a
Numbered according to Fig. 1. bTentative identification based on Uv–vis and mass spectra as well as retention times on C30 column and published data. cRetention time
on the C30 column. dLinear gradient of methanol/MTBE. eIntense in-source detected fragment ([M+H-18]+). fIn the MS2 spectra, the most abundant ions are shown in
boldface. nd: not detected. nc: not calculated.

out on a Shimadzu HPLC (Prominence UFLC model, Kyoto, Japan),
consisted of a binary pump (LC-20AD), a degasser unit (DGU-20A3R), an
automatic injector (SIL-20AHT), and an oven (CTO-20A), connected in
series to a DAD detector (SPD-M20A) and a mass spectrometer with ion-
trap as the m/z analyzer from Bruker Daltonics (AmaZon speed, Bremen,
Germany), equipped with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization
(APCI) and electrospray ionization (ESI) sources for the identification of
carotenoids and phenolic compounds, respectively.
2.3.1. HPLC-DAD-APCI-MS analysis of carotenoids
The extraction and HPLC-DAD-APCI-MS analysis of carotenoids (n =
2) from the freeze-dried pulp of peach palm fruits (5 g) were carried out
according to a previous procedure described for carotenoid analysis of
Amazonian fruits (De Rosso and Mercadante, 2007), with adaptations.
Briefly, after exhaustive solid-liquid extraction with acetone, followed
by liquid-liquid partition with petroleum ether/diethyl ether (1:1, v/v),
overnight saponification with 10% KOH in methanol, and another
liquid-liquid partition to remove the alkali, an aliquot of the saponified
carotenoid extract was evaporated under N2 flow, dissolved in meth­
anol/MTBE (70:30, v/v) and injected into the chromatographic system.
The carotenoids were separated at a flow rate of 0.9 mL/min on a C30
YMC column (5 μm, 250 mm × 4.6 mm) at 29 ◦ C, using a linear gradient
of methanol/MTBE from 95:5 to 70:30 in 30 min, followed to 50:50 in
20 min and keeping this ratio for 35 min. The UV–vis spectra were ob­
tained between 200 and 600 nm and the chromatograms were processed
at 450 nm, but also at 286 nm and 347 nm to detect phytoene and
phytofluene, respectively. The relative percentage of each carotenoid
was calculated considering the total area of all identified compounds at

3
R.C. Chisté et al.
450 nm. The eluate from the column was entirely directed to the APCI
interface of the MS for ionizing carotenoid molecules in positive ion
mode, applying the same parameters previously described by our
research group (Chisté and Mercadante, 2012), and the mass spectra
were acquired at m/z from 100 to 800. The carotenoids were identified
according to the combined information of elution order on C30 column,
co-chromatography with authentic standards, UV–vis [λmax, spectral
fine structure (%III/II), cis-peak intensity (%AB/AII), “far UV peaks”],
and mass spectra features [protonated molecule ([M+H]+) and MS2 ion
fragments] compared with data available in the literature (Briton et al.,
2004; De Rosso and Mercadante, 2007; Chisté and Mercadante, 2012;
Rivera Van Bremen et al., 2012; Murillo, 2018; Matos et al., 2019).
2.3.2. HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS analysis of phenolic compounds
The phenolic compounds of the freeze-dried pulps of peach palm
fruits (3 g) were extracted with methanol/water (80:20, v/v) by a solid-
liquid extraction procedure, followed by centrifugation (3000 × g, 5
min, 4 ◦ C) and these steps were repeated five times before injection into
the HPLC system (Ribeiro et al., 2016). The phenolic compounds were
separated at a flow rate of 0.9 mL/min on a C18 Synergi Hydro column (4
μm, 250 × 4.6 mm, Phenomenex) at 29 ◦ C, with a linear gradient of
water/formic acid (99.5:0.5, v/v) (solvent A) and acetonitrile/formic
acid (99.5:0.5, v/v) (solvent B) from A:B 99:1 to 50:50 in 50 min,
following from 50:50 to 1:99 in 5 min, keeping this later ratio for an
additional 5 min (Chisté and Mercadante, 2012). The UV–vis spectra
were obtained between 200 and 600 nm and the chromatograms were
processed at 280 (hydroxybenzoic acids), 320 (hydroxycinnamic acids),
336 (flavones) and 360 nm (flavonols). The relative percentage of each
phenolic compound was calculated considering the total area of all
identified compounds at 336 nm. After HPLC-DAD, the column eluate
was split to allow only 0.15 mL/min to enter the ESI chamber for
ionizing the phenolic compound molecules in negative ion mode,
applying the same parameters previously used by our research group
(Chisté and Mercadante, 2012), and the mass spectra were acquired at
m/z from 100 to 1000. The phenolic compounds were identified based
on the elution order on the C18 column, UV–vis and mass spectra fea­
tures [deprotonated molecule ([M− H]− ) and MS2 and MS3 ion frag­
ments] as compared to standards and data available in the literature for
the same identified compounds (Cuyckens and Claeys, 2004; Colombo
et al., 2008; Cao et al., 2014; Geng et al., 2016).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Carotenoid profile
In our study, the HPLC-DAD-APCI-MS allowed the separation (Fig. 1)
and identification of 22 carotenoids (Table 1), with 16 compounds found
in orange peach palm and 20 in the yellow fruits. For all the identified
peaks, the [M+H]+ was confirmed considering the expected MS2 frag­
ments for both the polyene chain and functional groups of carotenoids,
as well as by their UV–vis spectra. All the carotenoid MS2 spectra
mentioned in Table 1 are available as Supplementary Material (Sup­
plementary Fig. 1). Since Z-isomers of carotenoids are not distinguished
from the corresponding (all-E) by MS analysis, their final characteriza­
tion was based on the observation of the [M+H]+, decreased %III/II and
%AB/AII values (≈ 10% = 9Z; ≈ 45% = 13Z and ≈ 56% = 15Z-carot­
enoid) compared to its assigned (all-E)-isomer (Briton et al., 2004; De
Rosso and Mercadante, 2007).
Peaks 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12 and 16 were identified as xan­
thophylls mainly considering the fragments representing the neutral loss
of water molecules (− 18 u) observed in all the MS2 spectra due to the
elimination of OH groups. Dehydrated fragment ions from [M+H]+
([M+H-nH2O]+) have been described for all hydroxylated carotenoids
(De Rosso and Mercadante, 2007; Van Breeemen et al., 2012; Rivera
et al., 2013). Peaks 1 and 2 were assigned as (all-E)-neochrome and
(9Z)-neochrome, both 5,8-epoxy carotenoids, with [M+H]+ at m/z 601,
4
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 99 (2021) 103873
although not observed in peak 1 due to in-source fragmentation of m/z
601, and the fragments at m/z 583, m/z 565 and m/z 547 in their MS2
spectra represent three consecutive losses of water molecules. Peak 3
([M+H]+ at m/z 585) was identified as 5′ ,6′ -epoxy-lutein considering
the fragment at m/z 511 [M+H-18− 56]+ due to the combined elimi­
nation of OH and ε-ring (− 56 u) groups. The epoxy position of peak 3
was attributed considering that an epoxy substituent at the 5′ 6′ -position
(ε-ring) does not decrease the λmax of (all-E)-lutein (444 nm), as
observed in peak 3. Peak 4 ([M+H]+ at m/z 601) was tentatively
identified as 13Z-epoxy-carotenoid considering the characteristic frag­
ments of hydroxylated carotenoids and increased %AB/AII values (45%),
but its specific chemical structure could not be assigned based on the
acquired spectroscopic information. Furthermore, peaks 1-4 were
confirmed as epoxy-xanthophylls due to the presence of MS2 ions at m/z
221, suggesting the presence of an epoxy substituent in a β-ring with OH
group in the carotenoid structures.
Peaks 5, 6 and 8 were isomers with the [M+H]+ at m/z 569 and
identified as (all-E)-lutein, (all-E)-zeaxanthin and 9Z-lutein. (all-E)-
Lutein (peak 5) was positively confirmed with authentic standard, and
its MS spectrum is characterized by an intense in-source fragment at m/z
551 [M+H-18]+ when compared to (all-E)-zeaxanthin due to the loss of
an OH group allylic to the double bond in ε-ring of lutein (Van Breeemen
et al., 2012). Additionally, zeaxanthin (peak 6) has 11 conjugated
double bonds (c.d.b.) and higher λmax (450 nm) compared to lutein (10
c.d.b and λmax =444 nm).
Peaks 7 and 9 were assigned as the colourless carotenes (all-E)-
phytoene ([M+H]+ at m/z 545) and (all-E)-phytofluene ([M+H]+ at m/z
543); both presented the same MS fragmentation pattern and λmax
described for these same compounds in other Amazonian fruits, such as
buriti, mamey, marimari and physalis (De Rosso and Mercadante, 2007).
Peak 10 was namely (all-E)-β-cryptoxanthin due to the [M+H]+ at m/z
553 and intense fragments at m/z 535 (− 18 u), m/z 461 (− 92 u, loss of
toluene) and m/z 400 that represent the loss of the hydroxylated β-ring
with cleavage at the 7,8-C-C bond from the [M+H]+ (Van Breeemen
et al., 2012). Peaks 12 and 16 could not be identified based on the
spectroscopic information, but both showed [M+H]+ at m/z 553 with
characteristic fragments of oxygen-derived carotenoids (neutral loss of
water), as well as other frequent carotenoid fragments, such as elimi­
nation of toluene (− 92 u, peak 12) and xylene (− 106 u, peak 16) groups.
Peaks 11, 13–15 and 17–25 were identified as carotenes and all of
them exhibited the same [M+H]+ at m/z 537; however, their differen­
tiation was possible due to the MS2 fragments and/or characteristic
UV–vis compared to the same compounds already identified in other
Amazonian fruits, including peach palm fruits (unknown variety) (De
Rosso and Mercadante, 2007; Chisté and Mercadante, 2012; Murillo,
2018). Peak 15 was positively identified as (all-E)-β-carotene through
co-elution, comparison with an authentic standard, and MS2 fragments
at m/z 456 (-80 u, loss of methyl-cyclopentadiene), m/z 444 (− 92 u, loss
of toluene), and m/z 399 (− 137 u, loss of β-ring + methylene group),
which are formed by free radical fragmentation from [M] + (De Rosso
•
and Mercadante, 2007; Van Breemen et al., 2012; Bijttebier et al., 2013).
Its isomers, (13Z)-β-carotene (peak 13), 9,13-di-Z-β-carotene (peak 14)
and (9Z)-β-carotene (peak 17) were assigned considering the decrease in
the λmax and %III/II values and the increase in the cis-peak intensity (%
AB/AII) as the cis-double bond was getting closer to the centre of the
molecule as compared to (all-E)-β-carotene (Britton et al., 2004).
Peak 21 [(all-E)-δ-carotene] and its isomer (peaks 18) were identi­
fied due to the MS2 fragment at m/z 481 [M+H-56]+, which represents
the neutral loss of an ε-ring, a fragment at m/z 467 [M+H-69]+ due to
the neutral loss of a ψ-end group and another fragment at m/z 444 (loss
of toluene). Peak 23 was assigned as (all-E)-γ-carotene, and its isomers
(peaks 19, 20, 22 and 24), all showed characteristic MS2 fragments at
m/z 467 due to the neutral loss of a ψ-end group, fragments at m/z 444
(loss of toluene) and m/z 399 (− 137 u, elimination of a β-ring with an
additional methylene group). Peak 25 was tentatively identified as Z-
lycopene due to the same λmax, %III/II, cis-peak intensity values and MS2
R.C. Chisté et al. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 99 (2021) 103873

Table 2
Phenolic compounds profile of cooked pulps of orange and yellow peach palm fruits (Bactris gasipaes) by HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS.
Peaka Phenolic compoundb Relative tR (min)c ʎmax [M-H]− MS2 (m/z)e MS3 (m/z)e
concentration (nm)d (m/z)

Orange Yellow
1 Flavone derivative 9% 7% 16.4− 16.6 272, nd nd nd
334
2 Maloyl caffeoylshikimic acid 9% 7% 17.1− 17.3 270, 451 433 (77), 335 (100), 291 (52), [451→335]: 291 (91), 173
326 173 (18) (100)
3 Apigenin 6-C-hexoside sulphate 9% 9% 18.3− 18.4 270, 511 465 (10), 431 (100), 413 (6), 395 [511→431]: 413 (8), 341 (41),
(Isovitexin sulfate) 334 (8), 341 (5) 311 (100), 283 (4)
4 Apigenin 6,8-di-C-hexoside 21% 6% 20.0− 20.1 271, 593 575 (8), 503 (36), 473 (100), 383 [593→473]: 383 (22), 353
(Vicenin-2) 336 (28), 353 (62) (100)
5 Apigenin 6-C-hexoside 8-C- 3% 3% 20.7− 20.8 271, 563 545 (15), 503 (26), 473 (89), 443 [563→353]: 325 (100), 297
pentoside (Neoschaftoside) 334 (78), 383 (66), 353 (100) (11), 283 (6)
6 Apigenin 6-C-pentoside 8-C- 5% 7% 21.4− 21.5 271, 563 545 (27), 503 (51), 473 (100), [563→473]: 383 (13), 353
hexoside (Isoschaftoside) 334 443 (56), 383 (52), 353 (90) (100)
7 Apigenin 6-C-hexoside 8-C- 32% 45% 22.0− 22.1 271, 563 545 (16), 503 (24), 473 (67), 443 [563→443]: 425 (4), 383 (35),
pentoside (Schaftoside) 336 (100), 383 (46), 353 (60) 353 (100)
8 Apigenin 6-C-pentoside 8-C- 4% 6% 22.7− 22.9 271, 563 545 (18), 503 (17), 473 (100), [563→473]: 455, 413, 383, 353
hexoside (Vicenin-1) 336 443 (63), 383 (63), 353 (90)
9 Apigenin 6-C-hexoside 8-C- 2% 5% 23.0− 23.1 271, 563 545 (12), 503 (6), 473 (53), 443 [563→443]: 383 (19), 353
pentoside (Vicenin-3) 334 (100), 383 (33), 353 (57) (100)
10 Apigenin 8-C-hexoside (Vitexin) 2% 3% 25.2− 25.3 270, 431 413 (4), 341 (11), 311 (100), 283 [431→311]: 283 (100)
334 (2)
11 Apigenin 6-C-hexoside (Isovitexin) 3% 3% 25.5− 25.6 270, 431 413 (10), 341 (41), 311 (100), [431→311]: 293 (5), 283
334 283 (4) (100),
a
Numbered according to Fig. 1.
b
Tentative identification based on UV–vis and mass spectra as well as relative retention time on C18 column and published data.
c
Retention time range on the C18 Synergi Hydro (4 μm) column.
d
Solvent: gradient of 0.5% formic acid in water and acetonitrile with 0.5% formic acid.
e
In the MS2 and MS3 spectra, the relative intensities are shown between parenthesis and the most abundant ions are shown in boldface. nd: not detected.

fragments of Z-lycopene previously reported (Bijttebier et al., 2013),
including in peach palm fruits (De Rosso and Mercadante, 2007), while
its (all-E)-isomer was not detected.
As a contrast, Murillo (2018) raised the fact that (all-E)-δ-carotene
was not identified properly by De Rosso and Mercadante (2007) in peach
palm fruits (unknown variety) by comparing the far UV peaks of ca­
rotenoids extracted from peach palm fruits (red-smooth variety) in its
study. Murillo (2018) showed that both the λmax and far UV peak in­
formation of the supposed δ-carotene did not coincide with E/Z isomers
of δ-carotene (far UV peak = 280− 282 nm) and that such carotenoid was
actually the Z isomer of γ-carotene (far UV peak = 282− 285 nm).
However, in our study with orange and yellow peach palm fruits, we
decided to keep the identification of δ-carotene because the far UV peaks
of the compounds assigned as E/Z-isomers of δ-carotene (peaks 18 and
21) and γ-carotene (peaks 19, 20, 22, 23 and 24) were distinct (Table 1).
We must highlight that identification based only on UV–vis spectra and
elution order from the column is not definite.
In the cooked pulps of both orange and yellow peach palm fruits, (all-
E)-β-carotene was the major carotenoid, accounting for 20% and 24% of
the identified compounds, respectively. Interestingly, in the cooked pulp
of yellow peach palm fruits, (all-E)-lutein accounted for 14% of the
identified carotenoids, which may explain the colour difference between
the varieties. Among the 18 carotenoids previously identified by LC–MS
in the raw pulp of peach palm fruits (unknown variety) (De Rosso and
Mercadante, 2007), only eight were also detected in the present study,
including the major carotenoids β- (peak 15), δ- (peak 21), γ-carotene
(peak 23), and the minor compounds 13Z-β-carotene (peak 13),
9Z-β-carotene (peak 16), Z-δ-carotene (peak 18) and Z-isomers of
γ-carotene (peak 24) and lycopene (peak 25). In our study, the carot­
enoid profiles were determined in cooked pulps of orange and yellow
peach palm fruits, following the traditional procedure of cooking in
Northern Brazil, and considering that the carotenoid profile reported by
De Rosso and Mercadante (2007) was carried out in raw peach palm
fruits from an unknown variety, the observed differences in composition
are not surprising.
3.2. Phenolic compound profile
The HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS analysis allowed the separation (Fig. 1) and
identification of 11 phenolic compounds in peach palm fruits (Table 2).
All the obtained MS spectra of the identified phenolic compounds are
available as Supplementary Material (Supplementary Fig. 2). This is the
first study reporting the identification of phenolic compounds in peach
palm fruits.
Peak 1 was assigned as a flavone derivative compound considering
its characteristic UV–vis absorption spectrum (272 and 334 nm) of fla­
vones, as also observed for the other flavone peaks (peaks 3-11); how­
ever, its [M− H]− was not clearly visible in the first-order mass spectra.
Peak 2 was identified as a maloyl caffeoylshikimic acid ([M− H]− at m/z
451) due to an intense fragment at m/z 335 [M− H-116]− in the MS2
spectrum, which represents a caffeoylshikimic acid molecule after the
neutral loss of a malic acid moiety. The MS3 spectrum of m/z 335
showed characteristic neutral loss of 44 u (CO2) from the carboxylic acid
group at m/z 291, and an intense fragment at m/z 173, suggesting the
presence of a shikimic acid after the elimination of a caffeoyl molecule
(− 162 u). These observed MS spectral features were similar to those
reported for caffeoylshikimic acids identified in Phoenix dactylifera
flowers by LC–MS, and according to the authors, caffeic acid can be
esterified at positions 3, 4 or 5 on shikimic acid to give three positional
isomers (Said et al., 2017).
Peaks 3–11 showed similar UV–vis absorption spectra (270–272 and
334− 336 nm), which are characteristic of flavone structures, and pre­
sented the same MS fragmentation patterns extensively reported for
flavonoid C-glycosides (Cuyckens and Claeys, 2004; Colombo et al.,
2008; Cao et al., 2014; Jeong et al., 2017; Tchoumtchoua et al., 2019).
According to the literature, the first-order mass spectrum provides the
molecular mass of the flavonoid C-glycoside, but it has limited structural
information since sugars are directly linked to the flavonoid nucleus via
an acid-resistant C-C bond (Cuyckens and Claeys, 2004). These same
authors highlight that tandem MS spectra show key information con­
cerning the fragmentation pathways of flavonoid C-glycosides, related
to cross-ring cleavage of the sugar residue and loss of water molecules to

5
R.C. Chisté et al. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 99 (2021) 103873

Fig. 2. Proposed pathway for flavonoid biosynthesis in peach palm fruits (Bactris gasipaes), based on the compounds tentatively identified in the present study
(shown in boldface), data available in the literature (Hamilton et al., 2012; Ito et al., 2017, adapted) and KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes)
database of flavonoid biosynthesis (https://www.genome.jp/kegg/pathway.html). Enzymes: 4CL = 4-coumarate:CoA ligase, CHS = chalcone synthase, CHI =
chalcone isomerase, FS = flavone synthase, F2H = flavanone 2-hydroxylase, DH = dehydratase, C-GT = C-glucosyltransferase, C-AT = C-arabinosyltransferase.

differentiate both the type of sugar (hexose from pentose) and their
linkage to the C-6-and/or C-8-positions of the flavonoid nucleus. As
known in the literature, the direct neutral loss of a sugar moiety is
characteristic of a flavonoid O-glycoside, while fragments representing
the cross-ring cleavage of a sugar moiety indicate a C-glycoside
(Cuyckens and Claeys, 2004; Abad-García et al., 2009).
Peaks 3, 10 and 11 were identified as apigenin C-hexoside and the
sugar assignment was due to the characteristic intense neutral loss of
120 u observed in the MS2 and/or MS3 spectra related to the cross-ring
cleavages of a hexose residue. Peak 3 was identified as apigenin 6-C-
hexoside sulphate (isovitexin sulphate) since it presented [M− H]− at m/
z 511, a neutral loss of 80 u (sulphate) in the MS2 spectrum resulting in
an intense fragment at m/z 431 (apigenin C-hexoside), which frag­
mented in abundant ions at m/z 311 (0,2X = [M− H-120]− ). The frag­
ment at m/z 311 represents the C2H2O residue of the hexose moiety
attached to apigenin. Although sulphate flavonoids may be less
commonly found in plant species families, the family Arecaceae (Pal­
mae) seem to exhibit a wide occurrence of flavones and flavonoid sul­
phates among the monocotyledons (Harborne, 1975; Teles et al., 2018).
Peaks 10 and 11 were assigned as the isomers apigenin 8-C-hexoside
(vitexin) and apigenin 6-C-hexoside (isovitexin), respectively, due to the
same [M− H]− at m/z 431 and characteristic fragments in the MS2
spectra with intense ions at m/z 311 (0,2X = [M− H-120]− ). The differ­
entiation between these isomers was possible considering the relative
intensities of the fragments resulted from both the neutral losses of a
water molecule (− 18 u) and the 0,3X ion generated by one of the
cross-ring cleavages of hexose ([M− H-90]− ), which is higher for 6-C-
than 8-C-glycosyl flavones (Cao et al., 2014; Geng et al., 2016).
Peak 4 ([M− H]− at m/z 593) was namely apigenin 6,8-di-C-hexoside
(vicenin-2) due to the characteristic neutral loss of 120 u found as the
main ion in both MS2 (m/z 473) and MS3 (m/z 353) spectra. Peaks 5 to 9
([M− H]− at m/z 563) were assigned as isomers of di-C-glycosyl apige­
nins with hexose and pentose as the predominant sugars considering the
high intensity of the main ions observed in the MS2 and MS3 spectra after
the cross-ring cleavage of hexose (0,2X = [M− H-120]− ) and/or pentose
(0,2X = [M− H-90]− ). Importantly, C-linked sugars are reported to be
only found at the 6-C- and/or 8-C-positions of the flavonoid nucleus
(Cuyckens and Claeys, 2004). In the MS2 experiments, the compounds 5,
7 and 9 showed intense neutral loss of 120 u (m/z 443, 0,2X =
[M− H-120]− ), suggesting one hexose bound to 6-C-position, while
compounds 6 and 8 exhibited a more intense neutral loss of 90 u (m/z
473, 0,2X = [M− H-90]− ), indicating one pentose bound to 6-C-position.
For all these compounds, the ion at m/z 353 reveals an apigenin mole­
cule with two C2H2O residues from sugar moieties linked to 6-C- and
8-C-positions. Furthermore, apigenin 6,8-di-C-hexoside (vicenin-2, peak
4) and apigenin 6-C-hexoside 8-C-pentoside (schaftoside, peak 7) were
positively confirmed with authentic standards.
Although the HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS analysis did not allow the direct
assignment of the sugar moiety, the tentative identification of each
flavone was possible based on information available in the literature
regarding food composition in fruits and vegetables and biosynthetic
pathways. The most common sugars reported in the literature for these
type of flavones are glucose and arabinose, with apigenin 6-C-glucoside
8-C-arabinose (schaftoside, peak 7) and its isomer apigenin 6-C-arabi­
noside 8-C-glucoside (isoschaftoside, peak 6) the most frequently
detected compounds (Jiang et al., 2016; Jeong et al., 2017). However,
xylose can also be found to a lesser extent, such as apigenin 6-C-xyloside
8-C-glucoside (vicenin-1, peak 8) and apigenin 6-C-glucoside 8-C-xylo­
side (vicenin-3, peak 9) (Jeong et al., 2017). All these C-glycosyl fla­
vones, along with apigenin 8-C-glucoside (vitexin, peak 10), apigenin
6-C-glucoside (isovitexin, peak 11) and apigenin 6,8-di-C-glucoside
(vicenin-2) are generated through glucosylation of 2-hydroxynaringenin

6
R.C. Chisté et al.
by enzyme C-glucosyltransferase in the presence of UDP-glucose as the
first step, followed by the action of dehydratase enzymes to complete
conversion to the flavone (Hamilton et al., 2012). Importantly, the
insertion of arabinose to generate di-C-glycosyl flavones, such as
schaftoside and isoschaftoside, was reported to occur only after
sequential glucosylation and arabinosylation of 2-hydroxynaringenin
with UDP-glucose (first step) and UDP-arabinose (second step), respec­
tively (Hamilton et al., 2012; Ito et al., 2017). Considering all these
information and the compounds tentatively identified, we are proposing
a pathway for flavone biosynthesis in peach palm fruits (Fig. 2).
The pulps of both orange and yellow peach palm fruits presented the
same phenolic compounds profile; as can be seen in Table 2, they are
flavonoids mostly composed of di-C-glycosyl apigenins. The flavone
schaftoside (apigenin 6-C-glucoside 8-C-arabinoside, peak 7) was the
major phenolic compound in both varieties of peach palm fruits, ac­
counting for 32–45% of the identified compounds. Vicenin-2 (apigenin
6,8-di-C-hexoside, peak 4) was detected at a high relative amount (21%)
only in the pulp of orange peach palm fruits, while at only 6% in the
yellow ones. There is limited information concerning promising sources
of schaftoside and vicenin-2, and to the best of our knowledge, these
compounds were not yet reported in any species from the genus Bactris
until now. Regarding other natural sources of these compounds, schaf­
toside was previously identified in cotyledons of Prosopis alba (Faba­
ceae) (≈30%) (Cattaneo et al., 2016) and in Desmodium styracifolium
(Leguminosae) (≈86%) (Guo et al., 2015), while vicenin-2 can be found
at high levels in Cyclopia subternata (Fabaceae) (Lee and Bae, 2020).
Concerning the biological potential of flavonoids, schaftoside was
reported to exert anti-melanogenic (Kim et al., 2018),
anti-neuroinflamatory (Zhou et al., 2019) activities, and hep­
atoprotective effects (Liu et al., 2020); also being traditionally used to
treat hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, gallstone disease (Liu et al., 2020).
Meanwhile, vicenin-2 was reported to exhibit anti-diabetic, anti-­
glycation (Islam et al., 2014), anti-inflammatory (Marrassini et al.,
2011) and hepatoprotective (Lee and Bae, 2020) activities.
4. Conclusion
As peach palm fruits are widely consumed by the population in the
Amazonia region of Brazil, our study showed that the cooked pulps of
both orange and yellow peach palm fruits have a promising bioactive
compound composition for the research and development of high-
quality derived food products with claimed health benefits to improve
the human life-quality. In general, orange peach palm fruits exhibited a
higher relative percentage of provitamin A carotenoids and vicenin-2
than yellow fruits, indicating the high biological potential of the or­
ange peach palm fruit variety.
To the best or our knowledge, this if the first report concerning the
identification of phenolic compounds in peach palm fruits and consid­
ering the reported biological activities of schaftoside and vicenin-2, both
fruits can be seen as a natural source of these compounds, which in­
crease the strategies for the valorisation of these Amazonian fruits,
encouraging different sectors of the production chain.
Author contribution statement
Evellyn Laís Neves Costa, Sara Monteiro: Data curation; Formal
analysis; Investigation; Methodology; Software; Validation; Visualiza­
tion; Roles/Writing – original draft. Renan Chisté, Adriana Merca­
dante: Data curation; Funding acquisition, Supervision, Project
administration, Resources, Visualization, Investigation, Conceptualiza­
tion, Methodology, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors report no declarations of interest.
7
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 99 (2021) 103873
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge FAPESPA (Fundação Amazônia de Amparo
a Estudos e Pesquisas, Belém, PA, Brazil, Project 2017/52864 - ICAAF Nº
013/2018) and FAPESP (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São
Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil, Projects 2013/07914-8 and 2018/23752-1) for
the financial support.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the
online version, at doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2021.103873.
References
Abad-García, B., Berrueta, L.A., Garmón-Lobato, S., Gallo, B., Vicente, F., 2009.
A general analytical strategy for the characterization of phenolic compounds in fruit
juices by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection
coupled to electrospray ionization and triple quadrupole mass spectrometry.
J. Chromatogr. A 1216, 5398–5415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
chroma.2009.05.039.
Bijttebier, S.K.A., D’Hondt, E., Hermans, N., Apers, S., Voorspoels, S., 2013. Unravelling
ionization and fragmentation pathways of carotenoids using orbitrap technology: a
first step towards identification of unknowns. J. Mass Spectrom. 48, 740–754.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jms.3203.
Britton, G., 2020. Carotenoid research: history and new perspectives for chemistry in
biological systems. Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA) – Mol. Cell Biol. Lipids 1865 (11),
158699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2020.158699.
Britton, G., Liaaen-Jensen, S., Pfander, H., 2004. Carotenoids – Handbook. Birkhäuser
Basel. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-0348-7836-4, 647 pp.
Cao, J., Yin, C., Qin, Y., Cheng, Z., Chen, D., 2014. Approach to the study of flavone di-C-
glycosides by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem ion trap mass
spectrometry and its application to characterization of flavonoid composition in
Viola yedoensis. J. Mass Spectrom. 49, 1010–1024. https://doi.org/10.1002/
jms.3413.
Carvalho, A.V., Vasconcelos, M.A.M., Silva, P.A., Assis, G.T., Ascheri, J.L.R., 2010.
Technological chracterization of third generation extruded from cassava (Manihot
esculenta Crantz) and pupunha (Bactris gasipaes Kunth.) flour. Ciência e
Agrotecnologia 34 (4), 995–1003. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-
70542010000400028.
Cattaneo, F., Costamagna, M.S., Zampini, I.C., Sayago, J., Alberto, M.R., Chamorro, V.,
Pazos, A., Thomas-Valdés, S., Schmeda-Hirschmann, G., Isla, M.I., 2016. Flour from
Prosopis alba cotyledons: a natural source of nutrient and bioactive phytochemicals.
Food Chem. 208, 89–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.03.115.
Chisté, R.C., Fernandes, E., 2016. In: Silva, L.R., Silva, B. (Eds.), Bioactive Compounds
from Amazonian Fruits and Their Antioxidant Properties. Bentham Science
Publishers, Sharjah, UAE, pp. 244–264.
Chisté, R.C., Mercadante, A.Z., 2012. Identification and quantification, by HPLC-DAD-
MS/MS, of carotenoids and phenolic compounds from the Amazonian fruit Caryocar
villosum. J. Agric. Food Chem. 60, 5884–5892. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf301904f.
Colombo, R., Yariwake, J.H., McCullagh, M., 2008. Study of C- and O-glycosylflavones in
sugarcane extracts using liquid chromatography - exact mass measurement mass
spectrometry. J. Braz. Chem. Soc. 19 (3), 483–490. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-
50532008000300016.
Cuyckens, F., Claeys, M., 2004. Mass spectrometry in the structural analysis of
flavonoids. J. Mass Spectrom. 39, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/jms.585.
De Rosso, V.V., Mercadante, A.Z., 2007. Identification and quantification of carotenoids,
by HPLC-PDA-MS/MS, from Amazonian fruits. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55, 5062–5072.
https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0705421.
Geng, P., Sun, J., Zhang, M., Li, X., Harnly, J.M., Chen, P., 2016. Comprehensive
characterization of C-glycosyl flavones in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) germ using
UPLC-PDA-ESI/HRMSn and mass defect filtering. J. Mass Spectrom. 51 (10),
914–930. https://doi.org/10.1002/jms.3803.
Guo, P., Yan, W., Han, Q., Wang, C., Zhang, Z., 2015. Simultaneous quantification of 25
active constituents in the total flavonoids extract from Herba Desmodii styracifolii by
high-performance liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization tandem mass
spectrometry. J. Sep. Sci. 38, 1156–1163. https://doi.org/10.1002/jssc.201401360.
Hamilton, M.L., Kuate, S.P., Brazier-Hicks, M., Caulfield, J.C., Rose, R., Edwards, R.,
Torto, B., Pickett, J.A., Hooper, A.M., 2012. Elucidation of the biosynthesis of the di-
C-glycosylflavone isoschaftoside, an allelopathic component from Desmodium spp.
that inhibits Striga spp. development. Phytochemistry 84, 169–176. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.phytochem.2012.08.005.
Harborne, J.B., 1975. Flavonoid sulphates: a new class of sulphur compounds in higher
plants. Phytochemistry 14, 1147–1155. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)
98585-6.
Islam, M.N., Ishita, I.J., Jung, H.A., Choi, J.S., 2014. Vicenin 2 isolated from Artemisia
capillaris exhibited potent anti-glycation properties. Food Chem. Toxicol. 69, 55–62.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2014.03.042.
Ito, T., Fujimoto, S., Suito, F., Shimosaka, M., Taguchi, G., 2017. C-Glycosyltransferases
catalyzing the formation of di-C-glucosyl flavonoids in citrus plants. Plant J. 91,
187–198. https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.13555.
R.C. Chisté et al.
Jatunov, S., Quesada, S., Díaz, C., Murillo, E., 2010. Carotenoid composition and
antioxidant activity of the raw and boiled fruit mesocarp of six varieties of Bactris
gasipaes. Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutrición 60 (1), 99–104.
Jeong, K.M., Yang, M., Jin, Y., Kim, E.M., Ko, J., Lee, J., 2017. Identification of major
flavone C-glycosides and their optimized extraction from Cymbidium kanran using
deep eutectic solvents. Molecules 22, 2006. https://doi.org/10.3390/
molecules22112006.
Jiang, N., Doseff, A.I., Grotewold, E., 2016. Flavones: from biosynthesis to health
benefits. Plants 5, 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants5020027.
Kim, P.S., Shin, J.H., Jo, D.S., Shin, D.W., Choi, D.-W., Kim, W.J., Park, K., Kim, J.K.,
Joo, C.G., Lee, J.S., Choi, Y., Shin, Y.W., Shin, J.J., Jeon, H.B., Seo, J.-H., Cho, D.-H.,
2018. Anti-melanogenic activity of schaftoside in Rhizoma arisaematis by increasing
autophagy in B16F1 cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 503, 309–315. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2018.06.021.
Lee, I.-C., Bae, J.-S., 2020. Hepatoprotective efects of vicenin‑2 and scolymoside through
the modulation of inflammatory pathways. J. Nat. Med. 74, 90–97. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s11418-019-01348-x.
Liu, M., Zhang, G., Wu, S., Song, M., Wang, J., Cai, W., Mi, S., Liu, C., 2020. Schaftoside
alleviates HFD-induced hepatic lipid accumulation in mice via upregulating
farnesoid X receptor. J. Ethnopharmacol. 255, 112776 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jep.2020.112776.
Luna-Guevara, M.L., Luna-Guevara, J.J., Hernández-Carranza, P., Ruíz-Espinosa, H.,
Ochoa-Velasco, C.E., 2018. Phenolic compounds: a good choice against chronic
degenerative diseases. Studies in Natural Products Chemistry 59, 79–108. https://
doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-64179-3.00003-7.
Marrassini, C., Davicino, R., Acevedo, C., Anesini, C., Gorzalczany, S., Ferraro, G., 2011.
Vicenin-2, a potential anti-infammatory constituent of Urtica circularis. J. Nat. Prod.
74, 1503–1507. https://doi.org/10.1021/np100937e.
Matos, K.A.N., Lima, D.P., Barbosa, A.P.P., Mercadante, A.Z., Chisté, R.C., 2019. Peels of
tucumã (Astrocaryum vulgare) and peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) are by-products
classified as very high carotenoid sources. Food Chem. 272, 216–221. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.08.053.
Mesquita, L.M.S., Neves, B.V., Pisani, L.P., De Rosso, V.V., 2020. Mayonnaise as a model
food for improving the bioaccessibility of carotenoids from Bactris gasipaes fruits.
LWT - Food Sci. Technol. 122, 109022 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109022.
Murillo, E., 2018. Far UV peaks contribute for identification of carotenoids E/Z isomers.
J. Food Compos. Anal. 67, 159–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2017.12.037.
Pires, M.B., Amante, E.R., Lopes, A.S., Rodrigues, A.M.C., Silva, L.H.M., 2021. Peach
palm flour (Bactris gasipae Kunth): potential application in the food industry. Food
Sci. Technol. (Campinas) 39 (3), 613–619. https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.34617.
Ribeiro, A.B., Chisté, R.C., Lima, J.L.F.C., Fernandes, E., 2016. Solanum diploconos fruits:
profile of bioactive compounds and in vitro antioxidant capacity of different parts of
the fruit. Food Funct. 7, 2249. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6fo00326e.
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 99 (2021) 103873
Rivera, S.M., Christou, P., Canela-Garayoa, R., 2013. Identification of carotenoids using
mass spectrometry. Mass Spectrom. Rev. 33 (5), 353–372. https://doi.org/10.1002/
mas.21390.
Rodriguez-Amaya, D.B., 1999. Latin american food sources of carotenoids. Archivos
Latinoamericanos de Nutrición 49 (3 Suppl 1), 74–84.
Rojas-Garbanzo, C., Pérez, A.M., Bustos-Carmona, J., Vaillant, F., 2011. Identification
and quantification of carotenoids by HPLC-DAD during the process of peach palm
(Bactris gasipaes H.B.K.) flour. Food Res. Int. 44, 2377–2384. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.foodres.2011.02.045.
Rojas-Garbanzo, C., Pérez, A.M., Castro, M.L.P., Vaillant, F., 2012. Major
physicochemical and antioxidant changes during peach palm (Bactris gasipaes H.B.
K.) flour processing. Fruits 67, 415–427. https://doi.org/10.1051/fruits/2012035.
Rojas-Garbanzo, C., Pérez, A.M., Vaillant, F., Pineda-Castro, M.L., 2016. Physicochemical
and antioxidant composition of fresh peach palm (Bactris gasipaes Kunth) fruits in
Costa Rica. Braz. J. Food Technol. 19, e2015097 https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-
6723.9715.
Said, R.B., Hamed, A.I., Mahalel, U.A., Al-Ayed, A.S., Kowalczyk, M., Moldoch, J.,
Oleszek, W., Stochmal, A., 2017. Tentative characterization of polyphenolic
compounds in the male flowers of Phoenix dactylifera by liquid chromatography
coupled with mass spectrometry and DFT. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 18, 512. https://doi.org/
10.3390/ijms18030512.
Tchoumtchoua, J., Mathiron, D., Pontarin, N., Gagneul, D., Van Bohemen, A.I.,
N’nang, E.O., Mesnard, F., Petit, E., Fontaine, J.X., Molinié, R., Quéro, A., 2019.
Phenolic profiling of flax highlights contrasting patterns in Winter and Spring
varieties. Molecules 24, 4303. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24234303.
Teles, Y.C.F., Souza, M.S.R., Souza, M.F.V., 2018. Sulphated flavonoids: biosynthesis,
structures, and biological activities. Molecules 23, 480. https://doi.org/10.3390/
molecules23020480.
Van Breemen, R.B., Dong, L., Pajkovic, N.D., 2012. Atmospheric pressure chemical
ionization tandem mass spectrometry of carotenoids. Int. J. Mass Spectrom. 312,
163–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijms.2011.07.030.
Yuyama, L.K.O., Cozzolino, S.M.F., 1996. Effect of supplementation with peach palm as
source of vitamin A: study with rats. Revista Saúde Pública 30 (1), 61–66. https://
doi.org/10.1590/S0034-89101996000100008.
Yuyama, L.K.O., Favaro, R.M.D., Yuyama, K., Vannucchi, H., 1991. Bioavailability of
vitamin A from peach palm (Bactris gasipaes H.B.K. and from mango (Mangifera
indica L.) in rats. Nutr. Res. 11 (10), 1167–1175. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0271-
5317(05)80694-3.
Zhou, K., Wu, J., Chen, J., Zhou, Y., Chen, X., Wu, Q., Xu, Y., Tu, W., Lou, X., Yang, G.,
Jiang, S., 2019. Schaftoside ameliorates oxygen glucose deprivation-induced
inflammation associated with the TLR4/Myd88/Drp1-related mitochondrial fission
in BV2 microglia cells. J. Pharmacol. Sci. 139, 15–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jphs.2018.10.012.